Chapter XII: Letter II (5)

Thus having shown how the _Egyptians_ were the first Inventors and Propagators of Arts and Sciences, we will next show to what end they built those admirable Structures with so great Labour and Expence, thinking not as _Aristotle_, Lib. 3. _Polit._ who makes them to have been the Works of Tyranny, or as _Pliny_, Lib. 26. cap. 12. conjectures, that they built them partly out of Ostentation, and partly out of State-Policy, to divert their People from Mutinies and Rebellion by keeping them employ’d, but that they erected them as Repositories for their Dead, which they did from a Belief they had of the Immortality of the Soul, and an Opinion they held of the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of it from one Body to another: ’Tis true, those Arguments alledg’d by _Pliny_ might be Secondary Motives, yet says _Greaves_ in his _Pyramidographia_, p. 45. the true Reason depends upon higher and more weighty Considerations, [Sidenote: _Theology_ of the _Egyptians_, or _Metempsychosis_.] springing from the _Theology_ of the _Egyptians_, who as _Servius_ shews in his Comment on these words of _Virgil_, Lib. 3. _Æneid._ where that Poet describes the Funeral of _Polydorus_,

——_Animamq; Sepulchro
Condimus_——

believ’d, _That as long as the Body endur’d so long should the Soul continue with it_, which also was the Opinion of the _Stoicks_: _Hence the_ Egyptians, _skilful in Wisdom, keep their Dead_ embalm’d _so much the longer, to the end the Soul may for a long while continue with the Body, lest it should quickly pass into another. The_ Romans _acted quite contrary, burning their Dead, that the Soul might suddenly return into the generality of Things, that is, into its own Nature_; wherefore, says _Greaves_, that the Body might not either by Putrifaction be reduc’d to Dust, out of which it was first form’d, or by Fire be converted to Ashes (as the manner of the _Greeks_ and _Romans_ was) the _Egyptians_ invented curious Compositions, besides intombing their Dead in stately Repositories, thereby to preserve them from Rottenness, and render them Eternal. _Nec cremare, aut fodere fas putant, verum arte Medicatos intra penetralia collocant_, says _Pomponius Mela_, Lib. 1. cap. 9. Also _Herodotus_ in _Thalia_ gives the Reason why they neither burn’d nor bury’d their Dead, for discoursing in his third Book of the Cruelty of _Cambyses_, and his commanding the Body of _Amasis_, an _Egyptian_ King, should be taken out of his Sepulchre, be whipp’d and us’d with all contumely; he reports, after all this he order’d it to be burn’d, _Commanding that which was not Holy, for the_ Persians _imagin’d the Fire to be a God, [Sidenote: _Fire_ thought by the _Persians_ a _God_.] and neither the_ Egyptians _nor they were accustom’d to burn their Dead: The_ Persians, _for the Reason before alleg’d, because they conceiv’d it unfit for a God to devour the Carcass of a Man; and the_ Egyptians, _because they were persuaded the Fire was a living Creature, [Sidenote: By the _Egyptians_ a living Creature.] devouring all Things it receiv’d, and after it was satisfy’d with Food, dy’d with that it had devour’d. Nor was it their Custom to give their dead Bodies to Beasts (as the_ Hyrcanians _were wont to do) but to_ Embalm _or Salt them, not only for this Reason, but also that they might not be consum’d with Worms_. The term ταριχεύειν, i. e. _Salting_ or _Embalming_ the Dead, us’d by _Herodotus_, is also us’d by _Baruch_ and _Plato_. _Lucian_ likewise in his Discourse _de Luctu_, treating of the several kinds of Burial practis’d by divers Nations, says, _The_ Grecians _burn their Dead, the_ Persians _bury them, the_ Indians _anoint them with the Fat of Swine, the_ Scythians _eat them, and the_ Egyptians (ταριχεύει) Embalm _them_: Which manner likewise is alluded to by _M. Aurelius Antoninus_, under the word τάριχος: His Words are these, _That which the other Day was excrementitious Matter, shall within few Days either be_ τάριχος, _an_ Embalm’d _Body, or down right Ashes_; in the one expressing the Custom of the _Egyptians_, and in the other that of the _Romans_. By Salting or _Embalming_ the Soul, according to the Belief of the _Egyptians_, was oblig’d to abide with the Body, and the Body on its part became as durable as Marble, insomuch that _Plato_, who liv’d in _Egypt_ with _Eudoxus_ no less than 13 Years, as _Strabo_ witnesses, brings it for an Argument, in his _Phædon_, to prove the Immortality of the Soul, thro’ the long duration of these Bodies, which surely would have been yet more conclusive with him, could he but have imagin’d they should have continu’d so solid and entire even to this Day, as we find many of them are: _For this Reason St._ Austin [Sidenote: _Egyptians_ believ’d the _Resurrection_.] _truly affirms the_ Egyptians _had a Belief of the Resurrection, in that they carefully preserv’d their Dead; for they had a Custom among them of drying up the Bodies, and rendring them as durable as Brass_: These, in their Language they call’d _Gabbares_, whence the gloss of _Isidore_, _Gabbares mortuorum in Vulcanius_ his Edition, or as _Spondanus de Cæmet. sacris_, Lib. 1. pars 1. cap. 5. reads, _Gabbares mortuorum condita Corpora_.

The manner how the _Egyptians_ prepar’d and _Embalm’d_ these Bodies is very copiously, and by what I observ’d at my being there, says _Greaves_ in his _Pyramidographia_, p. 48. faithfully describ’d by _Herodotus_ and _Diodorus_; in which Matter, tho’ I cannot totally dissent from Mr. _Greaves_, for their Account may be true, yet is it not so copious as they make it, but imperfectly related, or at least so far that some Passages are hardly to be understood or made out, which may easily be allow’d without Reflection on those famous Men, since they treated of the Matter only as _Historians_ and not as _Physicians_: My business therefore shall be, after relating their own Words, to reconcile their Differences, explain the Difficulties, and compare the Opinions of _Annotators_ and _Physicians_ on this _Art_, and lastly, to suggest some new Thoughts, as plausible, and perhaps as true as any, especially since it is all but guesswork, and the true _Art_ may have entirely perish’d with the antient _Egyptians_, either by Inundation, Fire, Irruptions of Enemies, or other hostile Devastations. I will begin first with _Herodotus_, whose Words serve as well to shew the several Ceremonies of _Sepulture_ as their _Embalmings_, and whom we find in his Second Book call’d _Euterpe_, thus speaking of the _Egyptians_:

[Sidenote: _Herodotus_’s Account of the _Egyptian Funerals_.]

