Chapter III: Introduction (3)

The original character of many of our country inns is at once indicated by their signs. Thus, =The Coach and Horses= was clearly, before the introduction of railways, a coaching establishment; while =The Pack Horse= announced the fact that pack-horses were let out on hire. Again, =The Bear=--subject to sundry modifications, such as =The Brown Bear=, =The Black Bear=, =The Grizzly Bear=--informed the frequenters of such resorts that bear-baiting might be witnessed on the premises; exactly as, nearer to our own day, =The Dog and Duck= called attention to the popular diversion of duck-hunting by spaniels in a pond. =The Skittles= and =The Bowling Green= indicated a more rational kind of sport. Once more, =The Grapes= conveyed the intelligence that a vinery existed in connection with the establishment; whereas =The Castle=, which constitutes the arms of Spain, =The Globe=, the arms of the King of Portugal, and =The Spread Eagle=, the arms of Germany, told that the wines of those respective countries were to be had there. In the north of England the sign of =The Yorkshire Stingo= is very common, the allusion being to an old beer of particular strength and sharpness for which the county of York has won considerable celebrity.

Among other familiar country inn and tavern signs may be mentioned =The Bell=, referring to the silver bell that formed the prize at races previous to the Restoration; =The Barley Mow=, denoting the premises where the barley was housed, _mowe_ being the Saxon term for “a heap”; and =The Old Hat=, which in the olden time may have been the shop of a hatter rejoicing in the sign of “The Hat,” and subsequently converted into a place of refreshment. Another distinctly tradesmanlike sign is =The Ram and Teazle=, which was originally chosen in compliment to the Clothiers’ Company; the lamb with the golden fleece being emblematical of wool, and the teazle, a tool used for raising the nap of the wool when woven into cloth. =The Bricklayers’ Arms= merely indicate a house of call for bricklayers; while =The Cricketers’ Arms= derives its title from a neighbouring cricket-ground. The significance of =The Tankard=, =The Bottle=, and similar signs, need not detain us. We may, however, state that =The Black Jack= refers to a leathern pitcher for holding beer, which took its name from the defensive breastplate of strong leather formerly worn by horsemen, and known as a _Jacque_, whence the term JACKET has been derived.

Signs that betray a political bias, such as =The Royal Oak=, =The Boscobel=, =The Jacobite=, =The Hanover=, &c., are altogether too numerous to mention. In the early part of the present century, too, the names of political leaders were largely drawn upon as an attraction for tavern signs, as were those also of distinguished naval and military commanders, and of the battles won by them. =The Canning=, =The Palmerston=, =The Nelson=, =The Wellington=, =The Marquis of Granby=, =The Portobello Arms=, =The Trafalgar=, =The Waterloo=, and a host of others of the like character, are everywhere to be encountered; while the old sign of =The Ship= carries us back to the days of Elizabeth, when the circumnavigation of the globe by Sir Francis Drake was regarded as an exploit that could scarcely be too highly honoured.

Before concluding, let us add a few words of comment upon the signal loyalty of the English people in the times we live in; for whereas our forefathers were for the most part content to express their loyalty to the throne by the choice of such vague tavern signs as =The King’s Head=, or =The Queen’s Head=, we of the nineteenth century are not nearly so half-hearted. Not only are =The Victoria=, =The Prince Albert=, =The Prince of Wales=, and =The Prince of Wales’ Feathers= honoured on every hand in the course of a day’s perambulation, but =The Duke of Edinburgh=, =The Duke of Cambridge=, =The Duke of Connaught=, and other members of the Royal Family, are similarly memorialized. Perhaps in the future, when the Prince of Wales shall occupy the British Throne, his descendants may also in their turn form the subject of many a tavern sign in our midst.

_ROYAL SURNAMES._

=Alfred the Great= (reigned 871 to 901) fully merited his surname because he expelled the Danes, established a navy, founded schools, and effected the restoration of law and order during one of the most critical periods of early British history. Taking the remainder of the Saxon monarchs in chronological order, we have:--=Edward the Martyr= (975 to 978), treacherously murdered at Corfe Castle; =Ethelred the Unready= (978 to 1016), who, lacking _rede_, or council, fled to Normandy to escape the consequences of a threatened invasion by the Danes; =Edmund Ironsides= (reigned 1016), whose habitual precaution of wearing a complete suit of mail availed him nothing against the fatality of assassination; =Edgar Atheling= (born 1017, died 1120), otherwise “Edgar of Royal Descent”; =Harold Harefoot= (1035 to 1039), swift of foot as a hare; and =Edward the Confessor= (1042 to 1066), so called on account of his holy life. The distinction between a CONFESSOR and a MARTYR in the early days of Christianity was simply this: both made an open confession of their faith, and expressed their readiness to die for it; the former, however, was never called upon to do so, whereas the latter actually suffered martyrdom.

William I. (reigned 1066 to 1087), was styled =The Conqueror= because he defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Hastings, and founded the Norman Dynasty in England. William II. (1087 to 1100), received the name of =Rufus= from his florid complexion; _rufus_ being Latin for ruddy. Henry I. (1100 to 1135), was surnamed =Beauclerc=, or good clerk, in recognition of his scholarly attainments. Richard I. (1189 to 1199), styled =Cœur de Leon=, otherwise “The Lion Hearted,” is traditionally said to have torn the living heart out of the mouth of a lion to whose fury he was exposed by the Duke of Austria for having killed his son in battle. This extraordinary exploit surpasses the bounds of reason; still there is no doubt that he performed prodigies of valour during the Wars of the Crusades. Another British monarch who rejoiced in a surname of the leonine order was =William the Lion=, King of the Scots (1165 to 1214), so called because he chose a red lion rampant for his crest. It is from this king that the lions distinguished in the Royal Arms of Scotland trace their origin.

