Chapter II: Introduction (2)

The first British settlement in North America was claimed by Sir Walter Raleigh on the 13th of July, 1584, in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and called =Virginia= in her honour. =Maryland= was so denominated by Lord Baltimore (who gave the name of =Baltimore= to a neighbouring State), in honour of Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I. =Pennsylvania= denotes the colony founded “in the wood” by William Penn, the son of Admiral Penn, in 1681. This is usually alluded to as the KEYSTONE STATE, from its relative position to the other States. =Georgia= was named after George II., in whose reign this state was colonized; and =Carolina= (North and South) after Carolus II., the Latinized style of Charles II., by whom this state was granted to eight of his favourites. =Louisiana= was so called by M. de la Sale in the year 1682, in honour of Louis XIV. of France; while =Maine= and =New Orleans= received the names of existing French provinces. The title of =New Hampshire= was given to the state granted to him in 1629 by John Mason, in compliment to his native county in England; =New Jersey= complimented the scene of action whereon Sir George Carterat distinguished himself in the defence of Jersey Island against the Parliamentary forces in 1664; and =New York= (State) was denominated in honour of James, Duke of York, afterwards James II. [For =Michigan= see the great lake of the same name.] =Indiana= derived its name from the great number of Indians found here. =Alabama= in the native tongue, signifies “Here we rest”; =Nebraska= means “water valley”; =Ohio= is “beautiful”; =Massachusetts=, “about the great hills”; =Wisconsin=, “wild rushing channel”; =Kansas=, “smoky water”; =Tennessee=, “river of the great bend”; =Kentucky=, “at the head of a river”; =Mississippi=, “great and long river”; =Missouri=, “muddy river”; and =Minnesota=, “white water.” =Arkansas= conveys the same meaning as Kansas, with the addition of the French prefix _arc_, a bow. =Illinois= is a compound of the Indian _illum_, men, and the French suffix _oix_, a tribe. =Oregon= received its name from the Spanish _oregano_, wild majoram, which grows in abundance on this portion of the Pacific shore. =Texas= means “the place of protection,” in reference to the fact that a colony of French refugees were afforded protection here by General Lallemont in 1817; =Vermont= is, more correctly, _Verd Mont_, so called in testimony to the verdure-clad mountains which traverse this state; =Colorado= expresses the Spanish for “coloured,” alluding to its coloured ranges; while =Nevada= is Spanish for “snowy,” indicative of the character of its mountain ridges, the _Sierra Nevada_. =Connecticut= presents itself in the native Indian form _Quinnitukut_, meaning “the country of the long river”; =Iowa= is a French corruption of a Sioux term, signifying “drowsy,” or “the sleepy ones,” applied to the Pahoja, or Gray-snow tribe; =Astoria= was founded by John Jacob Astor, of New York, as a fur-trading station in the year 1811; and =Delaware= received its name from Thomas West, Lord de La Warre, Governor of Virginia, who visited the bay in 1610, and died on board his vessel at its mouth.

=Lake Superior= denotes the uppermost and chief of the five great lakes of North America. =Lake Erie= is the Lake of the “Wild Cat,” the name given to a fierce tribe of Indians exterminated by the Iroquois. =Lake Huron= owes its name to the French word _hure_, a head of hair; in reference to the Wyandots, whom the French settlers designated Hurons owing to their profusion of hair. =Lake Ontario= bears the denomination of the Canadian territory already discussed. =Niagara=, or rather, to give it its full name, _Oni-aw-garah_, expresses the West Indian for “the thunder of waters.” =Lake Michigan= signifies in the native tongue “a weir for fish”; and =Lake Winnipeg=, “lake of the turbid water.” The =Great Bear Lake= is indebted for its name to its northern situation [_see_ ARCTIC OCEAN]; and the =Great Salt Lake=, to the saline character of its waters.

Having disposed of the different countries, let us now consider the nomenclature of the principal seas and islands.

The =Arctic Ocean= received its name pursuant to the Greek _arktos_, a bear, on account of the northern constellations of the Great and Little Bear. The =Antarctic Ocean= denotes the ocean _anti_, against, or opposite to, the Arctic Ocean. The =Atlantic Ocean=, known to the Greeks by the name of _Atlantikos pelagos_, was originally so called from the Isle of Atlantes, which both Plato and Homer imagined to be situated beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. The =Pacific Ocean= was so named by Magellan, owing to its calm and pacific character, in striking contrast to his tempestuous passage through the Straits of Magellan, from which he emerged November 27, 1520. The =Caribbean Sea= washes the territory of the Caribbs, whose name means “cruel men.” The =Mediterranean Sea= expresses the Latin (_medius_, middle, and _terra_, earth) for the sea between two continents, viz., Europe and Africa. The =Adriatic Sea= indicates the Sea of Adrian or Hadrian. The =Baltic Sea= denotes, in accordance with the Swedish _bält_, a strait, a sea full of belts, or straits. The =North Sea=, the =German Ocean=, the =Indian Ocean=, and the =Irish Sea=, are names indicative of the positions of these respective seas. The =White Sea= is so called from its proximity to sterile regions of snow and ice; the =Black Sea=, because it abounds with black rocks; the =Red Sea=, on account of the red soil which forms its bottom; the =Green Sea=, owing to a strip of green always discernible along the Arabian shore; the =Yellow Sea=, from the immense quantity of alluvial soil continually poured into it by the Yang-tse-Kiang river; and the =Dead Sea=, because no fish of any kind has ever been found in its waters. The =Caspian Sea= preserves the name of the Caspii, a tribe who originally formed a settlement on its shores. The =Sea of Marmora= owes its designation to a small island at its western extremity which has long been famous for its marble (Latin _marmor_) quarries. The =Gulf Stream= is a warm current of water that issues from the mouth of the Amazon, immediately under the Equator, and after traversing the coast of South America, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the coast of the United States, makes its way across the Atlantic directly for the British Isles, raising the temperature of the water through which it passes. The =Horse Latitudes=, situated between the trade winds and the westerly winds of higher latitudes, and distinguished for tedious calms, received this name because it was in this portion of the Atlantic the old navigators often threw overboard the horses which they had undertaken to transport to the West Indies. The southern banks of the West India Islands, and the water extending for some distance into the Caribbean Sea, were formerly known as the =Spanish Main=, from the fact that the Spaniards confined their buccaneering enterprises to this locality.