_Their Mourning_, says he, _and manner of Burial are after this kind: When any Man of Quality dies, all the Women of that Family besmear their Heads and Faces with Dirt; then leaving the Body at home, they go lamenting up and down the City with all their Relations, their Apparel being girt about them, and their Breasts left naked. On the other hand the Men, having likewise their Cloaths girt about them, beat themselves. These things being done, they carry the dead Body to be_ Embalm’d; _for which, there are certain Persons appointed who profess this_ Art. _These, when the Body is brought to them, shew to those that bring it certain Models of Wood, painted like the Dead Person that is to be_ Embalm’d. _One of these they say is accurately made (which I think not lawful to name;) then they shew a second inferior to it and of an easier Price, and next a third cheaper than the former, and of a very small value, which being seen, they ask them what Pattern they will have the dead Body prepar’d by: When they have agreed on the Price they depart, and those with whom the dead Corps is left proceed to_ Embalm _it after the following manner: First of all they, with a crooked Iron, draw the Brain out of the Head thro’ the Nostrils, and then fill up the Cavity with Medicinal Ingredients. Next, with a sharp_ Æthiopic _Stone, they cut up that part of the_ Abdomen _call’d the_ Ilia, _and that way draw out all the Bowels, which having cleans’d and wash’d with Palm-Wine, they again rinse and wash with Wine perfum’d with pounded Odours; then filling up the Belly with pure_ Myrrh _and_ Cassia _grosly powder’d, and all other Odours except_ Frankincense, _they sow it up again. Having so done, they salt it up close with Nitre 70 Days, for longer they may not salt it. After this number of Days are over, they wash the Corps again, and then roul it up with fine Linnen all besmear’d with a sort of Gum commonly us’d by the_ Egyptians _instead of Glue. Then is the Body restor’d to its Relations, who prepare a wooden Coffin for it, in the shape and likeness of a Man, and then put the_ Embalm’d _Body into it, and thus inclos’d place it in a Repository in the House, setting it upright against the Wall. After this manner they with great expence preserve their Dead, whereas those who to avoid too great a Charge desire a mediocrity, thus_ Embalm _them: They neither cut the Belly nor pluck out the Entrails, but fill it with Clysters of Oil of_ Cedar _injected up the_ Anus, _and then salt it the aforesaid number of Days. On the last of these they press out the_ Cedar _Clyster, by the same way they had injected it, which has such Virtue and Efficacy that it brings out along with it the Bowels wasted, and the Nitre consumes the Flesh, leaving only the Skin and Bones: Having thus done, they restore the dead Body to the Relations, doing nothing more. The third way of_ Embalming _is for those of yet meaner Circumstances: They with Lotions wash the Belly, then dry it with Salt for 70 Days, and afterwards deliver it to be carry’d away. Nevertheless, beautiful Women and Ladies of Quality were not deliver’d to be_ Embalm’d _till three or four Days after they had been dead_. Ea de causa facientes, ne cum Fæminis isti Salinarii concumbant. Deprehensum enim quendam aiunt coeuntem cum recenti Cadavere Muliebri, delatumq; ab ejusdem Artificii Socio. _But if any_ Egyptian _or Stranger was either kill’d by a Crocodile, or drown’d in the River, the City where he was cast up was to_ Embalm _and bury him honourably in the Sacred Monuments, whom no one, no, not a Relation or Friend, but the Priests of_ Nile _only might touch, because they bury’d one who was something more than a dead Man_.

[Sidenote: _Diodorus Siculus_’s Account of the _Egyptian Funerals_.]