King John (reigned 1199 to 1216) received the surname of =Lackland= on account of his improvidence, which at the time of the death of his father (Henry II.) left him entirely without provision. Edward I. (1272 to 1307) was styled =Longshanks= from his spindle legs. The eldest son of Edward III., known as =The Black Prince= (born 1330, died 1376), was not exclusively addicted to the wearing of black armour, as he is usually represented in waxwork shows and picture toy-books; consequently he did not derive his surname from such an association; but, as the historian Froissart informs us, “he received his name by terror of his arms.” Seeing that at the age of sixteen he won his knightly spurs at Crecy, and ten years later took the French king prisoner at Poictiers and brought him in triumph to London, the military renown of this young warrior must have been sufficient to command respect from his enemies. =John of Gaunt=, Duke of Lancaster (born 1340, died 1399), took his title from the town of Ghent, in Flanders, where he was born. In like manner his son, Henry IV. (1399 to 1413), was styled =Bolingbroke=, after his native place.

Henry VIII. (reigned 1509 to 1547) was surnamed =Bluff King Hal= on account of his bluff manners; he also received the title of =Defender of the Faith= from Pope Leo X., in recognition of the tract he published against the heresy of Martin Luther. Mary, Queen of Scots (born 1542, died 1587), was known as =The White Queen= because she adopted white mourning for her husband, Lord Darnley. Our own Queen Mary (1547 to 1558) has been handed down to posterity under the opprobrious title of =Bloody Mary=, in consequence of the wholesale burnings of the Protestants under her reign. The religious persecutions of her time admit of no denial, yet they were fully equalled by those brought to light during the reign of her successor, Elizabeth, while they fell infinitely short of those characterized by the reign of Henry VIII. In one sense Elizabeth (1558 to 1603) was appropriately styled =Good Queen Bess=, inasmuch as she exercised due regard to the interests of the realm and the welfare of her people. Her enemies she speedily removed, but she was just as ready to bestow honours and rewards upon her nation’s worthies. Oliver Cromwell was called =The Lord Protector= (born 1599, died 1658) because he protected the interests of the Commonwealth. The reason why Charles II. (1660 to 1685) was dubbed =The Merry Monarch= must be sought in the licentiousness of the times in which he lived. Much nearer to our own day, William IV. (1830 to 1837) was distinguished by the title of =The Sailor King=, from the circumstance of his having entered the navy as a midshipman and worked his way upwards until he attained the rank of Lord High Admiral.

The family name of =Plantagenet=, derived from the Latin _planta_, a plant, and _genista_, broom, was originally assumed by Fulke Martel, Earl of Anjou, the great grandfather of Henry II., in commemoration of the incident, while on his pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, of having offered himself to be scourged with the stems of the broom plant by his two attendants as an atonement for the murder of the Earl of Brittany. The =Tudor= Dynasty was founded by Owen Tudor, a Welsh soldier stationed at Windsor, who contracted a secret marriage with Catherine, the widowed queen of Henry V. The first of the long line of the =Stuart= sovereigns (Scottish and English) was Walter, the Lord High Steward of Scotland, whose wife was the daughter of King Robert the Bruce. As this Walter was the sixth member of his family that had held the post of Lord High Steward, he was popularly said to belong to the _Stewards_, until in course of time this word became corrupted into _Stuarts_, and was adopted as a family name.

Charles I., Emperor of Germany (born 742, died 814), was surnamed =Charlemagne=, otherwise Charles the Great. =The She-Wolf of France= was Isabella (born 1290, died 1357), daughter of Philip IV. of France, and queen of Edward II. of England, whom she, in concert with the Earl of Mortimer, her paramour, murdered by thrusting a red-hot iron into his bowels. =Pedro the Cruel=, King of Castille and Leon in 1350, merited his surname owing to his cruel treatment of his two brothers, whom he murdered, and his queen, whom he poisoned. Ivan II., Czar of Russia (reigned 1533 to 1584), was styled =The Terrible= on account of the cruelties he inflicted upon all who offended his autocracy. Frederick I., of Germany (reigned 1152 to 1190), was surnamed =Barbarossa= from his red beard, _barba_ being Latin for beard; while for his bombardment of Messina in 1848 Ferdinand, King of Naples, was nicknamed =Bomba=. Philippe, Duc d’Orleans, the father of Louis Philippe, King of France, assumed the name of =Egalité= when he joined the Republican party in 1789. Of a truth, if “Equality” was what this not unworthy Prince aspired to, he enjoyed it to the full, for he lost his head under the guillotine in common with more than twenty thousand of his fellow-citizens.

_NATIONAL NICKNAMES._

=Brother Jonathan=, the popular nickname of the United States, arose out of the person of Jonathan Trumbull, the Governor of Connecticut, whom General Washington never failed to consult in cases of emergency. “We must refer the matter to Brother Jonathan!” he was wont to exclaim when no other officer could offer any practical suggestion to aid him out of a difficulty; and true enough, “Brother Jonathan” proved himself in every instance equal to the confidence reposed in him. Another stock nickname for the United States is =Uncle Sam=. This originated from a vulgar misconception of the initial letters “U. S.” (United States) for those of the well-known sobriquet of an official whose business it was to mark them on all Government property. The numerous acquaintances of this person understood that the goods so marked had passed through the hands of “Uncle Sam,” and the joke becoming public it spread far and wide, until in the end it was considered far too good to be allowed to drop. The term =Yankee= finds its origin in the native attempt to pronounce the word “English,” but approaching no nearer to the sound than _Yengees_, the name bestowed upon the English colonists by the Indians of Massachusetts, and afterwards given to the New Englanders by the British soldiers during the American War.