=Hudson’s Bay= and =Hudson’s Strait= were named after their re-discovery by Captain Henry Hudson while searching for the north-west passage in 1610. Prior to this date the Bay and the Strait had not been navigated since their original discovery by Cabot in 1512. =James’ Bay= honours the memory of James I., in whose reign it was completely explored. Quite a number of straits, gulfs, and bays bear the names of their respective navigators; therefore these need not detain us here. An exception exists in the case of =Barrow’s Strait=, which was so called by Captain Penny in compliment to John Barrow, the son of Sir John Barrow the traveller and statesman, in 1850. =All Saints’ Bay= was discovered by Vespucci on the Feast of All Saints in the year 1503. The =Gulf of St. Lawrence= was first explored, and the navigation of the long river of the same name commenced, on the Feast of St. Lawrence, 1500. The =Gulf of Carpentaria= preserves the memory of a Dutch captain named Carpenter who discovered it in 1606. =Torres Strait= received the name of the Spanish navigator, L. V. de Torres, to whom its discovery was due, in the year 1606. =Botany Bay= was so called by Captain Cook from the great variety of plants which he found growing on its shores when exploring it in the year 1770. The =St. George’s Channel= was named after the patron saint of England. The =Skagerrack= denotes the “crooked strait between the Skagen” (so called from the Gothic _skaga_, a promontory), which forms the northern extremity of Jutland and Norway. =Zuyder Zee= expresses the Dutch for the “south sea,” in relation to the North Sea or German Ocean. The =Bay of Biscay= takes its name from the Basque or Basquan, _i.e._, mountainous provinces, whose shores are washed by its waters. The =Strait of Gibraltar= honours the reputation of Ben Zeyad Tarik, a Moorish general who effected the invasion of Spain in the year 712 by obtaining possession of the apparently impregnable rock which has ever since borne the name, in consequence, of _Jebel al tarik_, the Mountain of Tarik. The =Bosphorus= is a Greek term composed of _bous_, an ox, and _porus_, a ford, alluding to the legend that when Io was transformed into a cow she forded this strait. The =Dardanelles= derive their name from the ancient city of Dardanus, founded by Dardanus, the ancestor of Priam, where the castle now stands on the Asiatic side.

By the term =Australia= is meant “the South,” and by =Australasia= “Southern Asia,” agreeably to the Latin _australis_, southern. Previous to its settlement by the British, Australia was known as =New Holland= owing to its discovery by the Dutch in the year 1606. The existing name of =New Zealand= likewise bears testimony to the deep-rooted affection of the Dutch navigators, and indeed of the Dutch people generally, for their native country--the word _Zeeland_, denoting sea-land, being significant of the low countries. =Tasmania= was originally known as =Van Dieman’s Land=, the name bestowed upon it by Abel Jansen Tasman, who discovered it in 1642, in compliment to the daughter of the Dutch governor of Batavia. The change of title was effected in 1853. =The Society Islands= received their name from Captain Cook in honour of the Royal Society; the =Friendly Islands=, on account of the friendly disposition of the natives; and =Christmas Island=, because he set foot upon it on Christmas Day, 1777. The naming of the =Sandwich Islands= by Cook conveyed a graceful compliment to Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty. The =Philippine Islands=, discovered by Magellan in 1521, were named after Philip II. of Spain; and the =Caroline Islands= discovered by Lopez de Villalobos in 1543, after Charles V., Emperor of Germany and first King of Spain.

=Papua= is a Portuguese term for “frizzled,” in allusion to the enormous frizzled heads of hair worn by the natives; =Java= is a native Malay word signifying “the land of nutmegs;” =Sumatra=, a corruption of _Trimatara_, means “the happy land”; while =Borneo= comes from the Sanskrit _bhurni_, “land.” =Japan= is a European modification, brought about through the Portuguese _Gepuen_, of the native _Niphon_, compounded of _ni_, sun, fire, and _pon_, land, literally sun-land, or “land of the rising sun,” and signifying “the fountain of light.” =Formosa= is Portuguese for “beautiful”; whereas =Ceylon=, rendered in the Portuguese tongue _Selen_, is but part of the original Sanskrit _Sinhala-dwipa_, “the Island of Lions.” The =Mauritius=, when colonized by the Dutch, received the name of Maurice, Prince of Orange; and the =Isle of Bourbon=, when settled by the French, that of the Bourbon family. =Madagascar= is properly _Malagasy_, the Island of the Malagese, because the natives belong to the Malay race.

=Tierra del Fuego= expresses the Spanish for “land of fire.” The =Island of Desolation= was so designated by Captain Cook owing to the absence of all signs of life. =Hanover Island= honours the House of Hanover; and =Adelaide Island=, the queen of William IV.; while =Juan Fernandez= (also known as =Selkirk’s Island=, after Alexander Selkirk, its solitary inhabitant from September, 1704, to February, 1707), perpetuates the name of its discoverer in the year 1567. The =Ladrone Islands= merited this designation from the circumstance that when Magellan touched upon one of the lesser isles of the group in 1520 the natives stole some of his goods; whereupon he called the Islands the _Ladrones_, which is the Spanish for thieves. =Pitcairn’s Island= was discovered by Pitcairn in 1768. =Easter Island= was so denominated by Jacob Roggevin in consequence of his visit to its fertile shores on Easter Sunday, 1722; the island having previously been discovered by Captain Davis in 1686. =Vancouver Island= preserves the memory of Captain Vancouver, a midshipman under Captain Cook, who discovered it in 1792, while cruising about in search of a river on the west coast of North America. The =Aleutian Islands= expresses the Russian for “bald rocks.” =Queen Charlotte Island= was named in compliment to the queen of George III.; and =Prince of Wales Island=, after the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV. =Barrow Island=, discovered by Captain Penny in 1850, received the name of John Barrow, son of Sir John Barrow, the eminent statesman; while =Baring Island=, also discovered by Penny in the course of the same voyage, received the name of Sir Francis Baring, First Lord of the Admiralty. The =Parry Islands= and =Baffin Land= indicate the names of the famous Arctic navigators to whom their discovery was due. =Banks Land= was so called in compliment to Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent naturalist and President of the Royal Society.

