Chapter II: Part 2

Lucerne grows well all over Northern India, and although not cultivated by the natives for their own use, they know perfectly well what it is, and call it by the English name. In most of the towns where there are any Europeans collected together, it is usual to grow it in the Government or station garden, from where it can be purchased retail. Some native corps, who remain some time in the one place, also grow it for the benefit of the regiment, and sometimes it is possible to obtain some from them; but as a rule they only have enough for their own use. Round the large military cantonments in some places, the neighbouring farmers, finding that there is a demand for it, have taken to growing it for sale, and it can be bought in the bazaar; but as the supply is not certain, it is better to enter into a contract with one of the growers to supply the quantity by weight daily required. In making this bargain it is best to use the agency of the head "syce," as if it falls short, or is not forthcoming, he can be made responsible; and natives being erratic creatures, it is quite possible that some morning you may be told that there is no more, or that the grower has sold his crop to some one else, perhaps at even a smaller price than you are giving. Whenever there is a well in the compound, and I have been long enough in one place, I have always grown as much as I could for myself. It is easily done, and there is no more useful crop in connection with an Indian stable. In the dry, hot weather the difference in the condition of horses that are getting a fairly liberal supply of green food, and those that are only getting the burned-up grass that is then procurable, is most marked. The only difficulty about growing lucerne is that at first a large supply of water is necessary until the roots strike. If you have a garden, then, of course, you have to keep a pair of bullocks to raise water from the well for irrigation purposes; but if you do not run to this luxury, then a pair of bullocks can be hired for two or three days in the week. The landlord of the house has to keep the well and the Persian wheel, by which the water is raised, in order, and find the first pair of ropes for it. The tenant has to find the earthen pots, or "chatties," that are fastened on to it, by which the water is raised up. These "chatties" are cheap things enough, but they are easily broken. I always found that the best plan was to provide the first lot myself, and then give a small sum monthly to the gardener to keep them going; and it saved money in the end, as I found that not nearly so many were smashed under this system as when I paid for what were required. If a gardener is regularly employed, it is, of course, part of his business to look after the lucerne bed; but for an ordinary stable of, say, four or five animals, an acre of lucerne will be ample, and a man exclusively for this is not necessary. A gardener can be got for about Rs. 10 a month, but a man can be got to come two or three times a week and look after it for half this. I found, however, that if I gave it to one of the syces, that the women and children of his family would attend to it, as, when once started, it only requires weeding, and that the work was better done than by a professional gardener, unless one was regularly employed. The best seed is the acclimatized English, or the Cabul brought down from Afghanistan. The English seed can be obtained from any seedsman, or the Government Horticultural Gardens at Lahore or Saharunpore, at about a rupee a pound, and this is enough to sow about an acre with, which should be done at the end of the cold weather. If only a small quantity is grown, it is best to sow it on ridges, as it then, no doubt, can be kept free from weeds, and the cost of weeding, on an acre or two, is but trifling; but it is an error to suppose that lucerne cannot be sown broadcast. At the cattle farm at Hissar, in the Punjab, several hundred acres were grown in this way, as the cost of making ridges on such a large quantity of land would have been prohibitive. Of course, this lucerne was not so clean as if it had been grown on ridges, but the cattle picked it out from the weeds when it was put before them. Fresh seed will have to be sown about every three years, and the crop may be cut about five or six times during the season. About 4 lbs. is enough for a horse, but it is best to begin with half this quantity and gradually increase it, as if too large an amount is given at once it is likely to cause colic.

Guinea Grass.

Some years ago this was a very favourite grass forage to grow for horses, but lately lucerne has supplanted it, and, I think, rightly. The advantage of guinea grass is that it lasts through the hottest months of the year, which lucerne does not, but it requires a great deal of water. It grows in separate tufts, and they should be planted some distance apart, or otherwise they will crowd each other out.

Sugar Cane (_gunna_).

Sugar cane is not often used as an actual food, but horses are very fond of it, and on my visits to the stable I usually had some pieces carried after me in a basket when it was in season. It ripens at the end of the summer, and lasts into the winter. It is sold in long sticks, and should be chopped up into pieces; but the servants will steal it, as they eat it themselves as a sweetmeat.

Turnips (_shalgham_).

The ordinary white turnip grows all over the Punjab in the winter, and when carrots are not to be procured, I have used them in their place, preparing them in the same manner. Horses soon learn to eat and relish them.

Salt (_nimmuk_).