_Diodorus Siculus_, Lib. 1. relates the Funeral Ceremonies of the _Egyptians_ more distinctly and clearly, and with some very remarkable Circumstances. _When any one among the_ Egyptians _dies_, says he, _all his Relations and Friends, putting Dirt upon their Heads, go lamenting about the City, till such time as the Body shall be bury’d. In the mean time they abstain from Baths and Wine, and all kinds of delicate Meats, neither do they during that time wear any costly Apparel. The manner of their Burials is threefold; one very costly, a second sort less chargable, and a third very mean. In the first_, they say, _there is spent a Talent of Silver, in the second 20_ Minæ, _but in the last there is very little Expence. Those who have the care of ordering the Body, are such as have been taught that Art by their Ancestors. These shewing to the Kindred of the Deceas’d a Bill of Expences of each kind of Burial, ask them after what manner they will have the Body prepar’d; when they have agreed upon the matter, they deliver the Body to such as are usually appointed for this Office. First he who has the name of Scribe, laying it upon the Ground, marks about the Flank on the left side, how much is to be cut away. Then he who is call’d the Cutter or Dissector, with an_ Æthiopic _Stone, cuts away as much of the Flesh as the Law commands, and presently runs away as fast as he can: Those who are present persuing him, cast Stones at him, and curse him, hereby turning all the Execrations, which they imagin due to his Office, upon him. For whosoever offers violence, wounds or does any kind of injury to a Body of the same nature with himself they think him worthy of Hatred; but those who are call’d the_ Embalmers, _they esteem worthy of Honour and Respect: For they are familiar with their Priests, and go into the Temples as Holy Men, without any prohibition. So soon as they come to_ Embalm _the dissected Body, one of them thrusts his Hand thro’ the Wound into the_ Abdomen, _and draws forth all the Bowels but the Heart and Kidnies, which another washes and cleanses with Wine made of Palms and aromatic Odours. Lastly, having wash’d the Body, they anoint it with Oil of Cedar and other Things for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other such like Matters; which have not only a power to preserve it for a long Time, but also give it a sweet Smell; after which they deliver it to the Kindred, in such manner that every Member remains whole and entire, and no part of it chang’d, but the beauty and shape of the Face seems just as it was before, and may be known, even the Hairs of the Eye-Lids and Eye-Brows remaining as they were at first. By this means many of the_ Egyptians, _keeping the dead Bodies of their Ancestors in magnificent Houses, so perfectly see the true Visage and Countenance of those that dy’d many Ages before they themselves were born, that in viewing the Proportions of every one of them, and the Lineaments of their Faces, they take as much delight as if they were still living among them. Moreover, the Friends and nearest Relations of the Deceas’d, for the greater Pomp of the Solemnity, acquaint the Judges and the rest of their Friends with the Time prefix’d for the Funeral or Day of Sepulture, declaring that such a one (calling the Dead by his Name) is such a Day to pass the Lake, at which Time above 40 Judges appear, and sit together in a Semicircle, in a place prepar’d on the hither side of the Lake, where a Ship, provided before-hand by such as have the care of the Business, is hal’d up to the Shoar, and steer’d by a Pilot, whom the_ Egyptians _in their Language call_ Charon. _Hence, they say_, Orpheus _upon seeing this Ceremony while he was in_ Egypt, _invented the Fable of Hell, partly imitating therein the People of_ Egypt, _and partly adding somewhat of his own. The Ship being thus brought to the Lake-side, before the Coffin is put on board, every one is at liberty by the Law to accuse the Dead of what he thinks him guilty. Now if any one proves he was an ill Liver, the Judges give Sentence the Body shall be depriv’d of Sepulture; but in case the Informer be convicted of false Accusation, then is he severely punish’d. If no Accuser appear, or the Information prove false, then all the Kindred of the Deceas’d leave off Mourning, and begin to set forth his Praises, yet say nothing of his Birth (as the Custom is among the_ Greeks) _because the_ Egyptians _all think themselves equally Noble: But then they recount how the Deceas’d was educated from his Youth, and brought up to Man’s Estate, exalting his Piety towards the Gods and Justice towards Men, his Chastity and other Virtues, wherein he excell’d; and lastly, pray and call upon the Infernal Deities to receive him into the Society of the Just. The common People take this from the others, and consequently approve all is said in his Praise by a loud shout, setting likewise forth his Virtues in the highest strains of Commendation, as one that is to live for ever with the Infernal Gods. Then those that have Tombs of their own, interr the Corps in places appointed for that purpose, and they that have none, rear up the Body in its Coffin against some strong Wall of their House. But such as are deny’d Sepulture on account of some Crime or Debt, are laid up at home without Coffins: Yet when it shall afterwards happen that any of their Posterity grows Rich, he commonly pays off the deceas’d Persons Debts, and gets his Crimes absolv’d, and so buries him honourably, for the_ Egyptians _are wont to boast of their Parents and Ancestors that were magnificently bury’d. ’Tis a Custom likewise among them to pawn the dead Bodies of their Parents to their Creditors, but then those that do not redeem them fall under the greatest Disgrace imaginable, and are deny’d Burial themselves at their Deaths._

[Sidenote: Reflections on the _Egyptian Embalming_.]

Thus far _Herodotus_ and _Diodorus Siculus_ have given the largest and clearest Accounts of any of the Ancients of the Funeral Ceremonies and _Embalmings_ of the _Egyptians_, but there are still remaining some dubious and difficult Points necessary to be known, for the better understanding this _Art_: We shall make some Quere’s and Reflexions thereon, and endeavour to reconcile them by the Opinions of the more refin’d Artists, the modern Physicians.

[Sidenote: The _Mourning_ of the _Egyptians_.]

First then of the Mourning of the _Egyptians_, by them very strictly observ’d for a long time, and perform’d after the following manner: When any of their Kings dy’d they lamented his Death with a general Mourning, making sad Lamentations, putting Dirt upon their Heads, rending their Cloaths and beating their Breasts; they shut up their Temples and Markets, and prohibited all Festivals and Rejoycings; they abstain’d from all delicate Meats and costly Apparel, from Baths, Perfumes and Ointments, and neither made their Beds nor accompany’d with their Wives, but express’d all the signs of an extraordinary Affliction, that they could have done for their own Child. This their Mourning continu’d till the Body was bury’d, which was no less than 72 Days, during which, both Men and Women, and those about 2 or 300 in number, went about the City twice a Day without any thing on but a Linnen-Cloath girt about their Bodies, from beneath their Breasts downwards, renewing their Grief, and intermixing the Virtues and Praises of the deceas’d Prince with their Sighs and Outcries. Much the same Ceremonies were observ’d in their private Funerals, some of which we shall insert from the Writings of the famous _Don Antonio de Guevara_, Historiographer to the Emperor _Charles_ V. who in his 10th Letter, English’d by Mr. _Savage_, thus writes: ‘Of all Nations, none we read of made so much adoe about their Dead as the _Egyptians_, who, when ever a Friend dy’d, always shew’d him far more Respect than while he liv’d; insomuch that if a Father lost a Son, a Son a Father, or one Friend was depriv’d of another, they us’d to shave off half their Hair as a _Hieroglyphic_ to demonstrate they had parted with half of themselves. Also the _Egyptian_ Women, when their Husbands, Children or Relations dy’d, were wont to tear their Flesh, and scratch their Faces with their Nails. Likewise the lesser Priests, at the Funerals of the greater, were accustom’d to mark their Flesh with red hot Irons, either on their Hands, Arms or Breasts, to the end that when ever they beheld those Scars they might immediately be dispos’d to lament their loss. In like manner they had a Custom, that when ever a King or Prince dy’d, all his Officers were instantly oblig’d to slash themselves with Knives in some visible part of their Bodies; insomuch, that he who was observ’d to have most Wounds, was always look’d upon to be the greatest Mourner. All which Ceremonies being in themselves superstitious, and no doubt invented by the Devil, forasmuch as the _Egyptians_ were all naturally Necromancers, Magicians, Wizzards and Astrologers, and for that they were not only a damage to the Living, but also no Advantage to the Dead; GOD forbad the Children of _Israel_ (who living so long in _Egypt_, had contracted many ill Customs from those People) both marking and cutting their Flesh, as appears from _Leviticus_ 19. 27, 28. where he Commands the _Israelites_ neither to _round the Corners of their Heads, nor mar the Points of their Beards: To make any Cuttings in their Flesh, or print any Marks upon it on account of their Dead_.’

[Sidenote: How the _Egyptians Embalm’d Bodies_.]