=Newfoundland= is the only territory discovered by Cabot which has been allowed to retain its original name. =Rhode Island=, a corruption of the Danish _rood_, red, signifies Red Island, in allusion to its reddish appearance; whereas =Long Island= has reference to its long and narrow conformation. The =Bermuda Islands= were discovered by Juan Bermudez in 1522. =San Salvador= means “Holy Saviour.” This was the first land sighted by Columbus (October 11, 1492); he therefore gave it this name, as a token of thanksgiving. =Jamaica= is a corruption of _Xaymaco_, a native West Indian name signifying “the country abounding in springs.” =Cuba= and =Hayti= are also native names, the latter meaning “mountainous country.” The Island of =Barbadoes= derived its name from the Latin _barba_, a beard, in allusion to the beard-like streamers of moss always hanging from the branches of the trees. =Dominica= is indicative of the day of its discovery by Columbus, namely, Sunday, November 2, 1493; and =Porto Rico= is likewise Spanish for “rich port.” When Columbus first sighted the Isle of =Trinidad= he discerned three mountain peaks rising from the sea, thus conveying the impression of three distinct islands; but on approaching nearer he discovered that they formed one piece of land only; wherefore he gave the island the name of the Trinity, of which it was so eminently an emblem. But perhaps the most interesting of the West Indies in connection with the subject we are now discussing is =Tobago Island=, so called by Columbus from its fancied resemblance to the _Tobaco_, or inhaling tube of the aborigines, whence the word TOBACCO has been derived. =St. Kitt’s Island= is an abbreviation of St. Christopher’s Island, so called by Columbus in 1493 after his patron saint.

=Ascension Island= was discovered by the Portuguese on Ascension Day, 1501; and the =Isle of St. Helena= on the Feast of St. Helena, 1502. =Tristan d’Acunha= received the name of the Portuguese navigator who discovered it in 1651. The =Canary Islands= were originally so called on account of the numerous dogs, as well as of their unusual size (Latin _canis_, a dog), bred here. =Madeira= is a Portuguese term signifying timber; the inference being that this island was formerly covered by an immense forest. =Majorca= and =Minorca=, literally in accordance with the Latin _major_ and _minor_, the Greater and Lesser Island, are denominated also the =Balearic Islands= from the Greek _ballein_, to throw, because their inhabitants were anciently noted slingers. =Corsica= is a Phœnician word denoting “the wooded island”; =Sardinia= expresses the “land of the Sardonion,” a Greek term for a plant indigenous to this island; =Capri= signifies the “island of goats,” agreeably to the Latin _caper_, a he-goat; =Sicily= received its name from the _Siculi_, a tribe who settled upon it in early times; =Malta= was anciently _Melita_, “the place of refuge”; =Candia= comes from the Arabic _Khandæ_, “the island of trenches”; and =Cyprus= from the Greek _Kupros_, the name of a herb with which the island abounded; while =Rhodes= indicates an “island of roses,” in conformity with the Greek _rhodon_, a rose.

=Belleisle= is French for “beautiful island”; =Jersey= was originally _Czar’s-ey_, meaning “Cæsar’s Island,” so called by the Romans in honour of Julius Cæsar; the =Isle of Wight= denoted in the long, long ago the Island of the Wyts, or Jutes; just as =Gothland= indicated a settlement of the Goths. =Heligoland= expresses the Danish for “holy island settlement.” =Anglesea= is really a corruption of _Anglesey_, signifying, in accordance with the suffix _ey_, the Isle of the Angles [_see_ CHELSEA]. The =Isle of Man= is the modern designation of =Mona Island=, by which was meant, agreeably to the Celtic _mæn_, a stone “rocky island.” The =Hebrides= were anciently referred to by Ptolemy as the _Ebudæ_, and by Pliny as the _Hebudes_, denoting the “Western Isles”; the =Orkney Isles= expresses the Gaelic for the “Isles of Whales,” alluding to their situation; and the =Shetland Isles=, the Norse for the “Viking Island,” conformably with their native prenomen _Hyalti_, a Viking. The term VIKING, by the way, meaning a pirate, was derived from the _Vik_, or creek, in which he lay concealed. The name of =Iceland= needs no comment, further than that, perhaps, the north and west coasts of the island are frequently blockaded with ice, which has drifted before the wind from Greenland. =Spitzbergen= is literal Dutch for “sharp-pointed mountains,” referring to the granite peaks of the mountains, which are so characteristic of this group of islands; while =Nova Zembla= presents a strange mixture of the Latin and Slavonic, literally “new land.”

_THE MONTHS, AND DAYS OF THE WEEK._

The titles of the months are modernized forms of those in use among the Romans, namely:--=January=, in honour of Janus, a deity who presided over the beginning of everything; =February=, from the Latin word _febru_, to purify, because the purification of women took place in this month; =March=, after Mars, the God of War; =April=, from _aperio_, to open, this being the month in which the buds shoot forth; =May=, after Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were offered on the first day of this month; =June=, from Juno, the queen goddess; =July=, the name given to this month by Marc Antony in honour of Julius Cæsar, who was born in it; =August=, named by Augustus Cæsar after himself, because in this month he celebrated three distinct triumphs, reduced Egypt to subjection, and put an end to the civil wars; while =September=, =October=, =November=, and =December= literally express the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months of the old Roman Calendar, counted from March, which commenced the year previous to the addition of January and February by Numa in the year 713 B.C.