Salt is required by all animals in a certain quantity in their food to keep them in health. There are three different varieties sold in the native shops. Rock salt ("putter ke nimmuk"); ordinary salt, which is merely the rock salt crushed and powdered; and black salt ("kali nimmuk"). On the coast sea salt can also be obtained, but it is not to be found far inland. The common custom in India is to give powdered salt in the food, the usual daily allowance being about an ounce. I prefer to leave a lump of rock salt in the manger for the horse to lick when he likes. Some owners have a lump of it hung by a string to the wall, but I do not think this is advisable, as I have known more than one horse turn a wind-sucker from getting into the habit of licking and playing with it.

Tonics.

It is a common supposition, deeply rooted in the minds of horsemen, that, when a horse loses condition, he at once requires a tonic; and an immense number of these and "condition powders" are advertised. There is no better paying speculation in the world than the sale of these articles, as the majority of them consist of a few cheap and simple ingredients, that are retailed to the public at a hundred per cent. their original cost; and the best that can be said about these nostrums is that some of them are innocent and do no harm, while they serve to amuse the owner. The action of a tonic is to stimulate the appetite, and if the horse is feeding well they are certainly useless, if not actually harmful. If the horse feeds, and continues to fall off in condition, the chances are that there is something wrong in the stable management, which should be carefully inquired into. If this only occurs once with one animal, the inference is that medical advice is required, but if several are in the same state, or it is a matter of constant occurrence, then in most cases a change of "syce" is required, and it will be usually found better and cheaper than having recourse to any of these various advertised "cure-alls."

Horses not Feeding.

Horses refuse their food from a variety of causes. It is usually the first symptom noticed in the majority of attacks of illness, and I cannot too strongly urge that in such cases the sooner professional advice is obtained the better, there being nothing in which the old proverb, "a stitch in time saves nine," more applies to. On the other hand, horse owners are inclined to get very anxious without cause about horses not feeding, and to imagine that because he refuses to feed, or does not finish it up with a good appetite, that the animal is in a dangerous state. Horses are much like ourselves, and we all know that we sometimes do not feel inclined to do justice to a "square" meal, and that if we dine off a plate of soup we feel ready for a good breakfast in the morning. If the horse refuses his feed, or only plays about with it, have it at once removed; at the next only give him a little hay or grass, and the probabilities are that at the next he will eat up his grain with a hearty appetite. If he does not, then the sooner professional advice is called in the better, as you may be certain that something is wrong.

Damaged Food.

Damaged, mouldy, or sour food, the horse, of course, will not eat unless he is very hungry, and then only sufficient to stay his appetite. Damaged grain there is no excuse for, and can only be given through carelessness or indifference on the part of the owner or his servants. Sour food, or food that has fermented, is, with the best intentions, likely to be placed before the animal, as it is surprising how soon fermentation will set up in damp grain in a hot climate. The food should not be damped more than twenty minutes or half an hour at the most before it is given, and a dirty bucket will easily contaminate it. In the hot weather in India, particularly during the rains, when both man and beast are down below par, very little will put both off their feed. If the food, however, is at all sour it ought to be at once detected, as the smell is unmistakable.

Irregular Teeth.

In old horses the back teeth get irregular and worn in such a fashion that the food cannot be masticated and crushed, and is not then properly digested. The upper jaw of the horse is wider than the lower one, so that the upper teeth overlap the lower ones at the outside, and the lower ones the upper at the inside. By continually wearing, the upper back teeth get worn down more on the inside than the outside, and the lower ones more on the outside than the inside, or, in other words, the grinding surface of the teeth, instead of being horizontal, is at an angle or slope. The horse masticates his food with a sideways motion of the jaws, crushing the food between the back teeth like mill-stones, so that if the grinding surfaces of the teeth are not level, but sloped at an angle, they become locked, and prevent sufficient sideways play of the jaws. If this is suspected, the back teeth can be easily inspected by turning the horse with his tail to the sun, grasping the tongue with the left hand and opening the mouth, while the light is reflected into it by a small looking-glass held in the right. They can also be felt by putting one's hand on the outside of the cheek, where the outer edge of the upper teeth can be easily felt, and pushing the finger inwards and upwards, so as to get on the grinding surface when the horse opens his mouth, and the angle they are at can be at once detected through the cheek. This is, of course, only a rough method of examination, but it gives one a fair idea of the state the molars are in. If a tooth is broken or deficient, the corresponding one in the other jaw from not being worn down will become over-grown and fill up the vacant space, even growing so long as to damage the gum or bone in the jaw above or below it, as the case may be, and preventing the horse feeding. If it is one of the front molars, it is possible that the growth may be detected from outside, but the probabilities are that a more careful examination will be necessary, and, at all events, professional skill required to set matters right. Horses also suffer from decayed teeth; and, in fact, the whole matter of equine dentistry is much more important than is usually supposed, many animals remaining poor and thin simply because their teeth are not properly attended to.

Young Horses Cutting Teeth.