Thus _Herodotus_ and _Diodorus Siculus_ having first describ’d the manner of _Mourning_ among the _Egyptians_, they next proceed to give an Account of their _Embalmings_, telling us, That whilst the Ceremonies of _Mourning_ were performing, they carry’d the Dead to be _Embalm’d_, as I suppose, to a certain place appointed for that purpose, where Persons resided who profess’d that Art, being well experienc’d therein, and taught it by their Ancestors. These show’d the Relations or Persons that brought the Body, and had commission for ordering the Funeral, certain Models or Patterns of Wood, painted in the likeness of _Embalm’d_ Bodies, [Sidenote: Three different kinds of _Embalming_.] being of three several kinds and Prizes, suitable to every one’s Condition and Quality; some very Rich and Costly, others of a moderate Price, and a third sort cheaper and of very little Value. Having agreed upon the Sort and Price, they immediately go about _Embalming_ the Body, and as _Herodotus_ tells us, first of all draw out the Brain, with a crooked Iron, thro’ the Nostrils, infusing in its place, by the same way, several Medicaments, which as it is contrary to our Custom of Dissection, that begins with the _Abdomen_, seeing its Contents soonest putrifie and become offensive even in our cold Country, and much more would do in so hot a Climate as that of _Egypt_, if neglected; so the extraction of the Brain, after the manner propos’d by him, is a very difficult and tedious piece of Work, if possible to be perform’d at all; but his wrong beginning of this Work of _Embalming_ is not so material a Mistake, as his amusing us with a Story of drawing forth the Brain thro’ the Nostrils with a crooked Iron, (by which I suppose he means some particular sort of Instrument) and not farther explaining himself how or after what manner it was done; and indeed I believe he could not, the thing being in it self impracticable and ridiculous, which any one skill’d in _Anatomy_ will readily agree to. But grant it could be done, the afore-said extraction of the Brain thro’ the Nostrils, must nevertheless so dilacerate the cartilagineous parts of the Nose, that the carnous and cutaneous parts would sink, and thereby render the Face deform’d. More agreeable therefore to Reason is what _Gryphius_ in _Tract. de Mum. Wratislav._ p. 45. asserts, That it might be more commodiously extracted thro’ a large _Foramen_, made in the hinder part of the Head, near the upper _Vertebræ_ of the Neck; but that this was not the right way neither, I am thoroughly convinc’d from the Skull of an _Embalm’d_ Body I have by me, which has no such Apertion. [Sidenote: The _Brain_ how extracted.] To reconcile therefore this seeming difficulty, I will shew a Method how ’tis possible to be perform’d by a convenient Instrument which I have devis’d, and intend to describe in another Place, contenting my self here to tell you, That by injecting Oil of _Cedar_, or the like corrosive Medicine thro’ the Nostrils, or thro’ the Ears, by a Passage privately made into the Skull, the Brain may be consum’d and brought away, and the Skull, by injections of spirituous and aromatic Wines, be thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d; and lastly fill’d with melted _Bitumen_ or sweet Balsams, that acquire a solid Consistence when cold. And altho’ _Greaves_ seems well satisfy’d with _Herodotus_’s Account, yet is his Observation, _p._ 49. of his _Pyramidographia_, more agreeable to this Opinion of mine, where he tells us, That having caus’d the Head of one of the richer sort of _Embalm’d_ Bodies to be open’d, he found in the hollow of the Skull the quantity of two pounds of Medicament, which had the consistence, blackness and smell of a kind of _Bitumen_ or Pitch, and by the heat of the Sun was become soft.

_Diodorus Siculus_ begins more methodically with the _Scribe_ or _Designer_, [Sidenote: The _Scribe_ or _Designer_.] an Officer so call’d, who draws upon a piece of Paper, or marks on the Body it self, the part that was to be open’d, _viz._ The Flank on the left side. [Sidenote: _Dissector._] Then the _Dissector_ made the Incision (_without cutting off any of the Flesh, or running away so soon as he had done_) and thrusting his Hand into the Belly, drew out all the Guts, which, as _Plutarch_ writes, were cast into the River _Nile_, _Tanquam inquinamenta Corporis_, as defiling the Body: But _Diodorus_ tells us, The Body was embowell’d by one of the _Embalmers_, which altho’ it appears to me a more filthy and detestable Work than making the Incision, [Sidenote: _Embalmers_ much honour’d.] yet he says the _Embalmers_ were highly honour’d and respected, being familiar with the Priests, and entring into the Temples as Holy Men, whereas he excludes the _Dissectors_ from out of that number, as performing an odious Operation hateful to all Men. In this distinction however I am apt to think he’s either intirely out, or has mistaken it for just the contrary; for, as we have already shown, _p._ 181. _Anatomy_ was not only generally approv’d, but likewise often perform’d by Holy and Great Men, such as the _Egyptian_ Priests and Kings, who would either have practis’d or taught better, in case it had been so heinous a Crime as this Author makes it; whence, without doubt, those that did this pious and necessary Office towards preserving the Dead, must needs have been equally honour’d with the _Embalmers_, and what seems yet clearly to confirm this, is that sometimes the _Art of Embalming_ has been call’d _Honesta Anatomia_.

Now the Instrument with which this Incision was made was an _Ethiopic_ Stone call’d _Basaltes_, [Sidenote: _Basaltes_ an _Ethiopic_ Stone.] and nam’d from its hardness and colour like to Iron, that word in the _Ethiopic_ Language signifying Iron, and this Stone being much harder than that Metal, it might very probably be whet to a keen edge or point, and so be ceremonially us’d instead of an Incision-Knife, like as the antient _Jews_ were wont to use Knives made of Flints in their Circumcision, _Joshua_ 5. 2.

[Sidenote: The _Embowelling_ a Corps.]

As to the Exenteration or Embowelling the Body, we are not to imagine they drew out only the Brain and Guts, but likewise the Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Spleen, and other _Viscera_, except the Heart and Kidnies, which being carnous and fleshy might very likely be left, as being easier to be preserv’d than the moist parts. The former they might probably leave to be _Embalm’d_, as being the principal Bowel of the whole Body, and source of vital Heat (wherefore it has been frequently preserv’d apart by several People) but for what Reason, or out of what Superstition they left the latter I cannot readily conjecture.