The nickname of the typical Englishman, =John Bull=, was derived from Dr. Arbuthnot’s satire of this title published in 1721. There was also a real person of the name of John Bull, well known as the composer of “God Save the King”; but he died just a hundred years before Dr. Arbuthnot’s performance was heard of. Of a still later date is the national English nickname, =Mrs. Grundy=, which arose out of the passage, “What will Mrs. Grundy say?” from Thomas Morton’s drama, “Speed the Plough,” produced in 1798. The proverbial prudishness of the English people in matters affecting art, could scarcely be better expressed than under the style of =The British Matron=. The British soldier is popularly referred to under the general designation of =Tommy Atkins=, because “Thomas Atkins” was a fictitious name that figured in the soldiers’ monthly statement of accounts.

The Irish as a nation are invariably alluded to as =Pat= or =Paddy=, being short for Patrick, their most common Christian name, selected in honour of St. Padhrig, or Patrick (born 373, died 466); the Scots as =Sandie= or =Sawney=, a contraction of Alexander, their most popular Christian name; and the Welsh as =Taffy=, a corruption of Davy, and short for David, the name of their Archbishop and Saint (born 490, died 554).

The national nickname of the Chinese is =John Chinaman=, in imitation of our own characteristic “John Bull.” Even now a Chinaman addresses every Englishman he meets as “John,” which is his idea of our most popular name. Hence, British sailors in the Chinese waters from the first returned the compliment, so to speak, by alluding to each Celestial with whom they came in contact as “John Chinaman.”

The Chinese are also called =Pigtails=, on account of their Tartar tonsure and braided _queue_. By the Indians of North America Europeans are styled =Pale Faces=; while the Europeans designate the Indians =Red Skins=, both terms having reference to the complexion. The word =Nigger= is a corruption of =Negro=, derived from _niger_, the Latin for black. The reason why a negro generally bears the name of =Sambo= is because _Zambo_ is the native term used to designate the offspring of a black person and a mulatto. The word =Mulatto= is Spanish, derived from the Latin _mulus_, a mule, and signifying a mixed breed. A Mulatto may be either the offspring of a negress by a white man, or of a white woman by a negro.

_BIRDS._

The following owe their names to their characteristic note:--the =Cuck-oo=, the =Pee-wit=, the =Cur-lew=, the =Chick-a-dee=, and the =Whip-poor-will=. The =Trumpeter= of South America is so called on account of its loud, clear, and trumpet-like cry. The word =Nightingale= is a modern form of the Anglo-Saxon _nihtegale_, indicative of a bird that sings by night, agreeably to its component parts, _niht_, night, and _gale_, a songster. The =Night-Jar= bears its name because the sound it emits resembles the whirring of a spinning-wheel. The =Mocking-bird= possesses the power of imitating the notes of other birds; while the =Humming-bird= is remarkable for the humming sound that proceeds from its wings as it speeds through the air.

Several birds are named after the colour or some other characteristic of their plumage. Among these we have the =Greenfinch= and the =Goldfinch=, the term =Finch= from the Anglo-Saxon _finc_, denoting a small singing bird; the =Greenlet= expressing a tiny green bird peculiar to South America; the =Jay=, a corruption of _gai_, its French name, alluding to its gay or showy appearance; the =Blue-bird=, common in the United States, the upper half of which is blue; the =Blackbird=, so called from its sable aspect; the =Starling=, owing to the specks at the extremities of its feathers; the =Flamingo=, of South America and Africa, from its flaming colour; the =Oriole=, an Australian bird of golden-yellow plumage, agreeably to the Latin _aureolus_, golden; and the =Lyre-bird=, also a native of Australia, so denominated on account of the sixteen feathers of the tail which when folded form in appearance a perfect lyre. The British song-bird known as the =Red-poll= receives its name from the tuft of red feathers upon its head; whereas the South African =Secretary-bird= is so called because a tuft of feathers on each side of its head are supposed to resemble quill pens stuck behind the ear. The South American =Birds of Paradise= are indeed a beautiful species, all the colours of the rainbow being represented in their plumage; and the same may be said of the =Love-birds=, so designated from the extraordinary affection which they exhibit towards one another. The =Kingfisher= is regarded as the king of fisher-birds, or those that dive for fish as their prey, by reason of his gay plumage.

The =Lapwing= derives its name from the loud flapping noise made by its wings during flight; the =Wagtail=, from the incessant wagging of its tail; and the =Scissors-tail=--found only in South America--from the peculiar nature of its tail, which, like a pair of scissors, opens and shuts in the course of its rapid passage through the air and so entraps the flies upon which it preys. The =Hangbird= is so called from its habit of suspending its nest from the limb of a tree; the =Weaver-bird=, from the wonderful intertwining of twigs and grass displayed in the construction of its nest; and the =Tailor-bird=, from the skill it displays in constructing its nest by stitching together the leaves of plants.

Among corruptions of the names of birds it will be sufficient to mention the =Widow-bird=, properly the _Whydaw-bird_, after the territory in Africa of which it is a native; the =Martin=, from the Latin _murustenco_, or wall-swallow, shortened into _murten_, and mispronounced _marten_; and the =Muscovy Duck=, which, so far from claiming a Muscovite origin, is merely a _musk duck_, a species somewhat larger than our common duck.

The =Swift= derives its name from its rapid flight; the =Passenger-pigeon=, from its migratory habits; the =Skylark=, from mounting to the sky and singing as it flies; and the =Chaffinch=, from its preference for chaff above every other kind of food. The =Diver= is remarkable for its habit of diving; the =Sandpiper= inhabits the sea-beach; and the =Chimney-swallow= builds his nest in an ordinary house chimney. The =Horn-bill=, the =Boat-bill=, the =Spoon-bill=, and the =Duck-bill= are respectively so named on account of the resemblance of their bills to the articles, and in the last-mentioned case to the bird, indicated; while the =Cross-bill= has its mandibles crossed in opposite directions. The =Pouter-pigeon= is so called from the pouting, or bulging out, of its breast; the =Ring-dove=, from the white ring around its neck; and the =Wryneck=, from the curious manner in which it turns its neck over its shoulder when surprised. The =Woodcock= is found in the underwood of a forest, while the =Woodpecker= pecks holes in the bark of trees in search for insects.