The Egyptian astronomers were the first to distinguish the days by names, when, as might have been expected, they called them after the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets, viz., Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn. Of these the two first and the last survive, but for the rest the names of as many gods of the Scandinavian mythology have been substituted. Nowadays, then, we have the following:--=Sunday=, originally signifying the day upon which the sun was worshipped; =Monday=, the day of the moon; =Tuesday= devoted to Tiw, the God of War; =Wednesday=, set apart for the worship of Odin, or Wodin, the God of Magic and the Inventor of the Arts; =Thursday=, the day of Thor, the son of Odin (or Wodin), and the God of Thunder; =Friday=, allotted to Frigga, the wife of Odin, and the Goddess of Marriage; and =Saturday=, the day of Saturn, one of the planets of the solar system.

_CREEDS, SECTS, AND DENOMINATIONS._

=Theism= and =Deism= both express a belief in God; the former term being derived from the Greek _Theos_, God, and the latter from the Latin, _Deus_, God. The =Theist=, however, admits the =Theocracy= or Government of God (Greek _Theos_, God, and _kratein_, to govern); the =Deist=, on the contrary, maintains that God in the beginning implanted in all His works certain immutable laws, comprehended by mankind under the name of the “Laws of Nature,” which act of themselves, and are no longer subject to the supervision of the Creator. =Pantheism= (from the Greek _pan_, all, everything, and _Theos_, God) is the religion which rejects a belief in a personal God, but recognizes Him in all the processes, and works, and glories, and beauties of Nature, and animated creation. Briefly, the =Pantheist= holds the doctrine that “God is everything, and everything is God.” The word =Atheism= comes from the Greek _Theos_, God, and the prefix _a_, without. An =Atheist=, therefore, practically answers to the description given by David in the opening line of _Psalm_ xiv., “The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God.” =Agnosticism= is also Greek, in accordance with the prefix _a_, without, and _gnomi_, to know. An =Agnostic= is one whose belief is confined to that which he _knows_ and sees, and who rejects everything at all beyond his understanding. =Secularism=, derived from the Latin _seculum_, an age, a generation, is the term given to the principles advocated by Messrs. Holyoake in 1846, which professed an entire independence of religion, except so far as it pertains to this life. The =Secularist= aims at promoting the happiness of the community during the present life. His religion is that of this world, without troubling himself about possibilities concerning a life hereafter. Such views are closely allied to those set forth by John Stuart Mill (born 1806, died 1873) under the name of =Utilitarianism=, by which was meant, “the happiness of the greatest number.” This term was based upon the Latin _utilitas_, usefulness. =Spiritualism= expresses a belief in the soul’s immortality, as opposed to the doctrine of =Materialism=, which contends that the soul, or thinking part of man, is the result of some peculiar organization of matter in the body, with which it must necessarily die. =Rationalism= constitutes the doctrine which accepts the test of Reason and Experience in the pursuit of knowledge, particularly in regard to religious truth, rejecting the gift of Faith, Revelation, and everything connected with the supernatural or miraculous. This was the religion (!) of the French Revolutionists, who set up an actress to be publicly honoured as the “Goddess of Reason” in the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame on the 10th of November, 1793.

The earliest form of religion on the face of the earth was =Monotheism=, so called from the Greek _monos_, alone, only, and _Theos_, God; therefore signifying a belief in, and the worship of, one Only God. The word =Religion= is derived from the Latin _religare_, to bind. Hence, Religion implies obedience, submission, and an acknowledgment of certain orthodox doctrines regarding our duty to a Supreme Power. =Mosaism=, otherwise =Judaism=, denotes the religion of the Jews as enjoined in the laws of Moses. But even during that favoured period when God manifested Himself in various ways to the children of Israel, Idolatry prevailed. Let us consider what this word =Idolatry= really means. _Idol_ is a contraction of the Greek _eidolon_, the diminutive of _eidos_, a figure, an image, or that which is seen, derived from the verb _eidein_, to see; while =Idolater= is made up of the two Greek words, _eidolon_, and _latres_, one who pays homage, a worshipper. An Idolater, therefore, is a worshipper of images, or that which he sees. The Israelites, who prostrated themselves before the Golden Calf, were strictly Idolaters; so were the Egyptians, who worshipped the sun, the moon, the ox, the dog, the cat, the ibis, and the ichneumon; but the Greeks and Romans were scarcely Idolaters, because the mythological deities they worshipped were unseen--as unseen as is the True God Himself. Neither were they =Pagans=, which term, from the Latin _paganus_, a countryman, a peasant, based upon _pagus_, a country, a district, has nothing whatever to do with religion. The Greeks and Romans were, in fact, =Polytheists=, and their religion was =Polytheism=, signifying, in accordance with the Greek _polus_, many, and _Theos_, God, a belief in more gods than one. The more general description of the religion of the ancients is comprised in the term =Mythology=, written in the Greek _muthologia_, from _muthos_, a fable, and _logos_, a discourse.

Alluding to the =Fire Worshippers= of the East, who fall prostrate in adoration of the sun, it should be noted that these do not actually worship the sun, but God, whom they believe to reside in it. This Sun or Fire Worship, the religion of the =Parsees=, otherwise denominated =Zoroastrianism=, was introduced into Persia by Zoroaster about five hundred years before the Christian era. In short, the Parsees are the descendants of those who, in Persia, adhered to the Zoroastrian religion after the Moslem or Mahommedan conquest of their country, whence they were at length driven by Moslem persecution to migrate to India. The =Brahmins= are the priests or higher caste of the Hindoos, who, like the Burmese, the inhabitants of the adjacent country, =Burmah=, claim to be descended from _Brahma_, the supreme deity of the Hindoo religion. The =Buddhists= are the followers of Buddha, a Hindoo sage who founded the doctrine of =Buddhism= in the sixth century B.C. =Mahommedanism= is the religion founded by Mahommed, or Mahomet (born 571, died 632). The term =Koran=, or more properly _Al Koran_, “The Koran,” which constitutes the Bible of the Mahommedans, is Arabic for a “Reading,” a “thing to be read.” The native name of the Mahommedan religion is =Islam=, resignation and obedience to God, founded upon the verb _aslama_, to bend, to submit, to surrender. The Mahommedans of Turkey and Persia usually bear the style of =Mussulmans=, a corruption and the plural of the Arabic _muslim_, rendered into English as =Moslem=, and meaning a true believer, or one who holds the faith of Islam.