Young horses sometimes have great trouble when cutting their teeth, and if they go off their feed they should be attended to; but this requires professional skill.

Quidding.

When young horses begin to what is called "quid" their food, it is almost a certain indication that there is something wrong with the mouth. "Quidding" is gathering up a mouthful of hay or grass, rolling it about in the mouth, and half masticating it till it gets into a lump or ball, and then spitting it out without swallowing it. Sometimes a dozen or more of these "quids" will be found in the manger or on the stable floor.

Indigestion (_bud hazmie_).

Indigestion, or dyspepsia, which horses suffer from more commonly than the public imagine, will put them off their feed; but this is a matter for professional advice and treatment, and it is exceedingly dangerous for the owner to go trying domestic remedies. I have had many fatal cases of bowel diseases brought to me that have arisen solely from this cause.

Lampas.

This is a disorder that is firmly fixed in every groom's mind, both European and native, and is supposed to consist of a swelling or inflammation of the palate, or "barbs," just behind the upper incisor teeth. I do not deny for a moment the existence of such a thing, but what I do maintain is that in 75 per cent. of the cases brought to one, it exists only in the imagination of the attendant. The popular remedy some years ago was to cauterize the part with a hot iron, and I have no hesitation in saying that any one doing this should be indicted for cruelty to animals. Lately, the popular treatment has been more merciful in having the part scarified with a lancet, but even this is useless. Where lampas does exist, there is more or less enlargement and swelling of the membrane of the entire alimentary canal, but the "barbs" of the mouth being the only part visible, it is popularly supposed to be a local affection. Under these conditions, it will be readily understood how utterly useless lancing or scarifying one small part of the affected canal will be. A small dose of aperient medicine, or even putting the horse on a laxative diet of bran mash for a few days, will do all that is required, without having recourse to heroic measures.

Nose-bags (_tobra_).

Nose-bags are sadly neglected by "syces," and unless looked after by the owner, they never dream of cleaning them, so that, particularly with leather ones, they get into a very filthy condition, and frequently horses refuse to eat out of such dirty things. Both mangers and nose-bags should frequently be washed and scrubbed out with soap, or sand and water. Nose-bags are, at the best, a necessary evil, and if they have to be used at all, canvas ones are better than leather, being more easily cleaned. I only allowed nose-bags to be used when on the march, or out in camp; when in the stable the horses were fed out of an ordinary bucket, or else a manger, and even then they were not fastened on the head, but held on the ground.

Mangers (_kurlie_).

In the stable a manger should be used. In an Indian stable one is easily made out of a shallow, wide-mouthed earthen vessel ("gumalo"), built up with mud, about three feet high, in the corner. The "syces" can do this themselves, and the gumalo only costs a few pence in the bazaar. I always had two built in opposite corners, one for food and the other for water. If for any reason the manger cannot be built, or there is not one in the stable, then the horse should be fed out of a tin or zinc bucket, or else off a feeding-sheet. An old gunney-bag, spread out opened at the seams, answers admirably. The "syce" should hold the bucket or sheet while he is feeding, or the horse is very likely to knock the first over, or tear the sheet, by pawing at it with his fore feet.

Worms (_kirim_).

Parasites, or worms, in the intestines cause horses to lose condition very quickly. The most common are long white ones, like ordinary earthworms, about five to eight inches long; and small, very thin thread-like ones, about three inches long. They cause the horse to become very unthrifty and thin, the coat being dull, without the natural gloss that is seen in health, or as it is termed, "hide-bound." The horse is also apt to back up against any projection, or into a corner, and rub his tail against the wall, breaking off the hair, and giving it an unsightly appearance. If worms are suspected, the "syce" should be instructed to look for them in the horse's droppings in the morning, where the long ones are most likely to be found; also to examine under his dock, where the small ones will leave a yellowish incrustation under the root of the tail. An enema of common salt and water, made by dissolving about a table-spoonful of salt in a quart of luke-warm water, generally suffices to get rid of the small ones. The large ones, however, require medical treatment, which should be left in professional hands. If there are any worms passed, the litter, droppings, etc., should be carefully burned, and the floor of the stable scraped and the _débris_ burned, and a new floor laid down.

Rubbing the Tail.

Although commonly due to parasites in the intestines, "particularly the small thread-worms," with some horses it is a trick; neglect also, and the irritation caused by dirt, will often cause it. In India it is more often seen in coarse-bred horses, such as many Australians are, than in country-breds and Arabs. If it is from dirt, washing the tail well with soap and water will stop it; if it is a trick, keeping the tail in a tail-case, which is merely a piece of leather, with buckles and straps to fasten it on with; or an ordinary roller bandage put round from the tip to the root will generally stop it.

Scouring (_dast_).

