Chapter V: Crops and Other Produce of the Land (2)

A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.

Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.

The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have greatly stimulated production.

The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.

The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has taken place.

Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat, and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.

The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600 okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.

_Kolokas_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_)

This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water. It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in March-April and dug about October-November.

_Onions_

These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round ("strongyla") and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter have less fleshy scales than the former.

Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed. They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25 okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate of 40-50 okes per donum.

Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to superior imported kinds.

FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS

_Carob Tree_

The carob (_Ceratonia siliqua_) is indigenous in Syria, and probably also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern Italy.

At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea), xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality, and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotike and kyrionitike, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitike and kombote. This bean or pod, which when ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts the flavour so much appreciated by animals.

The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Caesalpinae, and is the only species of the genus _Ceratonia_. It is an evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up to about the same altitude.

A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October, and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.

Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite, though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing trees of the Island are cleistogamous (_i.e._ self-fertilised before the calyx opens) and short-stamened.

There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as "kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.

There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance to several heirs.

Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root, sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not transplant well.

The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the moisture.

Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either before or after transplanting.

The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale (_Aspidiotus ceratoniae_) is very common; but the greatest damage of late years has been caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_, which lays its eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean, causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as _Myelois ceratoniae_, _Cossus liniperda_ (a lepidopterous boring insect), a species of _Mycetiasis_, and a small hymenopterous fly which has lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked production. The attacks of _Cecidomyia_, when serious, reduce the yield by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per cent.

Much damage is also caused by rats (_Mus alexandrinus_), which gnaw the bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.

Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month. The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would quickly dry again.

It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16 medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about 1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized, well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years, the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5_s_.

Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price may be put at from 13_s._ to 17_s._ per cantar delivered into store.

Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the Customs House.

The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years ending 1913-14:

Year. Quantity. Value.
_Tons._ L
1904-05 31,887 104,301
1905-06 26,187 85,105
1906-07 44,965 157,452
1907-08 42,381 151,610
1908-09 57,010 188,841
1909-10 44,059 157,972
1910-11 37,485 145,590
1911-12 51,359 182,883
1912-13 63,658 251,750
1913-14 44,989 179,027

The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_.

The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the manufacture of certain gums.

The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos," "teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."

At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are again becoming recognised.

The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the bean might not become a new source of sugar production.

_Lucerne_ (_Medicago sativa_)

This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed. Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an assured future.

_Vetch_ (_Vicia Ervilia_)

This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer still considers it to be exhaustive.

In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the foothills, it is sown in October-November, _i.e._ before the cereals.

Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening, and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted, made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems, etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kiles per donum. It is subject to tithe.

_Chickling Vetch_ (_Lathyrus sativus_)

The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (_Vicia Ervilia_) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to tithe.

_Vetch_ (_Vicia sativa_)

This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (_Vicia Ervilia_) as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kiles per donum. It is a good drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to tithe.

_Tares_ (_Vicia tenuifolia_ var. _stenophylla_)

This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed together when fed to cattle.

_Milk Vetch_ (_Astragalus_)

This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven. As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.

As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap. When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.

The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.

_Moha, Sulla_ (_Hedysarum_)

These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.

_Teosinte_ (_Reana luxurians_)

This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also largely grown in Australia.

Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in 1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.

If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer, yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft. 3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93 stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and had lost weight.

This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some of the more progressive farms.

_Sudan-grass_

Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop. Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.

_Teff-grass_ (_Eragrostis abyssinica_)

This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.

_Mangold Wurzel_

This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm, Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some of the Nursery Gardens.

As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock owners under Departmental advice.

The wild beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is a native of the seacoasts of South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel, which is a variety of _B. vulgaris_, might also do well in many parts and be of great advantage to stock owners.

_Prickly Pear_ (_Opuntia_)

The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised. Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.

SPICES

_Coriander Seed_

Coriander seed is the product of _Coriandrum sativum_, Linn., an annual herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferae. The "seed," or more strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a flavouring in cooking.

A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, _i.e._ as a cattle food.

A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50_s._ to 60_s._ per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10_s._ to 15_s._ per cwt. before the war. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 301).