Our reference to Mahommedanism having carried us some six hundred years beyond the foundation of =Christianity= by Christ, we must of necessity retrace our steps. Reverting to the Jewish people contemporary with Jesus Christ and His disciples, a certain portion of these styled themselves =Pharisees= because they affected a greater degree of holiness than their neighbours. The name was derived from the Hebrew word _pharash_, separated. The =Nazarenes=, so called after “Jesus of Nazareth,” were a sect of semi-converted Jews, who, while believing Christ to be the long-promised Messiah, and that His nature was Divine as well as human, nevertheless continued the rites and ceremonies peculiar to Judaism. The =Gnostics=, otherwise the “Knowers,” pursuant to the Greek _gnomi_, to know, were those who tried to accommodate the Scriptures to the speculations of Plato, Pythagoras, and other ancient philosophers; having done which to their own satisfaction they refused all further knowledge on the subject. The =Aquarians= (Latin _aqua_, water) insisted upon the use of water in the place of wine in the Communion. The =Arians= were the followers of Arius, a presbyter in the Church of Alexandria, universally regarded as the first heretic. Soon after his death (in 336), which was ignominious in the extreme, the Arians renounced their errors, and were readmitted into the Church; but this gave offence to another section of the Christians under Lucifer, Bishop of Cagliari, styling themselves the =Luciferians=, who refused all communication with the reconverted heretics. The =Donatists= were the followers of Donatus, Bishop of Numidia; the =Macedonians=, of Macedonius, Patriarch of Constantinople; the =Apollinarians=, of Apollinarius, Bishop of Laodicea and Greek Christian philosopher. These various sects arose in the fourth century of the Church.

The term =Catholic=, derived from the Greek _Katholos_, compounded out of _Kata_, throughout, and _olos_, whole, signifies One, Universal. During the first nine centuries of Christianity the =Catholic Church= was indeed universal; but at that epoch it became necessary to distinguish between the Eastern or Greek Church, and the Western or Church of Rome, by adding the word “Roman” to the original Church founded by St. Peter and perpetuated by his successors the Popes. The =Greek Church=, which constitutes the orthodox religion of Greece, Moldavia, and Russia, differs principally from the Roman Catholic in regard to the Papal supremacy, and the doctrine of Holy Ghost proceeding from the Father and the Son. The employment of the full title of =Roman Catholic Church= is at all times necessary in England when alluding to Christian doctrine in order to avoid probable confusion with the Established Church of this country which retains in its Creed the designation of “The Holy Catholic Church.” This is because at the Reformation the =Church of England=, then styled the =Anglican Church=, professed to be the Catholic Church governed by the reigning monarch instead of the Pope of Rome.

The =Gallican Church= is the so-called Church of France or Gaul, the ancient name of the country. Père Hyacinth, its founder, whose church was opened in Paris February 7, 1870, originally separated from the Church of Rome owing to his disapproval of the enforced celibacy of the clergy. The =Lutheran Church= of Germany took its name from Martin Luther (born 1483, died 1546), the monk who became the pioneer of =Protestantism=. In the year 1529 the Emperor Charles V. summoned a Diet at Spiers for the avowed object of enlisting the aid of the German Princes against the Turks, but really to devise some means of tranquillizing the disturbances which had grown out of Luther’s opposition to the Church of Rome, and restoring the national religion. Against a decree drawn up at this Diet six princes and the deputies of thirteen imperial towns offered a vehement _protest_, and ever afterwards the =Lutherans= were in consequence styled =Protestants=. The first Standard of Faith, according to the doctrines of Luther, is known as =The Augsburg Confession=, because it was presented by Luther and Melancthon to Charles V., during the sitting of the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in the year 1530.

The =Calvinists= were the followers of John Calvin (born 1509, died 1604), the zealous reformer of Switzerland. In due time these also styled themselves Protestants. From Switzerland Protestantism spread into France through the energy of a Genevese Calvinist named Hugh or Hugue, after whom the French Protestants adopted the name of =Huguenots=.

But Luther and Calvin were by no means the earliest of the reformers.

In England the =Wycliffites=, or followers of John Wycliffe (born 1324, died 1387), became known as =Gospellers=, after their leader had completed the translation of the Bible in 1377. Eventually they adopted the title of =Lollards=, in imitation of a sect of German reformers headed by Walter Lollard, a dissolute priest, who turned theologian and was publicly burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. In France the precursors of the Huguenots were the =Albigenses= of Languedoc, so called because their capital was Albi, and its people were called the Albigeois, early in the twelfth century; and in 1170, the =Waldenses=, inhabiting the wooded districts of Valdois and Piedmont. The latter received their designation in accordance with the German _walden_, forests. The =Camisards=, or wearers of the _Camisè_, a peasant’s smock, to conceal their armour, comprised a body of Protestant insurgents who took up arms in the district of the Cevennes after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., October 22, 1685. As these always conducted their attacks upon the soldiery under cover of the darkness the term “Camisard” in military parlance soon came to imply a night attack. The Protestants of Bohemia were styled =Hussites=, after John Huss (born 1373, burned 1415); they were also known as =Bethlemites= from the Church of Bethlehem in Prague, in which Huss used to hurl forth his denunciations against the Church of Rome. The =Moravians=, otherwise =The United Brethren=, who were driven by persecutions from Moravia and Bohemia in the last century, claimed to be descendants of the original Hussites.

Having now traced the rise of Protestantism generally, let us at once dispose of the various sects and denominations before confining ourselves to the Established Church and its offshoots.