Chief among the birds which derive their names from the countries to which they originally belonged are the =Guinea-fowl=, brought from Guinea, West Africa; the =Brahma-fowl=, from the neighbourhood of the Brahmapootra River in India; the =Bantam=, from Bantam in Java; the =Barb=, from Barbary, and the =Turkey=, which, although an American bird, was long believed to have been imported from European Turkey. Another native of North America received its name of the =Baltimore-bird= from the fact that its colours corresponded with those which occurred in the arms of Lord Baltimore, the Governor of Maryland, in which State it principally abounds. The =Canary= was first brought from the Canary Islands in 1500. The =Petrel=, a sea-bird usually associated with storms, expresses the Anglicized form of the Italian _petrillo_, a diminutive of Peter, in allusion to St. Peter walking on the sea, and the frequent appearance of this bird standing as it were on the surface of the water.

_RELIGIOUS ORDERS._

Strictly speaking, the members of the various Religious Orders, in this country at least, are not =Monks=, but Friars. Only those who live completely isolated from the rest of mankind, as did St. Anthony, are entitled to the former designation, which, in common with the term =Monastery=, comes from the Greek _monos_, alone. Consequently, a Religious House is incorrectly described as a Monastery unless each individual within its walls occupies a separate cell, both by night and by day, and never suffers himself to have the least communion with his neighbour. Failing compliance with such a rule, the term =Convent=, derived from the Latin _con_, together, and _venire_, to come, is more fittingly applicable. This designation, however, is now borne by an institution reserved for a community of =Nuns=, so called from the Italian _nonna_, a grandmother, because they originally comprised only very aged women; albeit it was formerly the custom to speak of Monasteries and Convents without discrimination. An =Abbey= always indicated a Religious House in connection with a Church, as, for example, Westminster Abbey, the abode of the community attached to the West Minster, presided over by an =Abbot=, so styled in accordance with the Syriac and Latin _abba_, a father, or, in the case of a female community, by an =Abbess=; whereas a =Priory= denoted a lesser or branch establishment placed at some distance from the Abbey, and controlled by a =Prior= (or =Prioress=), signifying one who had a prior claim over the rest to the office of Abbot (or Abbess) in the original community.

A =Friar=, on the other hand, is--conformably to the Latin _fratre_ and the French _frère_, a brother--what the term implies, viz., one of a brotherhood. In olden times there existed four distinct and powerful Orders of Friars. These were the =Dominicans=, founded by St. Dominic to preach away the Albigensian heresies, also known as the =Black Friars=, on account of their black habits, and in France as the =Jacobins=, because their first convent was situated in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris; the =Franciscans=, or =Grey Friars=, named after St. Francis d’Assissi; the =Carmelites=, or =White Friars= of Mount Carmel; and the =Augustines=, or =Austin Friars=, whose origin is ascribed to St. Augustin or Austin, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 605. Eventually a fifth Order, styled the =Trinitarians=, or Friars of the Holy Trinity, otherwise the =Crutched Friars=, so called from the cross (Latin _cruciati_, crossed) embroidered on their habit, came into existence.

Referring to the Franciscans, those who conformed to the austere rules laid down by their founder were denominated =Observant Friars=, while those who, as time wore on, began to live in convents and coveted lands, chapels, and books, received the name of =Conventional Friars=. Out of the Franciscans there have sprung two lesser Orders, so to speak, chiefly distinguished by a slight change in the details appertaining to the habit worn by them. These are the =Capuchins=, so called from the _capuce_, or pointed cowl, that they wear, and the =Cordeliers=, from the knotted cord which encircles their waist in place of a girdle. In effect, however, these two offshoots of the Franciscans are the same, and subject to the like rules, as the parent institution.

Having disposed of the Friars, let us now turn to the Monks properly so called. Originally the sole existing order of monks was that of the =Benedictines= as established by St. Benedict, who introduced the monastic system into Western Europe in the year 529. No less than twelve large Monasteries were raised by him before he died; but notwithstanding the austere rules which obtained among the Benedictines, these were yet considered too lax by some individual members of the Order, with the result that first one and then another “Reformed Order” sprang into existence, the latest being in each case distinguished for a still more rigorous rule than that of its immediate predecessor. Thus, we now have the =Carthusians=, our English designation for the monks of La Chartreuse near Grenoble, by whom the celebrated liqueur known as =Chartreuse= is prepared; the =Cistercians=, or monks of Citeau; and the =Cluniacs=, or monks of Cluny, respectively named after the vicinity of their original monastery in France; while the =Bernardines= received their title from St. Bernard, who founded the famous Hospice of Mont St. Bernard in the year 962. From the Carthusians, also, there have sprung the =Basilians= founded by St. Basil, and from the Cistercians, the =Trappists=, or monks of La Trappe, originally established in the French district so denominated.

Foremost among the Religious Orders not comprised in any of the brotherhoods cited above are the =Jesuists=, properly styled “The Society of Jesus,” an organization founded upon a military basis by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1534, which extends its influence all over the globe. Next in point of importance come the =Servites=, otherwise “The Religious Servants of the Holy Virgin,” established by seven Florentine merchants in 1283; the =Passionists=, a community of priests solemnly agreed to preach “Jesus Christ and Him crucified,” founded by Paul Francis, better known as St. Paul of the Cross, in 1737; and the =Redemptorists=, or preachers of the Redemption, also styled the =Liguorians=, after St. Francis Liguori, who originated this Order in 1732. Each of these, except, of course, the lay members of the Jesuists, are professedly Monks; and yet these are not really Monks, but _Friars_, because they live in community, and at times mingle freely with the people. In short, they are =Missionary Friars=.