Scouring, or diarrhoea, is usually seen in nervous horses when they get excited, and, as a rule, disappears when they get quiet again. It is more commonly seen in light-coloured, or what the horseman calls "washey," chestnuts and blacks, than any other colour. Some horses will always scour after a draught of cold water, and with such the chill should be taken off either by adding a little warm water, or standing the bucket out in the sun for a couple of hours before it is used. If the scouring persists, after returning to the stable, let the next feed consist of dry bran, not "bran mash," and this generally stops it. If a horse that is not in the habit of doing so suddenly begins scouring, it is a mistake to try and stop it too suddenly, as frequently it is an effort of nature to throw off something deleterious to the system. If, however, the diarrhoea should continue persistent, then professional advice should be obtained.

WATER.

Water (_pani_).

Horses prefer soft to hard water, and are particularly partial to rain-water. Many horses refuse to drink at all from a running stream, unless very thirsty, and even then will not take as much as is necessary. Mules, which in other respects are hardy animals, are very dainty and particular about their water. Such horses should be watered either out of a bucket or a still pool. In mountain and quick running streams there is often a large quantity of sand and small gravel held in suspension, that sinks to the bottom in places where the current runs slow. I have seen more than one death caused by constantly watering horses in such streams, by the animal swallowing a quantity of such sand; it accumulates in large masses in the intestines, and causes "sand colic." If it is necessary to water horses from such places for any length of time, if a suitable pool cannot be found where the water is still and the sand and gravel can settle, one should be made by building a dam.

Times of Watering.

Horses should be watered half an hour before feeding, or, if this cannot be managed, at least two hours should elapse after the feed before he is allowed to drink his fill. The reason of this is that the hard grain the horse eats is only partly crushed and broken by the teeth, and it is in the stomach where it is principally softened before passing on into the intestines. If, when the stomach is full of partly digested food, a large quantity of water is given, some of it will be washed into the intestine, and, being hard, and not properly softened, irritate it and set up colic. The best plan is to always have water in front of the horse, so that he can drink when he likes, and I have found that they take much less this way than when watered at regular times. In India this can be easily done by building up in mud a wide-mouthed, shallow, earthen vessel, called a "gumalo," in one corner of the stable, in the same way that a manger is made. It should be high enough for the horse to conveniently reach it, and be kept constantly full.

Watering Troughs.

When horses are watered at a trough or stream, as is necessarily the case with military animals, if they are thirsty they push their noses deep into it and drink greedily. They then lift their heads and look round them, and many persons think they have finished. This is not the case, as the horse is merely recovering his breath after his draught, and he should not be taken away until he either turns round and will drink no more, or until he begins to splash the water about with his nose and play with it, which shows he does not want any more.

Watering on a Journey.

It is commonly supposed that when on a journey horses should not be watered, but, in a warm climate, as long as only a steady pace is maintained and only a moderate quantity given, it does not do any harm, and, to judge from one's own experiences, certainly is refreshing. Of course, this must be done in moderation, like everything; and it undoubtedly would be dangerous to allow a horse to drink his fill and then give him a hard gallop directly afterwards; but, in both the South African and Australian colonies, I have travelled some hundreds of miles in post-carts and coaches, and the drivers at pretty nearly every stream they cross pull up and allow the horses to drink a few mouthfuls. I have never heard of any harm coming from this practice, and at the end of the journey they drink far less water than if they had been deprived of it while at work. In Norway, the carriole drivers water their ponies in the same way, and it is icy-cold coming from the glaciers.

Watering after a Journey.

When the journey is completed, it is advisable to walk the horse about for a short time, to allow him to get cool before watering; or, better still, and what every practical horseman will do, is to pull up and allow him to walk the last mile, so that he arrives at his stable fairly cool, and not reeking with perspiration. Grooming also will be greatly facilitated by this.

Watering Bridles (_kazai_).

Watering bridles are generally very much neglected, "syces" (grooms) never seeming to think that they require any care or attention. They are generally a mass of rust and dirt, and having one of these filthy things put into the mouth, is a much more common cause of horses going off their feed than is generally supposed. They are frequently thrown out on the heap of bedding, and left in the sun all day, and when put into the horse's mouth the iron of the bit is burning hot. I consider that this is one of the chief reasons of the sores that so frequently form at the angles of the mouth in the summer months, and which are most troublesome to cure. The bit of the watering bridle should be scrubbed daily with sand until it is polished, and the leather-work cleaned with soap (sabon) or dubbing (momrogan); if this is not done, it very soon perishes with the heat and becomes rotten, and if a horse is at all fresh and plays about, it breaks, the animal gets loose, and a serious accident is the result of the want of a little forethought.

Leeches (_jonk_).