The =Adamites= were the fanatical followers of one Picard, in Bohemia, self-styled “Adam, Son of God,” who, about the year 1400, proposed to reduce mankind to a state of primitive innocence and enjoyment. No clothes were worn, wives were held in common, and many other violations of Nature were committed ere they finally disappeared from the face of the earth. A similar sect were the =Libertines=, in Holland, These contended that nothing could be regarded as sinful in a community where each was at full liberty to act up to his natural dictates and passions. The =Jansenists= favoured the doctrines of Jansenius, Bishop of Ypres, in France (born 1585, died 1638). For a long period these maintained an open warfare with the =Jesuists=, properly, soldiers of the “Society of Jesus” [_see_ RELIGIOUS ORDERS], until they were finally put down by Pope Clement in 1705. The =Gabrielites= were a sect of Anabaptists of Germany in the sixteenth century, named after Gabriel Scherling, their founder. The =Labadists= were a sect of Protestant ascetics of the seventeenth century who conformed to the rules laid down by Jean Labadie, of Bourg, in Germany. The =Socinians=, a sect corresponding to the modern =Unitarians=, owed their existence to Lælius Socinus, an Italian theologian in 1546. The anti-Calvinists of Holland were styled =Arminians=, after the Latinized name (Jacobus Arminius) of their leader, James Harmensen (born 1560, died 1609). The =New Christians= comprised a number of Portuguese Jews in the fifteenth century, who, although they consented to be baptized under compulsion, still practised the Mosaic rites and ceremonies in secret. The =Old Catholics= of Germany are the followers of the late Dr. Döllinger, of Munich (born 1799, died 1890), who refused to accept the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope promulgated July 18, 1870.

In our own country the =Scotists= were those who adopted the opinions of John Duns Scotus (born 1272, died 1308), concerning the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception, in opposition to the =Thomists=, or followers of St. Thomas Aquinas (born 1227, died 1274), who denied that the Virgin was conceived without sin. The =Sabbatarians=, known also as the =Seventh Day Baptists=, founded by Brabourne, a clergyman who, about the year 1628, maintained that the seventh day was the real Sabbath as ordained at the beginning. The =Fifth Monarchy Men=, who came into existence during the reign of Charles I., believed in the early coming of Jesus Christ to re-establish the four great monarchies of the ancient world, viz., the Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman, contemporaneously with the fifth, the Millennium. The =Muggletonians= were the followers of one Ludovic Muggleton, a journeyman tailor, who set himself up as a prophet in 1651. The =Society of Friends= originally styled themselves =Seekers=, because they sought the truth after the manner of Nicodemus, the Jewish ruler, as narrated in _St. John_ iii. 1-21. They were first designated =Quakers= by Justice Bennet of Derby, in 1650, in consequence of George Fox, the founder, having admonished him and all present to quake on hearing the Word of the Lord. The Seekers came into existence in 1646. The =White Quakers=, who seceded from the main body about 1840, are distinguished by their white clothing. The original sect of the =Shakers=, first heard of in the time of Charles I., received its name from the convulsive movements indulged in by its members as part of their peculiar form of worship. The modern sect sprang from a body of expelled Quakers, headed by James Wardley, in 1747. They emigrated to America in May, 1772, and formed a permanent settlement near Albany, New York, two years afterwards. The =Mormons= derived their designation from “The Book of Mormon,” claimed to be a lost portion of the Bible written by the angel Mormon, the last of the Hebrew line of prophets, and found inscribed in Egyptian characters upon plates of gold by Joseph Smith, the founder of the sect, in the year 1827. This work was really written by the Rev. Solomon Spalding, who died in 1816. Joseph Smith died in 1844. The =Peculiar People= are so styled because they believe in the efficacy of prayer on the part of their elders, and the anointing with oil in the name of the Lord for the cure of sickness as set forth in _James_ v. 14. This sect was first heard of in London in 1838. The =Faith Healers=, or those who uphold the doctrine of Healing by Faith, lately sprung up in our midst, may be regarded as an offshoot of the Peculiar People. The =Irvingites= are the followers of Edward Irving, a Scottish divine (born 1792, died 1834), who maintained that Christ was liable to commit sin in common with the rest of mankind. The =Humanitarians= incline to the same belief. The =Sacramentarians= are those who deny the Real Presence in the Holy Eucharist: the Calvinists were originally known by this title. The =Plymouth Brethren= first appeared at Plymouth about the year 1830; they so style themselves because they confess Christ as a fraternal community and do not recognize any order of priesthood. The =Perfectionists= of North America are so called owing to their rejection of civil laws, on the plea that the guidance of the Holy Spirit suffices for all earthly as well as spiritual affairs. Another body of co-coreligionists peculiar to North America are the =Hopkinsians=, named after Samuel Hopkins, of Connecticut, their founder. The doctrines which they hold are mainly Calvinistic.

The =Scottish Covenanters= were those who subscribed to a solemn league or covenant to stand by each other in opposition to the religious and political measures of Charles I. This occurred in 1638. In less than ten years afterwards the Covenanters, having increased in numbers and power, assumed the entire direction of their own ecclesiastical affairs and styled themselves =Presbyterians=, a term derived from the Greek _presbuteros_, an elder, because they contended that the government of the Church as set forth in the New Testament was by presbyters, equal in office, power, and order. The national Church of Scotland, therefore, when at length it was recognized by the English Parliament, bore the title of the =Scottish Presbyterian Church=. It was, however, not long before dissensions became rife. The strictest body of the Presbyterians adopted the style of =Cameronians=, after the name of their leader, Archibald Cameron, who was executed in 1688 on account of his religious opinions; while an equally numerous body, headed by John Macmillan, became known as =Macmillanites=, and also as =The Reformed Presbytery=. A much later sect was that founded in 1841 by James Morison, under the designation of the =Morisonians=. But the most alarming split in the Presbyterian Church took place May 18, 1843, when Dr. Chalmers, with a large following, established a separate community, entitled =The Free Church of Scotland=.

