Chapter XII: Section II: Timbers (7)

It is known to every forester, that trees growing in close order, and drawn up tall, will not continue healthy on being thinned out to very open arrangement, but will often fall victims to the change of circumstances, even though they withstand the gale. Who, then, would be guilty of the folly of expecting {266} they would bear exposure and the injuries of transplanting at the same time? Sir Henry Steuart mentions some particular facts as causes of this unsuitableness. Perhaps it would have been as well to ascribe it to general inaptitude and delicacy, as there are several other circumstances not easily understood, such as vital stamina, habitude or acclimatizing, and texture and configuration of vessels, which must have influence. We should also think simple evaporation of the fluids of the transplanted tree a much greater cause of its failure than the cold of this or of any other evaporation acting to numb the sap-vessels in the stem and branches. The absorbing mouths of the rootlets, excepting in the case of very large balls, are generally destroyed by the operation of removal; and the development of the leaves to a certain extent taking place before any new process of striking of the roots, owing to the atmosphere and branches getting sooner heated in spring than the ground and roots, the half-developed leaves shrivel up in the arid spring air, from the evaporation of the juices and deficiency of root-suction; and when the air gets moist, showers fall, and the earth becomes warm enough for the _striking_ of the roots, the vital principle is too far spent, or the material substance too much changed, for the {267} recommencement of organic action. We have found that trees which had remained months out of ground, and were planted in March, succeed better than trees removed immediately from their old site to their new, both being planted with equal care in the same ground at the same time. The latter acquired half developed leaves early in April, which withered from deficiency of root-suction; and it was only with attention that we succeeded in causing them to bud forth anew and acquire leaves about midsummer; in several, we stimulated the root-suction by application of heated water, covering up with litter to retain the heat. The former were several weeks more backward in leafing, and when the buds burst, the ground had become warm enough for _root-striking_, and the vegetation proceeded without check. Sir Henry will say, that the check sustained by those which leafed early, was owing to the numbing effect of the cold spring wind, and of the cold of evaporation on the sap-vessels of the stem; but we had caused several of them to be wrapped round the stem with soft straw-ropes, and this did not prevent the shrivelling of the leaves, although it certainly protected the sap-vessels from the cold. This withering of the leaves of transplanted trees, by which large transplanted trees so {268} frequently perish, is most prevalent in cold damp soils, when the air is dry and the sun powerful, and evidently results from the superior vegetation being in advance of the inferior; torpor of the roots, not torpor of the sap-vessels of the stem from cold. It is also perfectly evident, that trees with long naked stems will suffer most, as their leaves are raised higher, more in the current of the drying wind; their root and top farther asunder, therefore less liable to contemporaneous impulse; the sap-vessels of the stem longer and more attenuated, therefore the streams of fluids from the soil, not only smaller, but also more liable to obstruction, or to flow slowly, from the insufficiency of the vital impulse, or of endosmose in the wounded sickly plant to impel to such a height. Our author’s assertion, that the rough epidermis generally covering the live bark of trees in open situations, is necessary to the health of the tree, in protecting the sap-vessels from cold, is, we think, not quite correct. Some time ago we caused the dead epidermis be hewn down from several trees, in a rather exposed situation. This was done with considerable nicety, and extending up along the branches. We remember of one case, of very thick indurated epidermis, where a carpenter was employed more than a day in laying bare the live bark of one tree. {269} Instead of suffering injury by this exposure of the sap-vessels to cold, the trees rather acquired new vigour from the operation; and the particular tree alluded to, was unusually luxuriant the season following this flaying, which was performed in winter. Now, to apply Sir Henry’s analogy of fur of animals, would an arctic fox have been benefited by exposure to the winter’s cold in like plight? We also think Sir Henry will find the trees of dry climates have a much thicker coating of dead bark than in cold countries, evidently a consequence of desiccation[51], and, if Sir Henry must have animal analogy—similar to the desiccation and cracking of the skin of man in arid air. {270}

It is a subject of considerable difficulty to explain the cause of slender lengthened shoots in sheltered situations, and short stout shoots in exposed. Sir Henry solves this “excellently well” in two ways, first, attributing it to shelter and exposure themselves,—“for shelter is heat, and exposure cold,”—and again, to an instinctive straining in the sheltered to reach the light, of which its neighbours deprive it every way but from above, and would do so there too if it failed to exert itself.

We find that vegetables have long spindling shoots, and wide spaces between the leaves or buds, when growing in a damp, still, close atmosphere, especially when the plant is sickly or weak from deficiency of nourishment, and that this happens equally, whether a trailing plant being supported aloft throws out depending shoots in opposition to the current of light; whether a climbing[52] plant runs out horizontally along a branch or beam at right angles to the light, or whether a self-supported mounting plant rises in direct opposition to gravity. No doubt, when the light comes from one direction, {271} such as the aperture of a window, the plant shoots forth towards the light, possibly in consequence of the leaves inclining themselves to receive the ray on their superficies, and thus leading the shoot in the direction of the light. But this does not prove any straining or lengthening of the shoot to approach the light; and we ask, what do general opinion and Sir Henry found their belief upon, of lengthening growth and straining to approach the light?