Then having empty’d the Head, Breast and Belly of their Contents, they first wash’d and cleans’d them with Phænician or Palm-Wine, compounded of aromatic Spices and sweet Odours, [Sidenote: The _Body_ stuff’d with medicinal Ingredients.] and afterwards stuff’d them with a mixture of sweet scented Drugs, Spices and Balsams, such as _Myrrh_, _Aloes_, _Saffron_, _Cassia_ or _Cinamon_, _Opobalsamum_ and the like, _Frankincense_ only being excepted, because that was by them consecrated to their Gods. These Ingredients had not only a power to preserve the Body for a long Time, but also gave it a sweet and agreeable Smell. This done, they sew’d up the Incision or Passage thro’ which they drew forth the Bowels; but _Antonius Santorellus_ in his _Post-Praxis Medica_, p. 136. not without Reason observes, That tho’ Aromatics are of a drying quality, yet as they are likewise heating, they may occasion a Fermentation in the Body; therefore I am apt to think _Myrrh_ and _Aloes_ were the basis of the Composition, and that Aromatics were us’d only in small quantities, and that rather to conciliate a grateful Odour to the Body than preserve it from Putrifaction. Yet I am not ignorant at the same time of what some alledge of Aromatics, that by their innate balsamic Virtue, by their bitterness and oleaginous Sulphur, or penetrability of their volatil Salts, they resist Putrifaction. Neither am I ignorant of what _Bellonius_ affirms, Lib. 2. _De Medicato Funere_, p. 27. that neither _Myrrh_, _Aloes_ nor _Saffron_ have so much Virtue as to consume the Humidity of a dead Body, nor being hard Bodies can penetrate so far as to enter the Bones and replete their Cavities. Furthermore asserting, That if _Aloes_ were us’d in _Embalming_ they would give the Body a bitter taste, whereas no Mummies have been ever found to have such a taste; and this is also taken notice of, says the aforesaid Author, by _Valerius Cordus_, one who wrote more truly of the _Mummies_ than all the Physicians of his Time had done: But I suppose both these Learned Men spoke rather from their experience of common Bodies, _Embalm’d_ with _Cedar_, _Asphalt_ or _Pissasphalt_, than from the Bodies of Princes and rich Men, which being _Embalm’d_ after the best manner, with odoriferous and aromatic Gums and Spices, had in that Composition a mixture of fine _Aloes_, and this any one will the readier grant, who considers the manner of the [Sidenote: _Myrrh_, _Aloes_ and _Cinnamon_.] antient _Jews_ or _Hebrews_ _Embalming_ with _Myrrh_, _Aloes_ and _Cinamon_, which they learn’d of the _Egyptians_ by living so long among them, chiefly differing in this, That the _Hebrews_ Anointed or _Embalm’d_ their Dead without Exenteration, thereby intending only to render the Body sweet and free from Putrifaction for a short Time, or ’till its Burial, whereas the _Egyptians_ Embowell’d and _Embalm’d_ theirs for Eternity. But here still arises another Controversie, _viz._ What is to be understood by the Word _Aloes_ in Balsamation? Whether _Agalochum_ or _Lignum Aloes_, a Wood of a very pleasant smell, or _Aloes_, an express’d Juice from the Leaves of a Plant, a Gum of a strong Odour? Most Annotators on the word _Aloes_, mention’d in the Holy Scripture, as in _Prov._ 7. 17. _Cant._ 4. 14. _John_ 19. 39. interpret it the _Wood Aloes_, being an excellent sweet scented and aromatic Perfume; and since it is also of a bitterish Taste, and indu’d with some balsamic Qualities, ’tis not absur’d to think it was us’d together with other Ingredients in _Embalming_, yet according to a physical Judgment in this _Art_, we nevertheless believe that _Aloes_, the Gum or inspissate Juice of a Plant, so manifest for its extraordinary and incomparable bitterness and efficacy to resist Putrifaction, was one of the chief Ingredients in their Composition, for otherwise the Scripture would have given a more peculiar signification of the Word, to distinguish the _Wood_ from the _Gum_: So that he who determines that both might have been apply’d, one to correct the ill Savour of the other, may commit no great Mistake, or at least if he thinks, that the _Wood_ was chiefly us’d in their perfuming Ointments, and the _Gum_ in their _Embalmings_.

The Body being stuff’d full of aromatic and sweet Odours, they sew’d it up again, and then salted it with _Nitre_ for the space of 70 Days, as _Herodotus_ relates; yet _Diodorus Siculus_ speaks nothing of this Salting, but in its stead substitutes the manner of Anointing: Both which Terms of _Salting_ and _Anointing_ Authors confound one with another, and under the same denomination express two different Operations or Works, and yet seem to make them perform’d by the same Persons: For those who are said to be the _Embalmers_, [Sidenote: The _Salters_ or _Pollinctors_.] are call’d by some _Taricheutæ_ or _Salitores_, _a verbo_ ταριχεύειν, _Salire_ or _Sale durare_, and by others _Pollinctors_, _ab unguendis Cadaveribus quasi polluti, vel a verbo pollingere, quod est, polliendo ungere, vel Pellem ungere_, &c. whose Office and Business was to exenterate or embowel the Body, to wash and cleanse it, and to salt and anoint it. These again, some say, were much honour’d and respected, and others on the contrary, That they were so abominated that they would not suffer them to live in the City; which latter I am most apt to believe, as performing a very vile and servile Work, therefore might well be look’d upon as polluted Persons. Who then were the true _Embalmers_, properly so call’d, and had in most esteem, I shall anon show; but must first proceed to speak of their _Salination_, and the Virtues and Qualities of _Nitre_ and other Salts.

[Sidenote: _Nitre_ why us’d in _Embalming_.]