_PAPER AND PRINTING._

The word =Paper= comes from the Latin _papyrus_, and Greek _papyros_, the designation of an Egyptian plant from whose reeds the earliest kind of writing material was obtained. =Parchment= is an Anglicized form of the French _parchemin_, from the Greek _pergamenos_, named after the ancient city of Pergamos, in Asia Minor, where the skins of goats were first prepared for writing upon at a time when Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of the papyrus from Egypt.

=Hand-paper= was originally so called from its watermark, which was that of a hand; =Pot-Paper=, of a pot; =Post-paper=, of a post-horn; =Crown-paper=, of a crown; and =Foolscap=, of a fool’s head with the cap and bells. =India-paper= formerly came from the Far East, whereas =Nepaul-paper= is made in the district of Nepaul, Northern India. =Cap-paper= is so designated because, prior to being used by grocers for wrapping up sugar and other commodities sold by weight, it is folded into a cap-like form. Among papers of a stiffer kind, that are chiefly intended for drawing upon, we have =Elephant=, so called from its large size (28 inches by 23), =Cartridge-paper=, originally manufactured for soldiers’ cartridges, and =Bristol-board=, formerly made only at Bristol.

By the term =Folio=, derived from the Latin _folium_, a leaf, is meant a sheet of paper folded but once, thus making two leaves or four pages; a =Quarto= (written 4to), is a sheet folded into quarters or four leaves, making eight pages; an =Octavo= (8vo), so styled in accordance with the Latin _octa_, eight, one folded into eight leaves or sixteen pages; a =Duodecimo= (12mo), the Latin for “two and ten,” one making twelve leaves or twenty-four pages, and so forth.

When Caxton set up the first printing press in this country, in the year 1476, there were many among the vulgar who regarded it as an invention of the devil; and the clergy, no doubt, fostered this idea, foreseeing that in the event of the Bible being distributed to the masses by this means, the way would be thrown open to the production of spurious editions of Sacred Writ, and the perversion of religious doctrine, which up to that period had been free to all who chose to attend daily instruction in the monasteries. Hence, printing was popularly described as “The Black Art,” while the boys who took the sheets off the press, from the fact of generally smearing their faces with ink, came to be known as Imps or Devils. This will explain why a printer’s errand-boy still bears the nickname of a =Printer’s Devil=.

Our Parliamentary Records, Debates, Reports of Meetings, and Accounts, have received the name of =Hansards= because they are printed by the large printing firm established by Luke Hansard in 1752; whereas a =Blue Book= is so called on account of its stiff cover of blue paper. The French Government reports are styled =Yellow Books= for a similar reason. The term =Book= comes from the Danish _bog_, a beech-tree, which abounds in Denmark and whose wood is much used for engraving-blocks. The =Leaf= of a book is in allusion to the ancient custom of writing on the bark of trees; while =Volume= is derived from the Latin _volvo_, I roll, relative to the Egyptian papyri, each one of which when rolled up formed a document or volume complete in itself. A storehouse for books is styled a =Library=, in accordance with the Latin _librarium_, a book-case, derived in the first instance from _liber_, a book.

A =Pamphlet= owes its description to Pamphila, a Greek lady who left behind her a kind of commonplace book containing notes, epitomes, and anecdotes. The French equivalent for a pamphlet is a =Brochure=, so called from the verb _brocher_, to stitch, because such a book consists only of a few pages stitched together. The word =Chart= comes from the Latin _charta_, a leaf of paper; a chart, therefore, is not printed on canvas like a map, but on a single sheet of paper. =Map= traces its origin from _mappa_, a Punic word which signified a signal-cloth, also a napkin, because in ancient times military and other landmarks were sketched upon a cloth in the absence of parchment and paper. Nowadays, a book of maps designed for school use is called an =Atlas=, after the fabled King of Mauritania of this name, who was believed by the ancients to support the world on his shoulders. The figure of Atlas with the globe first appeared as a frontispiece to “Mercator’s Projections,” published about the year 1560.

A =Cartoon=, as we understand the term, is a representation of political significance, usually coloured and printed on stiff paper. To some extent this kind of publication owes its origin to the celebrated ‘Cartoons’ of Raffaelle, now in the South Kensington Museum, so called because they were drawn upon _cartone_, the Italian for pasteboard. A =Broadside= consists of a large sheet of paper having the matter printed straight across, instead of in columns, so as to admit of being read at one broad view. The reverse side of the sheet is left blank. A =Poster= bears its name from the fact that formerly the sidewalks of London streets, instead of being paved as now, were distinguished from the centre, or sedan-chair and riding way, by a series of posts; and upon these, theatrical and other announcements were _posted_. In France, the theatre bills are exhibited upon the lamp-posts on the Boulevards in a similar manner. In conclusion, the distinction between BOOKSELLERS and STATIONERS was originally this: the former were itinerant sellers of books, like hawkers, and pedlars, whereas the latter had stalls at the corners of streets or in open market; and as the _stationarii_, or stationary booksellers, were enabled to display a more varied stock than the itinerants who carried books only, such articles as writing-paper, pens, ink, and other materials in course of time received the name of =Stationery=.

