Chapter XXIII: Appendix: B

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule) sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief description is therefore given.

The _piano_ was invented about two hundred years ago by
Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous
improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in
use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal)
and has resulted in an entirely different style of
composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26.

2. The most characteristic things about the _piano_ as contrasted with its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck (hence the name _pianoforte_ meaning literally the _soft-loud_); (2) the fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.

The essentials of the piano mechanism are:

1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two
or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately
rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as
long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the
hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for
another blow is called the _escapement_.

2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string
and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.

3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers,
causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant
that the hammer strikes it.

4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so
that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be
free to vibrate.

Other interesting details are:

1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called
the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.

2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an _upright piano_
causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the
shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and
consequently a softer tone. In the _grand piano_ this same
pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers
strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a
softer tone of somewhat modified quality.

These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals depressed.

3. There are two familiar types of _organ_ in use at the present time, (1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.

The _reed organ_ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes octave couplers) or else open a _swell box_ in which some of the reeds are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.

4. The essential characteristic of the _pipe-organ_ is a number of sets or registers of pipes called _stops_, each set being capable (usually) of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six octaves. Thus for example when the stop _melodia_ is drawn (by pulling out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when the keyboard is played on: but if the stop _flute_ is drawn with _melodia_, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an organ has forty _speaking stops_, all running through the entire keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak, and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak. The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.

The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more) lower than the notes indicate.

An _eight-foot stop_ on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A _four-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave higher and a _two-foot stop_ tones two octaves higher. A _sixteen-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a _thirty-two foot_ stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have also a _sixty-four foot_ stop which sounds three octaves lower. This gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.

Modern pipe-organs always have a number of _combination pedals_ or _pistons_ (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called _registration_.

5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or orchestra.

6. A _band_ is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the brass and wood-wind divisions.

Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following
manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat]
clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2
bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2
trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4
trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass
drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets,
xylophone, etc.

7. An _orchestra_ is a company of musicians performing upon stringed instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the strings.

There are _four classes of instruments_ in the orchestra, viz., _strings_, _wood-wind_, _brass_ (_wind_) and _percussion_. In addition to these four classes, there is the _harp_, which although a stringed instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.

8. In the first group (the _strings_) are found the first and second violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled _cello_), and double-bass. The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent larger examples of the same type of instrument.

9. In the second group (the _wood-wind_) are found the flute, piccolo, oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always present in the orchestra.

10. In the third group (the _brass choir_) are found the French horn, (usually referred to as _the horn_), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the cornet) trombone, and tuba.

11. The fourth group (_percussion_) consists of kettle drums, bass drum, cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.

12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:

18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1 harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion, several of which are often manipulated by one performer.

13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will have to be consulted.

14. The _violin_ has four strings, tuned thus , these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves (g--c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by means of _harmonics_, these being produced by lightly touching the string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the _violin_ (viola and cello also) is often called the _chanterelle_ because it is most often used for playing the melody. The _violin_ ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by _stopping_ two strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and four tones can be sounded _almost_ simultaneously.

[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of instruments are ordinarily the _practical orchestral or band_ ranges rather than those which are possible in solo performance.]

The _mute_ (or _sordino_) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.

For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string (_pizzicato_), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the _violin_ as commonly played.

_Violins_ in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the _first violins_ being always seated at the left of the audience and the _seconds_ at the right.

15. The _viola_ has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus . The _viola_ looks exactly like the violin at a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin, being rather heavier--"more gloomy," as it is often described. The _viola_ is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The _viola_ players are usually seated behind the second violin players in the orchestra.

16. The _violoncello_ or _cello_ (sometimes called _bass viol_) has four strings, tuned thus: . Its range is about three and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range is sometimes extended much higher. The _cello_ is much more universally used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often used for solo passages. _Con sordino_ and _pizzicato_ passages occur as often for the _cello_ as for the violin.