‘_Bellonius_, Lib. 3. cap. 8. _De Medicato Funere_, tells us, the _Egyptians_ and other _Eastern_ Nations, attributed very great Virtues to _Nitre_ for preserving the Carcasses of the Dead, and that notwithstanding other Salts and Aromatics, endu’d with astringent and exsiccating Qualities, might have the same Virtue, yet since none were more efficacious, _Embalmers_ or Salters were wont chiefly to use _Nitre_. Those both the _Greek_ Historians and Physicians have sufficiently describ’d, but since they so disagree about this, I think it not improper to treat more particularly of it. _First_, _Herodotus_ tells us, The _Egyptians_ salted the dead Body 70 Days, and afterwards adds the use and reason of it, because, says he, Salt consumes the Flesh, and leaves nothing behind it but Skin and Bones; whence it appears _Nitre_ was in very great esteem among them for preserving the Dead. But now, says _Bellonius_, there is so great scarcity of _Nitre_ in _Europe_, that no Physician can say he has ever seen the true, for certainly a Man may be as well cheated in that Salt as in any Drugs now commonly us’d. Some there are who promiscuously use many Things instead of it, and others that as erroneously assert there are two sorts of it, one factitious and another natural, and I very much wonder that several excellent Physicians should not have taken notice, that the _Saltpetre_ we now-a-days use is not the true _Nitre_: Nor have any of the Ancients distinguish’d _Nitre_ into artificial and natural, one made by Art, and the other a concrete Body dug out of the Earth; for all _Nitre_ is certainly made by Art, after the manner of other Salts, and not conceal’d in the Earth, but found above it. Nor is there any native _Nitre_ dug out of the Earth, altho’ it may be made from Water; for Rain-Water being the purest, lightest and sweetest of all Waters, makes the best _Nitre_; so likewise does the _Nile_-Water, which from the force of its Mud, soon condenses the _Nitre_. Now to know where _Nitre_ may be found, read _Theophrastus_, Lib. 3. cap. 22. who gives this as a very plain Argument, That where _Palm-Trees_ grow in plenty, as they do in _Africa_, _Syria_, and the like Countries, there the Soil will always be Nitrous; for tho’ these Trees require the circum-ambient Air to be hot, that their Fruits may ripen, yet they nevertheless covet a salt Soil to refrigerate their Roots; whence we may gather that a Virtue in Earth to make _Nitre_ is more wanting than in Water: But in _Africa_ _Nitre_ was cheaper than Salt, for tho’ Salt was both artificially made and dug out of the Rock, yet by reason of a Tax and Duty upon it, it was not so easie to be got as _Nitre_, which naturally concreted in the Vallies, and might be had without any Expence; wherefore the _Arabians_, who liv’d not far from the Sea, and the _Egyptians_, who had _Nitre_ so cheap among them, us’d it before Salt, which they were forc’d to seek for and get in more remote Places; nay, they us’d to eat _Nitre_ with their Radishes and Pot-Herbs, after the same manner as we now do Salt. And thus, so soon as the Inhabitants had first made Trial of _Nitre_, using it in their Bread, Pottage, Gruels, with their Flesh and other Food, and finding it wholesom, sought for no other Salt, but us’d _Nitre_ in its stead, and taught the neighbouring Countries to do the like. But the _Macedonians_ made their Bread with a sort of _Nitre_ call’d, [Sidenote: _Chalastræum Nitrum._] _Chalastræum Nitrum_, _a Chalastra Civitate_, Plin. 13. 10. a pure sort of _Saltpetre_, which, for the most part, they rather chose to make use of than Salt. _Nitre_ took its rise in many parts of _Europe_, _Asia_ and _Africa_, but Authors know that of one Country from another, by the goodness and badness of it, tho’ _Nitre_ in general be commended by all, [Sidenote: _Nitrum Berenicum._] and _Galen_ praises the _Nitre_ of _Berenice_ of _Pentapolis_ in _Egypt_.