_Aniseed_

Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (_Pimpinella Anisum_, Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917, 1,015 cwts., valued at L3,164, were exported, all of which went to Egypt.

Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from extraneous matter.

A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed having changed hands in London at 110_s._ per cwt. Such price could not be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 300).

White Cumin Seed

White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.); an account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.

A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but that it would probably be worth between 70_s._ and 80_s._ per cwt. (January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value would not have been much over 20_s._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).

_Black Cumin Seed_

These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of _Nigella sativa_, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceae). The plant is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus. There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).

ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES

_Origanum Oil_

Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the _Perfumery and Essential Oil Record_, 1913, from which it would seem that this oil is derived from _Origanum majoranoides_, Wild.; while Dr. Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as _O. dubium_, Boiss. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing wild in Cyprus are _O. Onites_, _O. hirtum_, both of which are locally called "rigani," _O. Bevani_ (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and _O. majorana_.

In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500 okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and other purposes.

For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum oil is remarkably constant in character.

This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain practically colourless for long periods.

A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description of the oil, states:

"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent, as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is unsuitable."

Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3_s._ per lb. to 8_s._ 6_d._ per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of transport to London before the war was L8 per ton, it has risen to the prohibitive rate of L200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in store at Alexandria.

The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under consideration.

The following table shows the exports of origanum _oil_ in recent years:

Year. Quantity.
_lb._

1902 2,092
1903 No distillation
1904 2,410
1905 1,463
1906 2,200
1907 1,745
1908 2,051
1909 1,530[4]
1910 2,842
1911 2,276
1912 2,230
1913 2,455
1914 3,776
1915 3,709
1916 2,756
1917 2,696
1918 2,066

_Marjoram Oil_

This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet fennel oil (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to _O. majoranoides_, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to _O. Maru_, Linn. The market is, however, restricted.

_Laurel Oil_

Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of _Laurus nobilis_ which were examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is said to be small.

_Otto of Roses_

This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.

A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917 distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold at 70_s._ per ounce, less 2-1/2 per cent., which "in view of the very small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale French otto was quoted at 78_s._ to 85_s._ per ounce.

_Acacia Farnesiana_

This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order Leguminosae and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should not become more general.

It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of acacia.

Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood makes good charcoal.

It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which, owing to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to eradicate. It is also allied to _Prosopis juliflora_ or algaroba tree, of which there are a few specimens in the Island.

OILS AND OIL SEEDS

_Olives_

The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties. These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.

This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.

Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (_a_) "adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage, and (_b_) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil extraction.

Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth, curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being slightly crushed in the process of preparation.

The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.

A few imported varieties, including one or two specimens of Spanish and Greek olive trees, are to be found here and there in private gardens.

If the land were manured and ploughed the trees would, especially on the chalky soils, yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality. Unfortunately this is not done, and it has been found very difficult to induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation. They plough the land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees, a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees. The system of irrigation applied is also very defective. Irrigation, while improving the quality and quantity of edible olives, is not desirable in the case of press olives.

As to pruning, Cypriots would have none of it until within the last five years. By dint of patient and constant persuasion, some few of the larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of pruners under the direction of the Agricultural Department (see Plate VI). Much ridicule--and at times threats--was hurled at both the pruners and the tree owners, who were assured by the villagers that for their folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees. The results belied all these fears, and now within the space of some four to five years the practice of pruning has become fairly general, and a good number of villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept regularly employed by private persons. As a consequence of this a great amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the yield and quality of olives have been improved.

The method of gathering olives by beating, however, continues. The fruit so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised, and quickly ferments, when stored, to the detriment of the oil. This mode of gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches, whose bearing capacity the following year is thus impaired.

Little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil. Not only are they dirty and bruised, but unripe or diseased fruit, as well as overripe fruit that has fallen from the tree, is collected together indiscriminately.

Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos.]

The usual practice is to spread out the olives as received, and unsalted, on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of their water before grinding.

The procedure is then as follows:

They are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill. This consists not of two stones, as in Greece, but of one stone, drawn by pony, mule or donkey.