_POLITICAL NICKNAMES._

The utmost difficulty exists in reconciling the various opinions expressed by different authors concerning the origin of the terms =Whig= and =Tory=. And yet, if we but consider the reasons why these nicknames were first bestowed upon the two great political factions of this country during the reign of Charles II., we may possibly attain a much-desired end. In the year 1648 (_temp._ Charles I.) there occurred a rising, or sally, of the peasantry inhabiting the south-western districts of Scotland against the Royalists. This was known as the =Whigamore Raid=, the term _whigamore_ being applied to the teamsters and ploughmen of those parts because they used the twin-syllabic cry of “Whi-gam!” to drive their horses. When, therefore, in the early days of the Restoration, the ultra-Protestant party opposed certain measures of the Government, the Catholics reproached them with favouring the fanatical opinions of the Scottish Covenanters and Whigamores, and styled them =Whigs=. In return the Protestants bestowed upon their opponents the nickname of =Tories=, the familiar designation of a band of Irish outlaws who sought refuge in the bog districts of Ireland. The word Tory, or rather _Toree_, is Irish, signifying a robber. From that time down to the present =Toryism= has been considered to denote a steadfast adherence to constitutional principles and the maintenance of royalty and the peerage, as opposed to the progressive and more _liberal_ views appertaining to =Whiggism=, which advocates constitutional reform and a moderate extension of democratical powers. The word =Liberal= was first employed by Lord Byron and his friends as the title of a periodical intended to set forth the political aims of the advanced Whig party in 1828. The term =Conservative= (derived from the Latin _con_, together, and _servare_, to keep, to preserve) first appeared in an article in _The Quarterly Review_, January, 1830, and was permanently adopted by the Tory party on the passing of the Reform Bill two years afterwards. The still more advanced section of the Whig party which came into prominence in 1816 were styled =Radicals=, or =Radical Reformers=, from their desire to institute a _thorough_ reformation in the national policy. In our own day the Radicals and the Democrats may be set down as one and the same party; while the =Socialists= eminently carry out the principles of the primitive Radicals of the time of Charles I., who styled themselves =Levellers= because they strove to reduce society to a common level. The word =Democrat= is derived from the Greek _demos_, people, and _kratein_, to govern; therefore denoting one who upholds the principle of government by the people themselves, and diametrically opposed to an =Aristocracy= (Greek, _aristos_, best, and _kratein_, to govern), or government by the bravest and best. These terms were first brought into notice by the French Revolutionists of 1790.

Adverting to the protracted struggle between the =Royalists= under Charles I. and the =Parliamentarians= under the Cromwellian Parliament, no two nicknames could have been more suggestive of their origin than those respectively of the =Cavaliers= and the =Roundheads=. The latter arose out of the Puritan fashion of cropping the hair close round the head, the former from the cavalier manner in which a number of gentlemen offered themselves as a permanent escort to the King after he had been subjected to insult in December, 1641. The word Cavalier is synonymous with the French _chevalier_, a mounted knight, from _cheval_, a horse, derived from the Latin _caballus_, and the Greek _kaballes_, an inferior horse.

The Protestants in Ireland received the name of =Orangemen= owing to their adherence to William III., Prince of Orange, while the Roman Catholics were styled =Jacobites= from their adhesion to James II., _Jacobus_ being the Latin form of the King’s name. The =Peep o’ Day Boys= were so called because they broke into the houses of the people at dawn of day in quest of arms; and the =White Boys=, from the white smocks they wore over their clothing. The depredations of both these insurgents were finally put an end to by the Insurrection Acts, passed in 1786-7. The secret brotherhood of the =Fenians=, organized for the overthrow of the English rule in Ireland, derived its name from Fiona Mac Cumhal, better known as Fingal, after whom FINGAL’S CAVE is designated. The correct interpretation of the Gaelic word _Fenian_ is “a hunter.” Another secret society of quite recent origin is that of the =Irish Invincibles=, established, as was publicly stated by Carey the Informer, for the “making of history by killing tyrants.” Their title is due to the boast that they defy extermination. The =Ribbonmen= take their name from the distinctive badge which they wear. =Emergency Men= are the more active members of the Irish Defence Association. The =Separists= and the =Parnellites= are one and the same, sworn to support the measures of Mr. Parnell and the Irish National Party in promoting Home Rule for Ireland. The now familiar word =Boycotting=, in connection with Irish affairs, arose out of the troubles experienced by Captain Boycott, of Lough Mask Farm, near Ballinrobe, County Mayo, the land agent of Lord Erne. His house was besieged, his labourers were threatened, his crops remained ungathered, and tradesmen refused to supply him with goods. This occurred on the 11th and 12th of November, 1880, after which the military was despatched to his aid, and a “Boycott Fund” subscribed for his benefit. The expression “to boycott” a man practically means to place him beyond the pale of civilization.

The lowest order of the French Revolutionists were denominated =Sansculottes=, literally, “without breeches,” because they rejected those very serviceable articles of attire as being emblematical of the aristocracy. The same term was also applied to the Republican leaders as a reproach for the negligence of their dress; but after a time they themselves adopted the title with pride. The =Red Republicans= were so called for a two-fold reason. In the first place, they did not hesitate to steep their hands in human blood to accomplish their political aims; and, secondly, they wore the red cap, symbolical of Liberty from the days of the Romans downwards. The two antagonistic parties of the Revolution were styled =The Mountain= and =The Plain= for the reason that the former sat upon the most elevated benches in the Hall of Assembly, while the latter occupied the ground floor. The Plain was for the most part composed of the =Girondists=, or deputies from the Department of the Gironde.

The =Hats= and the =Caps= were the two great political factions in Sweden, so called on account of the French _chapeaux_ worn by the partisans of the French interest on the one side, and the Russian caps worn by the partisans of the Russian interest on the other. _Apropos_ of Russia, the word =Nihilist= (derived from the Latin _nihil_, nothing), originally denoted a social rather than a political party opposed to the tyranny of custom. Its significance is well expressed by Turgeneff, who first introduced it in his novel “Fathers and Sons,” published in 1862:--“A Nihilist is a man who bows before no authority, who accepts no principle without examination, no matter what credit the principle has.” At the present day a Nihilist is a revolutionary Socialist of the most pronounced degree.