In India leeches frequently get into the nose while the horse is drinking, especially out of ponds and streams, and although they are not absolutely dangerous, they cause troublesome bleeding, and make the animal cough and sneeze. They are sometimes very difficult to get rid off, and the best plan is to place some water in a bucket before the horse and splash it about. The leech is attracted by this, and comes down the nostril, when it can be caught if the operator is quick enough. A handkerchief is necessary, as the leech is too slippery to hold in the fingers. It is generally best to let one of the "syces" do this, promising him a small reward when the nuisance is got rid of, as some of them are wonderfully expert at it, and have untiring patience.

Wells.

In some Indian towns there is a water supply laid on to the houses by pipes, but in the majority it is obtained from a well (khua) in the compound. In these cases a water-carrier ("bheestie") has to be kept to draw and carry water for the household and stables, which he brings in a leather bag; "mussuk," the small leather bucket that he uses to fill the bag with, being called a "dholl." These water-bags should be renewed twice a year, as they get very foul inside if kept much longer, and they are only worth about Rs. 2 each. Very few people ever think of cleaning out the well, but it should be done at least once a year, as it is surprising the amount of rubbish, such as dead leaves and vegetation, gets into it. The landlord of the house should undertake this, but it is generally difficult to get him to do it without the tenant threatening to do it himself and deduct the cost out of the rent. There are professional well-cleaners in Northern India, who will do the work by contract. As a rule, it takes about three days, as the well has to be pumped dry by working the lifting wheel with relays of bullocks day and night, when a man goes down and removes the accumulation of rubbish from the bottom. Care should be taken to first lower down a lighted candle, or throw a bundle of lighted straw down before any one is allowed to descend, as there is frequently an accumulation of foul gas at the bottom, and I have known more than one accident from neglect of this precaution. Unless I had very good reason for knowing that the well had been lately cleaned, I always had this done on going into a new house. If this is neglected, the water during the rainy season is apt to get very foul, and I have known severe outbreaks of illness from this cause both in men and animals.

AIR AND VENTILATION.

Stables.

Nothing is worse for horses than close, ill-ventilated stables, and in India, where they are made out of such cheap material as mud and sun-dried brick, there is no excuse for their being too small. In some of the newer houses, stables are made out of burned brick; but I prefer the older ones of mud or sun-dried brick, as the walls are generally thicker, and this makes them cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter. It is also of importance that they should not be too low, but of the two evils I should prefer a small stable with a lofty roof to a larger one with a low one, provided there was ventilation in the top. Every stable should have a good deep verandah round it; it not only keeps off the sun in the summer, but is useful to put bedding, etc., in during the rain. If there is no verandah, one can be easily made with the flat straw screens used by natives, called "jamps," and bamboo supports. The doorways should be high and wide, so that there is no danger of the horse hitting his hips or head against it in going in and out. A fractured hip-bone is frequently caused by horses rushing through narrow doorways, and a troublesome disease known as "poll evil" is generally caused by striking the head against too low a one. It is also well to have the sides of the door-posts rounded off, not left at an angle. If there is no window at the back of the stable, opposite the door, one should be made above the horse's head, and another smaller one on a level with the floor, so as to allow the air to circulate freely. If possible, avoid a draught, but always remember that it is better to have plenty of fresh air and a draught than a stuffy stable without one, as the horse can always be kept warm with extra clothing, bandages, and bedding. Thatched roofs are much cooler in summer and warmer in winter than the flat earthen ones that are generally used in Northern India. Indian stables are almost always divided off into loose boxes, the partition walls being continued up to the roof. I think they should be only built high enough to prevent the horses teasing each other over them, as if continued right up they interfere with the free circulation of the air. If this cannot be done, on account of the partitions helping to support the roof, a window should be knocked through in each. In South Africa stables are usually simply a long shed with a manger running down the back wall, without any partitions between the standings, and the horses are simply tied up to a ring in the manger with the head rope. Cape horses are, however, exceedingly quiet, and will stand still all day long. They never seem to think of kicking or biting at each other like the Indian country-bred does.

Chicks.

The plague of flies in the East, particularly during the rains, cannot be realized in England, and if not protected against them, they will almost worry horses to death. For this reason the doors and windows of the stable should be fitted with "chicks," or mats, made out of split bamboos or reeds, with interspaces between them, which allow of light and air passing through, but which will keep the flies out. They are not very costly articles, and add most materially to the comfort of the horse. If carefully looked after, and not let flap about in the wind, they will last for years with a very small annual expenditure for repairs.

Stable Floors.