17. The _double bass_ differs from the other members of the string family in that it is tuned in _fourths_ instead of in _fifths_. Its four strings are tuned as follows the entire range of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note he plays this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone of the _bass_ is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the _double-bass_, but the _pizzicato_ effect is very common and the bass pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed instrument.

18. The _flute_ has a range of three octaves. It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of metal.

19. The _piccolo_ is a flute playing an octave higher than the one described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The _piccolo_ is used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.

CONTRA BASSOON. (Double bassoon.) Length 6 ft. Range about an octave lower than bassoon, but not all tones in this range are practicable.

ENGLISH HORN. (Cor. Anglais.) Length, 2 ft. 11-1/2 in. Range e a''.

PICCOLO. Length, 13 in. (Note that this is approximately half the length of the flute.)

FLUTE. Length, 26-1/2 in.

BASSOON. (fagotto.) Length, 4 ft. 3-1/2 in. Range BB-flat b-flat'.]

20. The next four instruments to be described (_oboe_, _bassoon_, _English horn_, and _contra bassoon_) are often referred to as the _oboe family_ since the principle of tone production and general manipulation is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together a _double-reed_.

The _oboe_ is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument, and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity, both _oboe_ and _English horn_ being often used by orchestral composers in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The _English horn_ is also often used in passages where the idea of melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.

The _bassoon_ and _contra-bassoon_ are used mostly to provide a bass part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes employed (especially the _bassoon_) to depict comic or grotesque effects.

21. The next two types of instruments to be described (_clarinet_ and _saxophone_) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of a _single_ strip of cane (called _single reed_) which is held against the lower lip of the player. The _clarinet_ and _bass clarinet_ are made of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the _saxophone_ is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with other wind instruments, _i.e._, in bands.

Since the fingering of the _clarinet_ is excessively difficult the performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to play in different keys _clarinets_ in several keys must be provided, there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in other keys. For this reason the _clarinet_ is called a _transposing instrument_. The range of the _clarinet_ is the greatest possessed by any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from to .

SOPRANO. ALTO. Length, 15-3/4 in.

TENOR. Length, 2 ft. 7-1/2 in.

BASS. Length, 3 ft. 9 in.

Combined range AA to g-flat''']

The _sarrusophone_ is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the orchestra being the double-bass _sarrusophone_, which has approximately the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of the _sarrusophone_ is something like that of the bassoon.

22. The _French horn_ (often called _valve horn_ or simply _horn_) really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from to . In the orchestra _French horns_ are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones, and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the harmony. The _horn_ (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The _horn_ is used in bands as well as in orchestras.

23. The range of the _trumpet_ is , the typical tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra, playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The _trumpet_ is often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the _cornet_ because of the ease with which the latter can be played as compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are available in consequence of this ease of execution.

24. The _cornet_ looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and sixteen feet in the French horn.

The range of the _cornet_ in B[flat] is from to . The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in many small orchestras.

25. The pitch sounded by the _trombone_ is altered by lengthening or shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air passes. There are usually three _trombones_ in the orchestra, each playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the _tuba_ reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in _Fortissimo_ passages. But the _trombones_ are useful in soft passages also, and their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.

26. The _bass tuba_ is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same family--the _contra-bass tuba_. The range of the _tuba_ is from to .

[Footnote 42: The _saxhorn_ was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a Frenchman. The _saxophone_ is the invention of the same man.]

27. The _kettle-drum_ is the most important member of the percussion family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration. The range of a pair of _drums_ is _one octave_ and when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat] to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the _tonic_, and the other to _the dominant_ of the key in which the composition is written. The pitch of the _kettle-drum_ can be varied by increasing or lessening the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal ring.

The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no detailed explanation.

28. The _harp_ is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over 6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from to .

The modern _double-action harp_ has forty-six strings, which are tuned in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major. It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two _notches_ below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to the second notch we get in turn all the _sharp keys_--D, A, E, B, F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they now sound the C[sharp] scale.

Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of harp music is essentially like that of piano music.