The =Puritans= of England were to the Established Church what the Pharisees were to the Jews. And not only did these Puritans profess a greater purity of doctrine, of morals, and of living, than their neighbours, but they embraced the earliest opportunity of separating themselves from the Church of England altogether. They were, in fact, the first of the Dissenters. On August 24, 1662, which date witnessed the secession of nearly two thousand ministers from the Church of England through their non-compliance with the “Act of Uniformity,” the Puritans joined forces with the latter, and the combined body assumed the name of =Nonconformists=. The Protestants were, consequently, divided into two great parties--the =Conformists=, or those who conformed to the requirements laid down in the “Act of Conformity,” and the =Nonconformists=. The latter have in more recent times borne the name of =Dissenters=, because they dissent from the Established Church. The =Sectarians= are Dissenters who attach themselves to one or other of the numerous sects and denominations which exist outside the Church of England. The =Congregationalists= and the =Independents= are one and the same. They maintain that each congregation is an independent religious community entitled to exercise the right of appointing its own ministers and managing its own affairs. These tenets were first publicly advanced by Robert Brown, a violent opponent of the Established Church, in Rutlandshire, as early as the year 1585. The =Unitarians= are the modern =Socinians= already alluded to. They are opposed to the doctrine of the Trinity; and, consequently, to the =Trinitarians=. The =Baptists= not only reject infant baptism, but hold that the adult subject should be baptized after the manner in which Christ was baptized by St. John. On this account the original Baptists, who arose about 1521, received the name of =Anabaptists=, because, having been already baptized during infancy, they of necessity went through the ceremony a second time on arriving at full age. The prefix _ana_ is Greek, signifying twice. The followers of John Wesley (born 1703, died 1791) and his brother, Charles Wesley (born 1708, died 1788), were styled =Methodists=, owing to the methodical strictness of their lives and religious exercises. They were also denominated =Wesleyans=, or =Wesleyan Methodists=, in contradistinction to the =Primitive Methodists=, or =Ranters=, who separated from the original sect under Hugh Bourne, in 1810, and retained the style of open-air preaching peculiar to John Wesley in his early itinerant days.

The terms “High Church” and “Low Church” first came into prominence during the reign of Queen Anne. Nowadays, as then, that section is styled =High Church= which regards the Church of England as the only ark of salvation, while the less apprehensive and more moderate section is called =Low Church=. Those who take a still more liberal and comprehensive view of orthodox doctrine belong to what is known as the =Broad Church=, which is but another name for =Latitudinarianism=, as originally professed by a number of divines opposed alike to the Puritans and the High Church party in the time of Charles I. On the other hand, the =Ritualists= comprise the extreme High Church party who are anxious to return to the ritual of public worship in vogue during the reign of Edward VI. Prior to 1866, in which year the term arose, these High Churchmen bore the name of =Puseyites=, because they agreed with the views set forth by Dr. Pusey in his celebrated “Tracts for the Times,” published at Oxford between 1833 and 1841. Those scholars who assisted Dr. Pusey in the composition of these =Oxford Tracts=, as they were called, as well as the public at large who believed in their teaching, were styled =Tractarians=; while the great Roman Catholic revival that took place in the Church of England at this period universally bore, and still bears, the name of the =Oxford Movement=.

_TAVERN SIGNS._

=Hotel= is a French term, derived from _hostil_, a lordly house, a palace. The designation =Public House=, signifying a house of public resort for refreshment and conviviality, is a modern substitute for =Tavern=, derived from the Latin _taberna_, a hut, a wooden booth; frequently also for =Inn=, or rather, as originally written, _Inne_, which expressed the Anglo-Saxon for a mansion. And here we may at once observe that by far the majority of our mediæval inns and =Hostelries= [_see_ HOTEL] grew out of the mansions of the nobility during the prolonged absence of their owners. At such times the privilege of utilizing the mansion for his own profit naturally fell to the family’s most trustworthy dependent, viz., the head gamekeeper, whose green costume gave existence to the sign of =The Green Man=, when, after quitting the family’s service, he set up an inn on his own account either in connection with his own cottage or abutting on the public highway. Nevertheless, this sign had nothing in common with that of =The Green Man and Still=, expressive of a herbalist bringing his herbs to a distillery, and which was doubtless the sign of a herbalist turned innkeeper.

As the family arms always occupied a prominent position on the front of the mansion these soon became known far and wide, though scarcely in accordance with their full heraldic significance. Briefly, the most conspicuous object in them sufficed to impress itself upon the minds of travellers as the distinguishing sign of the establishment; so that, instead of speaking of _lions gules_ and _lions azure_, &c., they simplified matters by referring to red and blue lions, &c. Such was the origin, then, of =The Red Lion=, =The Blue Lion=, and many another familiar sign of this character. Moreover, as a variation of the same device entered into the arms of different families, it happened that the most conspicuous object in them became popular in different parts of the country at the same time. Another fruitful source of the rapid multiplication of a particular sign throughout the same county, and even upon the same estate, was the fact that as often as a retired dependent of a nobleman’s family turned innkeeper, he was pretty certain to name his establishment in accordance with the popular description of the original inn or mansion. If it chanced, however, that that sign had already been appropriated by another innkeeper in the immediate vicinity, the full cognizance of the ground landlord was adopted. Thus, in the Midland Counties there is no sign so common as =The Bear and Ragged Staff=, which was the cognizance of the Earl of Warwick, the King Maker. Similarly, =The Boar’s Head= was the cognizance of the Gordons; =The Black Bull=, that of the House of Clare; and =The Talbot=, that of the House of Shrewsbury. Another oft-to-be-met-with sign is =The Chequers=, which comprised the arms of the Earls of Fitzwarren who, in the time of the Plantagenets, held the right of granting the vintners their licences. Later in our history the same cognizance was adopted by the Stuarts. As every one is aware, =The Red Rose= was the recognized badge of the Lancastrians, and =The White Rose= that of the Yorkists. It may be assumed that these two signs were naturally more popular throughout the country at large during the =Wars of the Roses= than at any subsequent period. During that turbulent period of English history, too, the devices of the several adherents of the rival houses were not unfrequently chosen in commemoration of a particular event; as, for example, after the Battle of Barnet, when =The Star=, the badge of the Earl of Oxford who decided the fate of that day, sprang up as an inn-sign in all directions, except, of course, upon Yorkist ground.