The Italian =Carbonari=, being the plural of _carbonaro_, a coal-man, a charcoal-burner, who first came into notice in 1820, assumed their designation from the fact of their meetings being originally held in the huts of the charcoal-burners, and because they held charcoal to be the symbol of purification. The =Black Cloaks= were the upper classes of Naples, distinguished by the colour and quality of their cloaks from the =Lazzari=, or beggars. Regarded as a political party, the Neapolitan Black Cloaks no longer exist; but the =Lazzaroni=, so called from the Hospital of St. Lazarus, which serves for their refuge, are still to be met with in all quarters of the city. Then, again, we must not omit mention of the =Guelphs= and the =Ghibellines=, names of two powerful families whose rival partisanship of the Papal and the Imperial supremacy in Italy threatened the peace of Europe during the long period embraced between the years 1250 and 1500.

The word =Federal= comes from the Latin _fœdus_, a league or compact. A federal form of government is one under which a number of States, while retaining their individual institutions and autonomy, unite together for purposes of defence and for a larger national existence, delegating to a representative national government certain specified powers. The most noteworthy examples in history of this form of government are the Achaean League, the Swiss Republic, and the United States of America. In the early history of the United States the term “Federal” was applied to that one of the two great political parties which was supposed to be more particularly in sympathy with English standards and to favour an English alliance, and which desired a strong central government. Their opponents, who preferred a French alliance, and who opposed a strong central government, were then termed “Republicans.”

About 1830 the “Federals” became =Whigs=, and in 1856 they assumed the name of =Republicans= (from _res publica_, the State), the States-rights party having in the meantime taken the name of “Democrats” (from _demos_, the people). During the civil war of 1861-1865 the Northerners were all termed “Federals” (or by their opponents “Yankees” or “Yanks”), while the Southerners had taken the name of =Confederates=, because their Constitution instituted a weaker central government and favoured the independent action of the several States.

The Southerners were also given the nickname of “Corn-feds,” in allusion to the chief article of their diet. The term =Yankee= above alluded to dates back to the seventeenth century, and is a modification of the name “Yengees,” an attempt by the Massachusetts Indians to pronounce the name “English.”

By the residents of the Northern States, the term is limited to the inhabitants of the six States of New England. During the civil war of 1861-1865, the members of a political faction in the North received the name of =Copperheads=, because they were regarded as secret foes to the national cause. The allusion was to the poisonous copperhead serpent, which gives no warning of its approach. The =Know-nothings= were a secret political party in the United States (1848-1860), whose chief aim was the checking of foreign immigration and the political influence of foreigners by the repeal of the Naturalization Laws, and the reserving of public appointments for native-born Americans. The answer given by its members to all questions about the party organization was, “I don’t know.”

The =Tammany Ring= was the name used to designate an organization among certain officials and their backers in the city of New York in 1870-1871, who succeeded for a time in enriching themselves at the expense of the city. The ring was overthrown in 1871, and its leaders imprisoned or banished. The name of the ring arose from Tammany Hall, the headquarters of a society originally founded (in 1805) for benevolent purposes, but which had become a political power, and which is again (1892) controlling the government of New York.

The term =Mugwump= first came into political use in 1884. It was then applied to voters who had been “Republicans,” but who, on various grounds, preferred the Democratic candidate Cleveland to the Republican Blaine, and who succeeded in electing the former. It has since been given generally to citizens, who, while actively interested in politics, refuse to be bound closely by party ties, considering causes such as free trade, civil service reform, honest money, &c., as more important than party labels or party success. The name “Mugwump” is said to be derived from an Indian word signifying “wise chief.”

The =Chartists= constituted an enormous body of the people of this country who, soon after the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, loudly clamoured for “The People’s Charter,” of which the six principal points were these:--Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of the Members, Abolition of the Property Qualification, and the Equalization of Electorial Rights. William Lovett, the author of this document, died in August, 1877. The English war party, who sided with the Turks in the Russo-Turkish struggle of 1878 received the nickname of =Jingoes=, or =The Jingo Party=, from the chorus of Macdermott’s famous music-hall song, commencing--

“We don’t want to fight, but, _by Jingo_, if we do!”

“Jingo” is a corruption of _Jainko_, the Basque term for God. Hence the expression, “By Jingo!” is properly a direct appeal to the Deity. A =Protectionist= is one who advocates the protection of home-produce and manufactures against foreign competition by the imposition of import duties.

_FLOWERS._

The name of =Forget-me-not= originated in the following legend:--A German knight and his lady were walking on the bank of the Danube, when the fair one saw a beautiful tuft of _Myosotis palustris_ growing in the water, and expressed a wish to have it. With chivalrous alacrity the knight at once plunged into the river and gathered his prize; but before he could regain the steep and slippery bank, encumbered as he was by his heavy armour, he was drawn by the treacherous eddy into a deep pool. Finding he could not save himself, he threw the flowers ashore to his mistress as he sank, and uttered with his last breath the words “_Vergess mein nicht!_” (“Forget-me-not!”) Hence this flower has come to be universally regarded as the emblem of fidelity.

=Mignonette=, the diminutive of _Mignon_, the French for “darling,” is so called on account of its delicate fragrance. The =Carnation= owes its name to the Latin _caro_, flesh, in relation to its colour. =Geranium= comes from the Greek and Latin _geranos_, a crane; this genus of plants having a beak-like torus, or receptacle. It is also known as =Crane’s-bill= for the same reason. =Pansy= is an Anglicized form of the French _pensée_, “thoughts,” this being the sentiment expressed by the flower.