For the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken, but generally speaking, insufficient care is paid to this and the stones are, for the most part, crushed. The crushed olives (zimari, paste) are then removed to the press, which is worked by hand, with one exception of an hydraulic press at Akanthou. At this village, where the best olive oil is produced, the olives are brought direct from the trees to the mill, whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt.

In pressing with wooden presses, the zimari or crushed olives are placed in round bags made of plaited rushes. Seven to ten of these are placed one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil (huile vierge).

The bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of the contents. They are then replaced in the press and hot water is poured into each bag. The oil obtained is of second quality. A third pressing is sometimes given.

The yield is calculated at the rate of 1 oke of oil to 4 okes of olives.

In the Paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct flavour. This is due to the custom of boiling the olives before grinding. The demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district.

In former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in the open. This is now rarely the case, but may still be occasionally seen in parts of the Paphos district and elsewhere.

Whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to become very unclean, and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is quickly imparted to the oil, which possesses, for any but Cypriots, a strong and unpleasant smell and flavour. There is a considerable residue or waste, which, if it could be utilised, would go far to meet the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption.

There are a few good iron presses now in use. Their superiority is generally recognised and, no doubt, now that the war is over, they will be imported in greater numbers.

Small inexpensive, cottage filters have been designed by the Agricultural Department and these are being adopted, though very gradually. The oil so filtered is greatly superior, but having acquired a more delicate flavour, it is not so much appreciated by the native consumers.

Large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the State forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and three-year-old plants raised in the Government Nurseries are also distributed every year. With the gradual improvement in cultivation and in the preparation of the oil, the production should increase enormously.

The local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements of the Island, but there is no reason why, in the course of time, when the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase, come into bearing, a valuable export trade should not result. The figures of production, given in the table below, are strikingly fluctuating, and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the marked variation in price:

Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L
1904 4,294 6,467
1905 5,291 8,504
1906 7,845 12,602
1907 8,981 16,922
1908 788 1,459
1909 3,851 8,864
1910 7,550 17,232
1911 608 1,415
1912 48 88
1913 911 2,052
1914 2,197 4,837
1915 6,003 15,146
1916 4,966 16,035
1917 290 1,225

_Sesame Seed_

The annual production in Cyprus of sesame seed (_Sesamum indicum_) is said to be about 195,000 okes. It is one of the recognised summer crops in the plains, and is frequently sown together in the same field with cotton, maize, etc., and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly planted vineyards, where it does well. In such cases the preparation of the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton, maize, vines, etc.

The seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil, which is largely employed in cooking, and it is also used in the preparation of sweetmeats; it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making. There is a small export, principally through Egypt.

The percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where the seed has been produced. Of the local product, that from Paphos gives the highest yield, viz. 30 to 35 per cent.; but this is inferior to the Egyptian product, which is to some extent imported and yields 40 to 45 per cent. of oil, this being probably due to the thinner skin. The crop is uncertain. The plant is readily affected by the hot west wind ([Greek: libas]) which not infrequently blows during its period of growth. The development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains thin and small ([Greek: psalios]), and naturally the oil yield is diminished.

_Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut_ (_Arachis hypogaea_)

This nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through Egypt in moderate quantities. There is no reason why in certain localities this plant should not be grown successfully, more especially in the light sandy soils around Varosha and at Syrianochori. Efforts have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop, but so far it has not commended itself. It calls for something a little out of the ordinary in the way of cultivation, as the plants mature their fruits under the soil; the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain, and is thought, though without sufficient proof, to compare unfavourably with rival crops. Growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with which the fruit can be stolen. As this is hidden under the soil, a theft is not at once detected. These drawbacks probably explain its restricted cultivation.

Should oil-extracting machinery be introduced, these nuts might well be grown for their oil, both for culinary purposes and for use in soap-making. The residuum, after extraction of the oil, and the haulm are nutritious cattle foods.

The importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a roasted condition, owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests when in the raw, earth-encrusted condition. This has tended to check importation, and may perhaps give an impetus to local production. Ground nuts can be grown, of course, only where irrigation is possible.