Where the innkeeper was not bound by any ties of gratitude or regard to the ground landlord he evinced his loyalty to the reigning monarch by adopting a portion of the royal arms. As examples of this class:--=The White Swan= was the badge of Edward III. and of Henry IV.; =The White Swan and Antelope=, of Henry V.; =The White Hart=, and =The Sun=, both of Richard II.; =The White Lion=, of Edward IV. as Earl of March, and =The Three Suns=, of Edward IV. as King of England; =The Eagle=, of Queen Mary; =The Blue Boar=, of Richard III.; =The Red Dragon=, that of Henry VII., chosen for his standard after the Battle of Bosworth Field, and =The Greyhound=, his original badge as King. =The Rose= is the symbol of England, just as =The Thistle= stands for Scotland, =The Shamrock= for Ireland, and =The Leek= for Wales. A very general expression of loyalty, again, was conveyed in the sign of =The Crown=, which, by the way, was shrewdly complimentary to the reigning house without offering offence to the partisans of a rival claimant to the throne. =The Rose and Crown= had reference originally to the union of the red and white roses in the House of Tudor by the marriage of Henry VII. with Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV., in the year 1486; =The Crown and Sceptre= must have originated in the mind of one who had been witness to the elaborate ceremonial peculiar to a coronation; while =The Crown and Anchor= signified the reliance which was placed in the exalted person that wore the crown.

If, on the other hand, our mediæval innkeeper chose to flatter the ground landlord without actually adopting his cognizance, he invariably named his establishment after his lordship’s family title, _e.g._, =The Earl of March=, in compliment to the Duke of Richmond, or else set up some such sign as =The Hare and Hounds=, =The Tally Ho!=, =The Fox in the Hole=, &c., in allusion to the sporting tastes of his patron. At times he even went so far as to enter into the religious enthusiasm of the latter by exhibiting a preference for =The Angel= or =The Salutation=, both referring to the Annunciation of the Virgin; =The Three Kings=, meaning the Magi who presented themselves to the Infant at Bethlehem; or =The Cross Keys=, the symbol of St. Peter, and the badge of the Archbishop of York. The sign of =The Mitre= was generally adopted by an innkeeper whose establishment stood in the vicinity of a cathedral; consequently, this particular sign abounds in cities, but is rarely to be met with in the rural districts.

During the period of the Holy Wars, if the innkeeper did not content himself with the sign of =The Turk’s Head= or =The Saracen’s Head=, that of =The Golden Cross=, which was the ensign carried by the Crusaders, was usually chosen. The modern sign of =The Half-Moon= originated in the crescent, the ensign of the Infidel. The signs of =The Swan=, =The Pheasant=, and =The Peacock= arose in the days of knight-errantry, when every knight selected one of these birds as an emblem of chivalry, and exerted a pride in the association. For example, one of the principal characters in the “Niebelungen Lied” is called “The Knight of the Swan.” Then, again, many innkeepers assumed a sign in honour of the patron saint of England, or in commemoration of his combat with the dragon, viz., =The St. George=, =The St. George and Dragon=, =The George and Dragon=, =The Green Dragon=, &c. =The George=, a common sign enough in our own day--it would be difficult to name a town that has not its “George” in the High Street--was originally connected with the dragon too; but at the commencement of the Hanoverian succession the heraldic device was painted out altogether, and the words THE GEORGE were put up in its place. The like observation applies to all such signs as =The King’s Arms=, =The Queen’s Arms=, =The Freemasons’ Arms=, =The Coachmakers’ Arms=, =The Saddlers’ Arms=, =The Carpenters’ Arms=, &c., nowadays identified by name only, instead of their distinctive badge or crest. We must not omit to mention also that, since the especial function of tavern and other signs was to call attention to the character of an establishment in days when the people were unable to read, and when, therefore, the display of the owner’s name or of the name of the house would have been useless, the misapprehension of the painted device was of common occurrence. Hence the corruption of many signs from their original meaning.

Perhaps the most glaring instance of this kind originated in the sign of =The Garter=, or the insignia of the Order of the Garter represented in its proper position on a leg (whence we have the intelligible sign of =The Star and Garter=); yet the vulgar mind quite failed to grasp the idea, with a result that a house exhibiting this sign was invariably referred to as =The Leg and Star=. Corruptions of a different character are of later date, when the name of the house instead of the device began to make its appearance on an innkeeper’s signboard. Chief among these are:--=The Cat and Fiddle=, a perversion of “Caton le Fidele,” in honour of Caton, the faithful Governor of Calais; =The Bag o’ Nails=, of “The Bacchanals,” in reference to Pan and the Satyrs; =The Goat and Compasses=, of the Puritan motto “God encompass us”; =The Iron Devil=, of “The Hirondelle,” or swallow; =The Bull and Mouth=, and =The Bull and Gate=, of “The Boulogne Mouth” and “The Boulogne Gate,” in compliment to Henry VIII., who effected the siege of Boulogne and its harbour in 1544; =The Lion and Key=, of “The Lion on the Quay,” meaning a house bearing the sign of _The Lion_, and situated by the water-side, in order to distinguish it from other _Lions_ in the same port; =The Cat and Wheel=, of “The Catherine Wheel,” the instrument of St. Catherine’s martyrdom; =The Plume and Feathers=, of “The Plume of Feathers,” in allusion to the Prince of Wales; =The Bully Ruffian=, of “The Bellerophon,” the vessel on board of which Napoleon surrendered his sword to Captain Maitland after his defeat at Waterloo; and =The Blue Pig=, a mere modification of “The Blue Boar.” =The Pig and Whistle= is a very old sign, the term _whistle_ being a corruption of “wassail,” and _pig_, the Old English for a bowl or cup. Surely there could be no more fitting sign for a tavern than that which suggested the drinking of healths!