The =Camellia= was named after G. J. Camelli, the German botanist and missionary (died 1690), by whom it was introduced into Europe from the East; the =Dahlia=, after Andrew Dahl, the Swedish botanist, who discovered it in Mexico in 1784; and the =Fuchsia=, after Leonard Fuchs, who brought it from Mexico about the year 1542. The =Victoria Regia= was so called because it was introduced into this country from British Guiana soon after the accession of Queen Victoria. The =Adonis= is said to have sprung out of the blood of Adonis, the beautiful youth who was gored to death by a boar; and the =Hyacinth= is supposed to have originated in a similar manner after Hyacinth had fallen a victim to the jealousy of Zephyr. The =Aspasia= bears the name of Aspasia of Miletus, the mistress of Pericles. The term =Orchid= comes from the Greek _orchis_, a testicle, all plants of this family being distinguished by double testicles. The =Sweetbriar= is literally a “fragrant thorn”; the =Lilac= betrays its Eastern origin in the Turkish _leilak_, and Persian _lilaj_; while the term =Lavender= is derived from the Latin _lavere_, to wash, because the essential oil obtained from this shrub enters into the composition of a favourite scent.

The =Dog-rose= was so called by the Greeks from the belief that the root of this particular rose-tree was efficacious in curing the bite of a mad dog. The =Damask-rose= was brought to England from Damascus by Dr. Linacre in 1540. The =Cabbage-rose= is thick and compact like a cabbage. The =Christmas-rose= makes its appearance about Christmas-time. The word =Primrose=, agreeably to the Latin _prima rosa_, signifies the first rose, or flower, of spring.

The =Mayflower=, otherwise the =Hawthorn=, the Anglo-Saxon for “hedge-thorn,” appears in flower in the month of May, while =Gilly-flower= is merely a corruption of “July flower.” The =Tiger-flower= is streaked like a tiger. =Daffodil= is a corruption of “d’Asphodele,” the French name of this flower. =Hollyhock= is not “Holy Oak,” but the Anglo-Saxon _holi-hoc_, or marsh mallow. The =Noon-tide=, or =Noon-flower=, closes its petals at noon; the =Convolvulus=, so called from the Latin _con_, together, and _volvere_, to roll, does the like at sunset, in common with the ordinary field =Daisy=, which owes its name, a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon _doeges-eaye_, literally “the day’s eye,” to this circumstance. The =Buttercup= was originally so designated in accordance with an old-established idea that the yellow hue of butter was attributable to the fact of these flowers being eaten by cattle. However, as the buttercups are invariably avoided by the cattle, the proverbial wisdom of our forefathers must for once in a way be discredited. =Cowslip= is a corruption of “cows’ leek.”

The very common supposition that the =Sunflower= inclines towards the sun is entirely erroneous, as has been proved by observation. This flower merely takes its name from its form and colour. On the other hand, if its etymology be correct, the =Heliotrope= does actually turn towards the sun, the word _helios_ being Greek for sun, and _tropos_, to turn. The =Goldylocks= is so called on account of its tufts of yellow flowers; whereas the =Marigold=, which bears yellow flowers, was named in honour of Queen Mary. Both these, with the Sunflower, belong to the =Chrysanthemum= (Greek _chrusos_, gold, and _anthemos_, flower) family. The word =Rhododendron=, we may add, comes from the Greek _rhodon_, rose, and _dendron_, tree.

The =Passion-flower= symbolizes in its tints and several parts the various attributes of Christ’s Passion, as follows:--The white tint, purity; the blue tint, heaven; the leaf, the spear; the five anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, the whips and cords; the column of the ovary, the pillar of the cross; the stamens, the hammers; the three styles, the nails; the fleshy thorns within the flowers, the crown of thorns; the calyx, the nimbus, or glory. In addition to the foregoing the passion-flower remains open for three days, and this is supposed to correspond with the three years’ ministry of the Redeemer.

Lastly, the flower known as the =Stock= received its name from the fact that it was principally sold in the old STOCKS MARKET displaced by the building of the present Mansion House in the year 1737; the market itself having derived its title from a pair of stocks that stood there.

_THE BIBLE._

In the estimation of many millions of human beings the Bible is very properly regarded as the “Book of Books.” And a Book of Books it truly is; not only THE Book above all others, but comprising a number of distinct works from the pens of various Inspired Writers according to the Old Law and the New. For this reason precisely the earliest Saxon version of the Sacred Volume was called the =Bible= in accordance with the Greek and Latin word _biblia_, the plural of _biblion_, a book, derived from biblos, the inner bark of the papyrus, which was the first kind of writing material known. “Bible,” therefore, is a collective term for the =Scriptures=, which designation comes from the Latin _scriptura_, a writing, based upon the verb _scribere_, to write. Here, again, note the correct use of the plural.

The original translation of the Hebrew Testament into Greek, about the year 260 B.C., bore the title of the =Septuagint= because it employed the labours of seventy, or rather of seventy-two, translators. More than six hundred years afterwards, viz., in the Year of Our Lord 405, when St. Jerome (born 346, died 420) rendered the whole of the Scriptures--to be sure the New Testament had not an existence at the time of the Greek translation--into the Latin tongue, his performance was styled the _Vulgatus_, or =Vulgate=, from _vulgare_, to make known to the _vulgus_, the multitude. This =Latin Vulgate= constitutes the Bible of the Roman Catholics as authorized by the Council of Trent in the year 1546. It was first printed for the use of the Christian world generally in 1462. The English translation of the Old Testament portion of the Vulgate bears the title of the =Douay Bible= because it was first printed and published at the English College at Douay, in France, in 1609. The New Testament portion, known as the =Rheims Bible=, was issued at Rheims twenty-seven years earlier, viz., in 1582.