The stable floor should be made of wet clay beaten down, and left to thoroughly dry. This can be carried out by the "syces," and if thoroughly done, they will last a good many months. I always make it a practice to dig up the floors of stables in a new house, before they are occupied, a foot and a half deep, and thoroughly renew it, and usually it is astounding the amount of foul earth that has to be removed. I also have the whole of the floor picked up and renewed once a year--for choice, at the end of September or beginning of October, after the rains have stopped. Any moisture should be at once removed, before it has time to soak into the floor; or, if it has, the moist earth should be swept away with a broom (jaru), made out of a number of pliable twigs tied together, and fresh dry earth sprinkled over the top of it. A supply of dry powdered earth should be kept outside each stable door in a box ready for use when required. The ordinary earth that is in the compound will not do to make floors out of, although "syces" will use it if allowed, as it is less trouble to get than clay (kicher ke muttee), but it will not bind, and when trodden on breaks up and wears into dust.

Charcoal (_khoalie_).

Although it looks dirty, powdered charcoal sprinkled over the floor has a powerful effect as a deodorizer. The ashes of a wood fire do nearly as well as charcoal for this purpose, and can be obtained anywhere, as wood is universally used for fuel all over India. In some stables earthenware vessels (chatties) are buried under the floor to catch the urine. This is an abominable, filthy custom, and should never be permitted, as there is no more certain cause of disease. Diseases of the feet, such as foul smelling, suppurating frogs, thrush, and canker, are in the majority of cases caused by horses standing on wet, filthy floors.

Picketing.

In the hot season horses should, if possible, be picketed out at night as soon as it gets cool in the evening. It is the greatest relief to an animal to be brought out of a hot stable into the open air, even if the actual temperature is no less than indoors. If the flies or mosquitos are troublesome, the nets sold for the purpose will keep them off. If the net is not sufficient, a fire made out of the stable litter on the windward side will drive them away, and horses do not mind smoke. It is as well to have a regular standing made with mud, in the same way as the stable flooring, as otherwise the ground soon gets broken up and foul. The standing should be swept clean every morning, and mended in the same way as the stable floors are.

Bedding (_bechalie_).

There is nothing better than clean straw for bedding, and it is a great mistake to stint horses in it. If a good deep bed is given, they will lie down and rest themselves, whereas, if there is not enough, and the floor feels hard through it, they will walk about over it, and far more will be wasted than if the horse was lying down on it. The bedding should be taken up every morning, and any soiled straw removed. It should be well shaken up and spread out in the sun to dry and air, and at night, when again put down for use, a small quantity of fresh straw added to it. In wet weather the bedding can be aired and dried in the verandah. All soiled straw and droppings should be at once removed in a basket (tokrie), which should be provided for the purpose; and it is wonderful, if this plan is adopted, how little fresh straw is required to keep the horse constantly supplied with a good bed; and nothing is more saving to the wear and tear of the legs and feet than to get the animal to lie down at night. In Australia and South Africa wheat or oat straw can be obtained, but in India rice straw is generally used, or else the long elephant grass that grows on the banks of rivers and swampy places. Both are good enough for the purpose, only they are brittle, and more is required than when wheat straw is used, as they quickly break up.

Sawdust (_burradah_).

In the north of India the deodar, or Himalayan cedar sawdust, can always be obtained from any of the timber depôts on the banks of the large rivers, almost for the expense of carting it away. It makes a good bed if straw cannot be obtained, but is liable to stick to the horse and get in under his coat if at all long, and gives much more work grooming. It is also more troublesome to remove in the morning to air, and if any wind is blowing a good deal gets wasted. If used, it is best to have it spread out in one stall and leave it there, only using it at night, putting the horse into another during the daytime. Any sawdust that gets damp or soiled should be at once removed, as it very soon begins to smell badly.

Shavings.

Shavings of deodar or pine can also be obtained, but they require to be carefully sorted out, as there are likely to be splinters in them, and in lying down the horse may give himself a bad wound.

Sand (_ret_).

Sand can be obtained anywhere along the banks of the rivers; but it is hard, and does not form a very yielding bed, and I should not use it if anything else could be got. It requires to be sifted, to get rid of the pebbles and stones it contains. If straw is scarce and sand has to be used, the best plan is to put a layer of about a foot of sand over the floor, and a thin layer of straw over it; this will make a much softer bed than the sand alone.

Horses eating Bedding.

This is a trick some horses have, and from which they seldom can be cured. It is generally the custom to put a muzzle (chik-na) on them at night; but this, of course, stops their feeding at all. I prefer to bed them down with sand, sawdust, or shavings, and leave them free to feed at night. If a muzzle is used, it should be a wire one, not leather, as these get very foul and dirty, and interfere with the horse's breathing, which the wire one does not.

Exercise.