The quantity of ground nuts imported in 1917 was 1,532 cwts., valued at _L_2,448. Previous to that year they were not separately enumerated.

_Castor-oil Seed_

The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) is only grown to a small extent, but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be extended with advantage. According to Gennadius, Dioscorides claimed that it used to be called Seseli of Cyprus, from which the inference may be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the Island, where it is now known as a perennial. It grows very freely from seed and rapidly attains a height of 15 or 16 ft.; but it quickly dies back after a slight frost, though it recovers again the following year. It appears to do well in most soils, but thrives best in light loam with moderate moisture.

Owing to the demand for the oil, one or two plantations have lately been made by the Agricultural Department.

The varieties locally grown include plants producing large, medium and small-sized seed. Trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their relative values. It is found that a heavier yield of better quality is usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a perennial. Four samples of castor seed examined at the Imperial Institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil, and similar seed would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom if offered in commercial quantities (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xvii. 1919, p. 492).

FIBRES

_Cotton_

During the time of the Venetian occupation (1489-1570) Cyprus exported annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the English Levant Company sent large quantities from Cyprus to England. When the scarcity of cotton occasioned by the American Civil War gave a stimulus to its growth Cyprus took part in meeting the demand, and in 1866 over 2,000,000 lb. were exported. Since then the production has declined. In former times, then, the production of Cyprus cotton must have been very large, as cotton manufactures in the Island were, as in most cotton-producing countries in the East at that period, both considerable and of choice quality. Cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning. Gennadius suggests that the Karpas, which is one of the centres of the Cyprus cotton manufacture, derived its name from the ancient "karpasos," a fine cotton cloth which came from India. There is an old Hebrew word "karpas" found in the Old Testament, and derived from the Sanscrit "karpasa," cotton, or "karpasum," cotton cloth.

During the Turkish Administration cotton cultivation declined, owing to the destruction of aqueducts, Venetian wells, etc., and to the practice of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked--a cause of considerable delay and detriment to the crop. Careless cultivation and consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in value contributed to the decay of the industry. Taxing the crop in the field was abandoned in 1890, and a tithe was levied on exported cotton only (_Handbook of Cyprus_).

The species of cotton principally cultivated in the Island is _Gossypium herbaceum_. American "New Orleans" seed was introduced some twenty years or so ago, and this has now largely displaced the original native kind; in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared, and what little is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or "paploma."

Cotton grown without irrigation is known as "dry" cotton. It is grown chiefly in the Messaorian plain and in the Karpas; it is harsh to the touch and short in staple, but of satisfactory colour. "Wet" cotton is grown on irrigated land; it is usually of larger staple and of finer quality than the "dry" cotton and commands a higher price. This is grown mainly round about Kythrea, Nisou, Dali, Lapithos and in the Solea valley. Native cotton is always grown "dry"; the ordinary American variety is grown both "wet" and "dry."

The Karpas cotton, which is "dry" grown, is inferior not only on account of its shorter staple, but on account of the method of picking. In some places of Messaoria, at Dali, Nisou, etc., the "dry" and sometimes the "wet" cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite evaporated, and it is picked direct from the growing plant. But the most general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the morning before the dew is evaporated ([Greek: porne]), transport them to the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure. In this way the bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a mixture of husk, leaves, etc.

In the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to the boll, the husks, leaves, etc., are removed from the bolls in the following way: The bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun; when sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and sticks, similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country. Each end of the sieve is closed, but it has an opening in the middle, about 1 by 1-1/2 to 2 ft., which is closed by a small reed mat. The sieve is about 5 to 6 ft. long and 2 to 2-1/2 ft. in diameter. The bolls are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally. By this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the interstices of the sieve.

The native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought. The "wet" cotton is mostly of the American variety.

Professor Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S., in his _Report on the Agricultural Resources of Cyprus_ (1905), referred to the successful trials made with "Sea Island," "Peterkin," "Truitt's Big Boll," "Culpepper Big Boll," and "Allen's Long Staple." Since then other varieties have been tried by the Agricultural Department, and while "Allen's" and "Truitt's" have continued to do well, good results have been obtained from "Triumph" and "Durango," both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable to the Island. A report by the Imperial Institute on samples of "Allen's Improved," "Mebane's Early Triumph" and "Sakellaridis" cottons grown experimentally in Cyprus in 1915 will be found in the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, p. 298).