‘Those Springs call’d by _Pliny_, _Fontes amari_, on the Shoar of the _Red-Sea_, would have had but little bitterness, had not the Soil been Nitrous. All the Fountains likewise of _Arabia_ are bitterish, by reason of the nitrous Earth thro’ which they pass, and that Lake near the City of _Chalastra_ in _Macedon_ affords much _Nitre_. [Sidenote: _Nitri spuma._] Authors call it _Nitri spuma_, _Aphronitrum_, and by several other Names. _Galen_ orders this stony Matter first to be burn’d, and then levigated to a Powder; whereby it plainly appears our _Saltpetre_ is not _Nitre_. There is nothing more frequently mention’d by _Absyrtus_, in his Book of Farriery, than _Nitre_; and it was also us’d by _Ganea_, and the Skilful have observ’d many Things to grow tender by _Nitre_, especially the Roots of Herbs, which are also made whiter by it, and Coleworts and Pot-Herbs greener.’ Some call the Flower of the _Lapis Assius_, _Nitre_, a kind of Stone of which Coffins were formerly made, which wasted dead Bodies: ‘But I would advise the Reader, says _Bellonius_, not to believe that _Nitre_, which we speak of, to have any affinity with the Salt commonly so call’d. [Sidenote: _Armenian Nitre._] _Avicenna_ prefers the _Armenian Nitre_ before the _Egyptian_, and _Dioscorides_ very much praises the _Nitre_ of _Buna_. [Sidenote: _Nitre_ of _Buna_.] The common People daily use the _Nitre_ of _Turkey_, [Sidenote: _Nitre_ of _Turkey_.] tho’ we are nevertheless ignorant whence it comes, and there is nothing more common among the Merchants of _Nitria_, _Memphis_, _Constantinople_ and _Damascus_ than what they vulgarly call _Natron_. It grows very plentifully in the _Eastern_ Countries, and is much us’d in Dying Silk and Wool. _Serapio_ also confounds _Borax_, which the Goldsmiths use, with _Nitre_; but _Nitre_ is truly made by the benefit of the Soil and the force of the hot Sun, wherefore ’tis call’d by some of the _Greeks_ _Halmirhaga_, [Sidenote: _Halmirhaga._] deriving its Name partly from its bitterish Taste, and partly from its being got out of the Earth at _Nitria_, a City of _Egypt_, so call’d from _Nitre_. At _Naucratis_ and _Memphis_ there are places where _Nitre_ grows, and where the Water is pour’d into it like Sea-Water into Salt-Pits. Between _Memphis_ and _Jerusalem_ we saw a Desart concreted with _Nitre_, from whence so great a quantity might be taken, that many Ships might have been easily laden therewith; which Desart, so concreted with _Nitre_, was longer than half a Mile, and when I past by it in the Night-Time, I thought it had been cover’d with Salt; and when the Moon shon, it rebounded up to the Pupils of my Eyes, and dazl’d them with its splendor. In it Camels, Horses and Mules had left the impression of their Footsteps, and when I lighted off my Horse and had cut some of it up, I found it to be of the same kind which I had before seen at _Memphis_. _Nitre_ therefore is not dug out of a Mountain, or found in the Cavity of a Subterranean Den, or any where cover’d with Earth, but gather’d up a concrete Body from the surface of a Desart or solitary Place, and is to be ascrib’d more to the Earth than Water, by reason the Earth has there a kind of nitrous Substance. When Rain, Fountain or the _Nile_-Water has stood long in a Valley, it at length becomes nitrous, by exhaling up to its self a salt Matter or Substance from the bottom, which afterwards concretes, with the heat of the Sun, and becomes much harder than Salt. The whole mass of _Nitre_ is not concreted in one and the same Day, but gradually and by degrees increases and becomes dry. The first Concretion has no great thickness, but when wet again with other Water, it adds by little and little another Covering. This growing harder and harder, so long concretes that it at last becomes a Foot and half thick, by which it comes to pass that the Face of the _Nitre_ keeps a certain likeness to crusted _Cadmia_; for the whole Mass consists of right courses in equal Circles, and is not divided by intricate Windings, which Remark argues, that _Nitre_ arises from a level Superficies or concretes in a certain solitary Place. Moreover the porous _Nitre_ is dissolv’d in Water, but so that you cannot see the least Settlement in it, altho’ a great deal of an earthy Substance be found among it; and as a further Argument of the Truth of this, its very Ashes show it contains in it a great mixture of earthy Particles; for burning once a Pound of crude _Nitre_, I found four Ounces of Ashes remain’d, whereas our _Saltpetre_, if it but touch Fire, immediately flames, and is in an instant resolv’d into Air; whence we collect, that it consists of very subtil Parts, for ’tis very pungent on the Tongue, has great Tenuity, and plentifully provokes Spitle. [Sidenote: Three kinds of _Nitre_.] There are three sorts of _Nitre_, but that which is of a Rose-colour, or whitish and porous like Sponge, such as is brought from the Islands of _Buna_, _Dioscorides_ prefers to the rest, being hard and solid for the most part like that of _Egypt_, and which indurates into heaps like Stone, which therefore are call’d by the _Greeks_ Βουνοί, from the resemblance they have to Hills. The second sort of _Nitre_ is not so well distinguish’d by _Dioscorides_ as by _Galen_, who is thought to have us’d the name of _Spuma Nitri_ two ways, first by dividing the words, Ἀφρὸς νίτρου, and secondly, by compounding them into Ἀφρόνιτρον, which distinction _Pliny_ also seems to have observ’d where he calls the _Spuma Nitri_ by the _Latin_ word _Operimentum_, interpreted by _Avicenna_’s Annotator, _Capistrum Nitri_, not because the _Nitre_ ferments or foams up in an old Valley, or that it is in it self a light Froth, but by reason the _Spume_ of _Nitre_ lyes on the top of the _Nitre_, and flowers of it self in Nitre-Works or Vallies in the Day-Time; for _Nitre_ flowers with the Dew which falls in the Night, and then increases its Superficies and is perfected in the Day-Time, which Covering therefore is rightly call’d by _Avicenna_’s Interpreter _Capistrum_, but better by _Pliny_, _Operimentum_. Of this _Dioscorides_ thus writes: [Sidenote: _Spuma Nitri._] ‘That _Spuma Nitri_ is best which is lightest, friable, biting and of a purplish Colour, such as is brought from _Philadelphia_ in _Lydia_. The second sort is that of _Egypt_, which likewise is to be had in _Magnetia_ in _Caria_.’ How this Efflorenscence which _Pliny_ sometimes calls _Operimentum_, sometimes _Spuma Nitri_, and at other times _Aphronitrum_, is generated, we have shewn before, so shall next show what _Aphronitrum_ is, for I distinguish between _Aphronitrum_ and _Spuma Nitri_, that is, the _Operimentum_ or Covering. But _Pliny_ confounds _Aphronitrum_ and _Nitrum_ together, so that I really believe both _Pliny_ and _Serapio_ have taken what they have written of this Matter from the same Fountains; for _Serapio_ speaking of _Nitre_ says, There are two sorts of it, one call’d _Nitre_, which is _Saltpetre_, of a reddish Colour, saltish and bitterish Taste, soon discovering its burning Quality, [Sidenote: _Borax._] and another sort call’d _Borax_, us’d by the Inhabitants of _Yaya_ in working up their Bread, to make it look clear after ’tis bak’d. But that sort call’d artificial _Borax_ is an incisive and abstersive _Saltpetre_, made from a nitrous Matter, being a mixture of Lead and _Kali_ mingl’d together and put over the Fire, and this seems to be nothing else but that which the Goldsmiths use. _Rhasis_ also is in a manner of the same Opinion with _Serapio_, for he says, of the two sorts of _Borax_, that which is made artificially, and is white and froathy, is much