In India it is usual to exercise ordinary hacks, polo ponies, and harness horses, not doing any special work, twice a day--morning and evening. The length of time they are out, and the amount of ground they cover, is very variable--in most cases depending on whether the "syce" is in a mood to take exercise or not himself. They usually take horses out on the road to the bazaar, or some favourite meeting-place; and it is not an uncommon thing to see a couple of dozen horses, belonging to various people, standing about, while their respective "syces" are sitting about, smoking and discussing their masters and various bazaar topics of interest. Under these circumstances the horses do not get much exercise; and many a mysterious injury, that cannot be accounted for, is inflicted by their kicking at each other while standing about in this manner. If the compound is large enough, it is a good plan to make a ring with the stable litter and have the horses exercised round it. You can then be certain they are getting a fair amount of work; but a large ring is necessary, and if there is a garden it spoils the compound. Furthermore, horses get into a very careless, slovenly way of walking when led round and round in this monotonous fashion daily. "Syces" generally lead horses at exercise, and most horse-owners will not allow them to ride; but I think this is a mistake, and if they can ride, I always allow them to do so. If they lead the horse, he will go along in a listless fashion, and walk with his head down, stumbling at every step; whereas, if he is ridden, he will carry his head up and go in a much more lively and collected fashion, and it being much pleasanter for the "syce" to ride than walk, the full amount of exercise is more likely to be taken. "Syces" nearly always ride at exercise bare-backed; but they should be made use a folded blanket as a pad, kept in its place by a body-roller, as the anatomy of the native of India is such that, without any protection, he is likely to give the horse a sore back. They should also only be let use a snaffle bridle, as few know how to handle a double one. When at exercise knee-caps should be worn. These should be bought from a European saddler, and care be taken that the top strap is fitted with a piece of indiarubber in the middle, to allow of its giving with the motion of the limb. If there is not this indiarubber spring, when the top strap is buckled tight enough to prevent the cap slipping down, the motion will cause it to rub the skin at the back of the knee; and I have seen some bad abrasions, that caused temporary lameness, from this cause. If the top strap is buckled loose enough to avoid this chafing, then the knee-cap won't stay up in its proper place, if it has no spring. The country-made knee-caps sold by the native saddlers seldom are fitted with it; and if they are they cannot be relied on, as generally the indiarubber is bad and perished. The lower strap of the knee-cap should be buckled quite loose, it being only required to keep it down and prevent it flapping about; but "syces" are very apt to draw it tight also, and if they do, it is pretty certain to cut the skin.

GROOMING, STABLE GEAR, Etc.

Heel Ropes (_pecharie_).

If possible, horses should be left loose, which generally can be done in India, as most of the stables are loose boxes. Sometimes it is necessary to fasten them up, such as when picketed out at night in the hot weather or on the march. There are several plans of picketing, each having its advantages and disadvantages; but as these generally apply to military animals, I will merely mention those commonly used in private stables. The most common plan is to fasten the horse up with head and heel ropes, to wooden pegs driven into the ground. Heel ropes (pecharie) consist of either two ropes about twelve feet long, ending in a single one, so as to be Y-shaped, the single one being fastened to a wooden peg (make) driven into the ground, and the two arms to the horse's hind fetlocks by means of leather straps, called "muzzumas." These straps are loops of rope covered with leather, to one end of which the heel rope is tied, and into which the hind foot is slipped, being secured by a flat leather thong wound round the middle of it behind the fetlock joint to prevent its slipping off. The strap is then of a fig. 8, or hour-glass shape, the heel rope being tied in one loop, the foot placed in the other, the thong forming the neck or constriction. These, I think, are the best form of leather foot strap; but in buying them care should be taken that the stitching of the leather is on the outside, as if it is on the inside, where natives often put it, it is very likely to rub the skin and cause a bad cracked heel. Another form of "muzzuma" is made out of stiff flat leather lined with felt. This has a slip loop going round it, with a buckle on one side and a strap on the other, that runs along the centre. The heel rope is tied to one end, the foot put into the other, and when the strap is buckled tightly, the running loop is drawn close up to the heel, so as to keep the whole arrangement in its place. This form of "muzzuma" is the usual kind sold; but it is objectionable, as the edges get stiff and hard, and are likely to cut the heel, which the round ones do not. Both sorts of leather "muzzumas" require to be kept soft and pliable with dubbing (momrogan), which "syces" never think necessary. I, however, prefer those made out of plaited hemp or tow. They are merely a band of loosely plaited tow, about eighteen inches long, the heel rope being fastened to one end, and secured by a string or tape just behind the fetlock; they are much softer than the leather ones, and quite as strong. The disadvantage, however, is that they soon wear out, but they are very cheap; in fact, the "syces" can make them themselves out of the raw hemp or tow (sun). They are used by many of the native cavalry regiments in India in preference to the leather ones. The heel ropes can be made out of one long rope doubled, a "muzzuma" fastened to each free end, and the doubled portion to a tent-peg. When heel ropes are used, one should be put on each hind leg; it is dangerous to only put on one, and I have seen more than one fractured thigh caused by this. If the heel ropes are on both hind legs, and the horse kicks, he has to do so straight into the air, as there is equal restraint on both; but if there is only one, the unequal check of the single rope is likely to cause a fracture. If allowed, "syces" will always pull the heel ropes so tight as to stretch the horse out; they should be loose enough to allow him to stand in a natural position.