Owing to fear of locusts, late sowing (about May-June) became rather general. This is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains. It is mostly sown broadcast or in trenches; on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges, but the older practice of sowing broadcast still, unfortunately, continues.

"Dry" cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a river when in flood, or in "livadhia" or low-lying lands which retain their moisture a long time. In the former case the seed is sown about March-April, while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river overflow. It is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur. In the "livadhia" the seed is sown later. "Wet" cotton is watered about every fortnight.

The crop begins to be collected in mid-September and continues up till the end of October. "Dry" cotton is rarely manured; "wet" cotton occasionally. The use of chemical manures is coming into practice. There are several ginning machines in the Island, but baling by hydraulic presses is done almost exclusively at Larnaca.

In the Island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle. The exports of cotton seed have been:

Year. Quantity. Value.
_Cwts._ L

1909 2,708 769
1910 3,066 970
1911 3,245 830
1912 15,874 4,535
1913 13,933 3,750

The exports represent about three-fourths of the total production.

There should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil.

The cotton is locally graded into (1) best, (2) medium, and (3) poor, all being American varieties. The first quality is the "wet" or irrigated cotton. The second quality is grown mostly in the Messaoria plain and at Dali, Nisou, Potamia, Kythrea, where it is partly irrigated by river floods. The third quality is "dry" and comes principally from the Karpas. On the Marseilles market the second quality has a value 3 to 4 per cent., and the third quality 8 to 10 per cent. less than the first quality. The first quality ranks in price at Marseilles on about a level with American cotton.

For some ten years Greece has taken the leading place as an importer. Before the war, Cyprus cotton went chiefly to Marseilles and Greece, some also to Trieste. Only a very insignificant quantity goes to England. The freight to Marseilles was about 25_s._ per ton, to Trieste about 15_s._ per ton, while to England it averaged 50_s._ per ton. The market prices at Marseilles and Trieste were approximately the same, but at Marseilles they were subject to a discount of 1-1/2 per cent., whereas at Trieste a discount of 3 to 4 per cent. was made. The Trieste market, being small, was subject to sudden fluctuations and was therefore risky and less favoured by Cypriot exporters.

For several reasons the Liverpool market has not been so attractive as that of Marseilles. At Liverpool and Manchester quantities of not less than, say, 100 bales are preferred, whereas Marseilles would take smaller consignments of 20 or 40 bales. Uniformity of type is required by Manchester spinners, whereas the French factories are more ready to handle different types, including the shorter staples. Cyprus merchants make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton, whether "Orleans," "Sea Island" or other kinds, and indeed they are scarcely competent to do so, as this requires special knowledge and experience. They buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the produce in order to make up a fair consignment.

In normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining direct transport to England, whereas to Marseilles, Trieste and also to Greece the opportunities were more frequent.

Since the war Greece has become much the largest buyer. Owing to shortage of cotton on the Greek market this commodity was purchased from Cyprus rather than from Liverpool, as the freight was lower and war risks much less; apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining tonnage. It was the practice before the war for Cypriot merchants to sell c.i.f. Piraeus, but they could not continue this under recent conditions and now sell f.o.b. Cyprus, and this practice is likely to continue. This f.o.b. Cyprus price has lately been about the same as would ordinarily be obtained for c.i.f. Liverpool. Greece has many small filatures willing to take consignments of even 10 bales, and the shipment direct or via Alexandria is easier.

A Cyprus bale weighs about 150 okes.

The following figures, showing average annual exports of raw cotton at various pre-war periods, indicate the course of the cultivation:

Period. Average Quantity. Average Value.
_Cwts._ L

1880-89 . . . 68,410 147,683
1890-99 . . . 57,291 91,812
1900-09 . . . 41,121 92,939
1910-17 . . . 68,384 213,275

Prices have varied, as is shown by the values of the following record years:

Quantity. Value. Average price.
_Cwts._ L L