better than that of an earthy colour and dusty. It is from this that _Tincar_ is made and seal’d. [Sidenote: _Tincar._] _Pliny_ has not omitted to mention this sealing as _Galen_ and _Dioscorides_ have likewise done, therefore I will insert his Words the better to show that his sealing of _Tincar_ is the same with that of the _Arabians_. The next Age of _Physicians_, says he, deliver’d that _Aphronitrum_ was gather’d in _Asia_, distilling into soft Caves or Dens, which they call’d _Colycæ_, and afterwards dry’d in the Sun. The best sort is that of _Lydia_, which is very light and friable, and almost of a purplish Colour, and brought thence in little Cakes or Trochisks, which words seem intirely to answer those of the _Arabian_; for, What can this Author mean by Trochisks, but the same thing which _Serapio_ calls little seal’d Pieces? But _Rhasis_ adds, That the _Egyptian Nitre_ was brought in Vessels pitch’d over, least it should melt; and _Pliny_ shows, that the next Age of Physicians deliver’d it was gather’d in _Asia_. Perhaps in the Time of _Dioscorides_, and also before his Time, they did not use to Seal the _Spuma Nitri_ and _Aphronitrum_. [Sidenote: _Lydian Nitre._] _Pliny_ gives the Preference to the _Lydian_, and, moreover, when he describes the Marks of chusing it, he gives the same to the _Aphronitrum_ as _Dioscorides_ does to his Ἀφρόνιτρον. But that I may speak freely what I know of those three, they all proceed from the same Mass, altho’ from the different Places and Earth, they acquire a different colour, for some are of a Rose-colour, and others white. The _Operimentum_ or Covering falls in _Lydia_ and _Egypt_. The greatest use of _Nitre_ in _Laconia_ is for scouring Bodies. But since the Mass of _Nitre_, when long kept in Houses, consumes and wastes away by degrees, insomuch that that which was before hard, becomes gradually soft and crumbling, more-especially if it be kept in a moist place, nevertheless it does not discontinue being a Mass or Lump, but only becomes softer than _Nitre_. Physicians, when they remark or take notice as it were of a certain kind of _Metamorphosis_, of that which was before hard, so easily to become softer, think its Name ought to be chang’d, and its Virtues ascrib’d apart. But that which I have said concerning the alteration of _Nitre_, I have found true by experience, in some I brought with me out of the Eastern-Countries; for having given a great part of it to my Friends, some of them complain’d it was turn’d to Powder, and others, who had kept it in a moister place, that it was grown softer, and had chang’d its Colour. _Pliny_, Lib. 31. cap. 10. says, The Nature of _Nitre_ is not to be esteem’d very different from Salt, and this he the more diligently asserts, inasmuch as those Physicians who have written of it, were ignorant of its true Nature, altho’ none has written more carefully of it than _Theophrastus_. He says, moreover, some _Nitre_ is made in _Media_, the Vallies growing white and hoary with dryness. After the Rain or Fountain-Water is exhal’d from it, it is condens’d by the Soil, and converted into _Nitre_. Hence appears, as I said before, that those are very much deceiv’d, who report _Nitre_ to be a certain Subterranean Matter like to Metal. _Pliny_ afterwards adds, That the sort of _Nitre_ call’d _Agrium_, in _Thrace_ near _Philippi_, is less mix’d with Earth than any other sort; but I dare affirm _Nitre_ is now no longer made in _Thrace_, for when I travell’d thither, and to and fro in the _Philippian_ Country, that I might see this _Nitre_, I could find none either about the Ruins of the before-mention’d City or the adjacent Region. [Sidenote: _Chalastræum Nitrum._] The _Chalastræum Nitre_ took its Name from the City _Chalastra_. This I believe to be that sort which _Alexander_ call’d _Bucephalum_, from the Name of his Horse. Nitrous Waters, says _Pliny_, are found in many places, but without any Power of condensing, which agrees with what I have already said, that all nitrous Waters will not make _Nitre_; so likewise all nitrous Earth, altho’ Water be pour’d over it, will not make _Nitre_, for ’tis necessary it should have a Virtue of thickning by the Sun, therefore this Virtue is believ’d not to be wanting in the Water, but in the Earth, for ’tis certain _Nitre_ may be made out of the lightest, purest and sweetest Water. _Nitre_ is very heavy in it self, for it sinks in Water like a Stone. The best _Nitre_, says _Pliny_, is very plentiful in _Macedonia_, [Sidenote: _Nitrum Chalastricum._] and is call’d _Chalastricum_, being white and pure like to Salt. The Lake is nitrous, and out of its middle a sweet Fountain flows; there _Nitre_ swims, about the rising of the Dog-Star, for nine Days together, and in as many ceases, then swims again, and afterwards ceases again, by which ’tis apparent the heat of the Sun condenses the _Nitre_, provided the Nature of the Soil be answerable, as _Pliny_ witnesses in these words: The Nature of the Soil is what breeds _Nitre_, as is apparent, in that where it is wanting, neither Salts nor Showers avail any thing. This is also very wonderful, that tho’ the Spring be always seen to flow, yet neither does it increase the Lake nor run over; but if it Rains in those Days in which it is bred, the _Nitre_ will become more Salt, and worse if the _North_-Winds happen to blow, for they violently stir up the Mud: In this place indeed ’tis produc’d, but more plentifully in _Egypt_, [Sidenote: _Egyptian Nitre._] tho’ a worser sort, for ’tis of a dark colour and stony. It is made almost in the same manner with Salt, only they let the Sea run into their Salt-Pits, but the River _Nile_ into their _Nitre_-Works. The _Nile_-Water being drawn off they dry it, and again infuse it in _Nitre_-Water 40 Days successively, but if it Rains they add less of the River-Water. So soon as it begins to condense, it is taken away least it should be dissolv’d in their _Nitre_-Works, but if laid up in heaps it will keep. Thus much _Pliny_ speaks of _Nitre_, which abundantly shows it is no where dug in any Mountain or Soil, but as I have shown before, immediately so soon as it has begun to condense, and it Rains, they take it away, and lay it up in heaps, that it may last, for otherwise it would be melted by the Rain in their _Nitre_-Works. What _Pliny_ says afterwards seems obscure, _viz._ That the thinnest part of _Nitre_ is best, and consequently the Efflorenscence is better, nevertheless the foul sort is useful for some Things, as for dying Purples, Scarlets, _&c._ by which words ’tis evident he means two sorts of _Nitre_, one very fine call’d _Spuma Nitri_, [Sidenote: _Spuma Nitri._] which he prefers for the best, and another course, us’d for dying Colours. The _Nitre_-Works in _Egypt_ are very famous, and were wont to be only about _Naucratis_ and _Memphis_: The worst are about _Memphis_, for there it lapifies in heaps, and from that cause many Hillocks are stony, of which they make Vessels. They also very frequently boil it with Sulphur upon Coals till it is melted; and use it in those things they would have keep a long while. There are _Nitre_-Works where it comes out reddish from the colour of the Earth. Thus far of _Nitre_; next _Pliny_ mightily commends the Efflorenscence of _Nitre_, yet says, The Ancients deny’d it could be made, but only when the Dew fell and the _Nitre_-Places were pregnant, but not when they brought forth, therefore could not be done by hastning or stirring up altho’ it fell. Others think it was bred by Fermentation, _&c._’ Thus far of _Nitre_ according to _Bellonius_, _Pliny_ and others.

[Sidenote: _Pickle_ made of _Nitre_.]