Head Ropes (_aghari_).

Head ropes should be fastened to the ring on the head collar (nukta) under the chin. There should either be two separate ropes, one end of each fastened to the ring, or one long one doubled in the middle, the central portion fastened to the ring, and the two ends to two wooden pegs driven into the ground about three or four feet on each side of the horse's head. If only a single rope is used, it must, naturally, be fastened to a peg straight in front, and, to allow the horse to move his head up and down, must be loose. When fastened in this way he is exceedingly likely to get his fore leg over the rope and get hung up in it, a nasty wound in the heel or at the back of the knee being the result, if nothing worse; whereas, if the ropes are pegged out on each side, he can move about freely, and it would be difficult for him to get his leg over them. Both head and heel ropes should be made of hemp; the cotton rope used in India for most purposes is not strong enough, and soon breaks and wears out. In Peshawur and along the north-west frontier, a rope is made of goat hair that is very strong, and is excellent for this purpose. It is somewhat more expensive than ordinary rope, but with care will last a long time, and will amply repay itself. Both head and heel ropes should be tied to the pegs in a slipknot, so that with a single pull horses can be set free when necessary. "Syces" will usually tie them in a jam-knot, and horses struggling to get loose when frightened very often badly injure themselves before they can be set free.

Fetlock Picketing.

A method of picketing horses was introduced into the Indian army some years ago, by dispensing with head ropes and using a short chain shackle about three feet long, buckled round one of the fore fetlocks, and fastened to a peg driven into the ground. This was chiefly done with the object of reducing the weight carried, and with animals used for military purposes, doubtless fulfilled the purpose, but in a private stable I fail to see its advantages over the other plan.

Picketing Posts.

When horses are picketed outside the stable, and there is space enough, picketing posts are the most preferable method, as they allow greater freedom than any other. A stout smooth post, about five or six inches in diameter, is driven several feet into the ground, so that it is five or six feet above the surface, a strong iron ring is slipped over it, and to this the head rope is made fast; no heel ropes are used, and the horse can move round it as he pleases. The post must be smooth, so that there is nothing for the ring to catch in, and when put into the ground the point should be put into the fire and charred, or covered with kerosene oil, to keep off the white ants. It will also have to be examined occasionally to see that it is not damaged or rotten. The only drawback to this plan is that, if there are several horses, a considerable space is necessary, as they must be far enough apart to prevent their kicking at each other.

Ringing.

In South Africa and the colonies horses are picketed by the method known as "ringing," the head rope of one being fastened to the head collar of the next, and so on, till the head rope of the last is in its turn fastened to the head collar of the first, their heads forming a ring looking inwards. Colonial horses will stand like this for hours together; but they are very quiet, and behave in a different way to the Indian country-bred. I have seen the same plan used in a cavalry regiment of the Italian army on the march near Milan.

Rheims.

In South Africa head ropes are made of prepared raw hide called "rheims." They are prepared by the Kaffir women out of raw ox hide, and are very strong and supple, and are excellent for the purpose.

Knee-haltering.

Knee-haltering is also a South African plan of securing horses when turned out to graze. The fore leg is lifted up, so that the forearm from the elbow to the knee is parallel to the ground. The head rope, or "rheim," is then fastened above the knee, the head being pulled a little downwards. The horse is then turned out to graze on the veldt, and when his head is down feeding he can use his limbs and walk about as he likes, but as soon as he puts up his head to trot or gallop the fore leg is pulled up, and he has only three to go on, and can easily be caught.

Shackles (_bheri_).

The natives of India use iron shackles, much like handcuffs, to fasten with a key round both fore fetlocks of horses when turned out loose; but they are not a desirable invention, and in young animals are very likely to cause ringbones. But this, I think, is on account of their clumsy shape and being constantly worn, as I believe shackles made out of round iron that shut with a spring were used by the Canadian mounted police at one time when turning their horses out, and they found they did not chafe and rub so much as leather ones did. It was found that even moving through the wet grass the steel hobbles were polished, kept bright, and required no attention, whereas the leather ones perished and became hard, and gave constant trouble unless carefully looked after. I have never tried this plan myself, for I have found the Cape system of knee-haltering when turning animals out to graze the best I have yet come across.

Picketing-pegs (_make_).