Again, with regard to heat, we notice that plants, particularly shoots from tubers, left to sprout in cold, damp, confined cellars, throw out very long stems, with wide spaces between the buds or leaves, and that very long shoots always occur in confined damp air—long in the ratio of the dampness and confinement, whatever the degree of heat may be, provided it exceed a little the vegetating point. Also on the north side of hills, the trees have generally longer stems than on the sun-ward side, although in the former case, they are exposed to the northern blast, while in the latter they bask in the sun. Has the same kind of plant, in lower latitudes, longer spaces between the leaves than in higher? And if it has not, is the cold, from greater evaporation, sufficient to balance the superior heat of the climate? {272}

The above facts must lead, we think, to the conclusion, that evaporation, or non-evaporation, of the fluids, has, directly, a very considerable influence in causing a shorter or longer extension of the shoot between the buds or leaves, and that the influence of the cold of this evaporation is at most but of a very secondary character. We would compare the extending rudiments and matter of the young scion to the slow flowing of a gelatinous fluid. In moist air, the watery part is slowly evaporated, and the drop extends into a long pendulous form. In dry air, the water of solution is quickly evaporated, longitudinal extension ceases, and the pendant is thicker and shorter. The cold of evaporation may a little affect the fluidity, but only in a very small degree[53].

The causes of the elongation of vegetables are, {273} however, not very plain. We have noticed, that the deeper the seed is placed in the ground, the braird rises the higher above ground, even when the seeds at the different depths have been equally moist. This might admit of explanation, but having already occupied too much space with this subject, we shall only remark further, that in close woods, the trees elongate, because they are precluded from extending laterally. The top buds, from receiving more of the stimulating or nourishing influence of the dew, sun’s rays, fresh unvitiated air, invigorating motion of the winds, and perhaps of electricity[54], {274} throw out a greater continuation of shoot than the under branches; nearly the whole nourishment from the soil being on this account drawn up and consumed by these top shoots, and the lower overshadowed twigs and branches languishing and dying from the absence of these advantages. Besides this extension of top shoots, by the greater continuation of leaves, or links of life, occasioned by the above causes, these shoots, owing to the moist atmosphere of the wood, also push out into longer spaces between the leaves. However, these top branches do not push sun-ward, but merely in opposition to gravity.

Sir Henry states, that “trees certainly possess some heat, otherwise they would be killed during severe frosts.” Our belief of the vital heat of vegetables is placed on a much better foundation than {275} this _otherwise_; otherwise our credence would be far from philosophic. Freezing cold affects many vegetables as well as some of the lower animals, only by mechanical injury, in rending the vessels by means of the expansion of the contained fluid. Now, if these vessels are not quite full of fluid, if the fluid be of such a nature as not to congeal into greater size, or if the body be small, and the vessels elastic, to yield to expansion without fracture—the vegetable or animal will often resume vitality, on being thawed from thorough congelation. We have rendered potatoes, turnips, and fruits, frost-proof, at least unless the frost was intense, by a slight desiccation caused by exposing them a short time to the air after being taken from the ground or tree[55]. In the cases where fishes and reptiles have been found {276} frozen so hard as to require a hatchet to dissect them, and reviving on thawing, it will be found that the fluids were principally oleaginous, which do not expand in congealing; and in the case of insects being frozen in masses during the night, and resuming their liveliness next day in the sun, we think, if their fluids have congealed at all, that either the vessels must have yielded, being elastic (which might more likely take place in a small body, without general fracture and derangement), or that the fluids had not extended by being congealed; but it is very probable, though frozen together in a mass of water and mud, that their fluids, from being of an acid nature, had resisted the congelation.

With regard to trees, we have heard that intense frost often splits the trunks of some of our indigenous kinds by congelation[56]; but these trees retain vitality, and only suffer from the consequences which may ensue from the fissures. We have seen evergreens, plants from milder climates, and trees which had not thoroughly ripened their {277} wood (that is, retained the vessels full of moisture), injured in the extremities, and even killed throughout by cold. But this does not prove that these had any vegetable heat, any more than those which suffered no injury from the same degree of cold, prove that they had vegetable heat. The juices of some kinds of plants do not congeal at the same point of temperature as others. The vessels of some in winter are not so much distended with fluids as others; and probably the vital principle of some is less susceptible of injury from cold than others. These facts may account for the endurance of intense cold by some kinds of trees, independent of vegetable heat.

Our author, speaking of the transplanting of fruit trees, states, that “any gardener could have predicted the probability of fruit during the first season, together with the certainty during the second of its not taking place.” Our gardeners will be moonstruck at having the gift of prophecy attributed to them, at least to predict in such a way. We have thought Sir Henry sufficiently ready to impute ignorance to gardeners before we came to this remark; but to represent a useful and intelligent class of men in so ludicrous a light, is certainly using a very improper liberty. {278}

Every gardener is aware that trees will fruit the first season after transplanting, just if they have had the rudiments of the fruit formed in the bud before transplanting, and should the blossom not be injured by severe weather. Every gardener is aware, though Sir Henry seems not, that all fruit trees, of any size, form these rudiments the season after transplanting, and that they invariably fruit the second season, if the season suit the fruiting of the kind; and every gardener of any experience is capable, even without Sir Henry’s instructions, of removing a fruit tree of considerable size, without injuring it so severely as to prevent it fruiting both first and second season, which it will do, and even mature fine fruit both years, though during the first, under very unfavourable circumstances, it should scarcely be able to develope leaves 1-5th of the usual size, and though these leaves wither and drop off long before the summer is ended, while the fruit remains to ripen on the tree. This is _a direct consequence of evaporation_. The thin leaves shrivel up in the ardent sun from evaporation and want of sufficient supply by root-suction; and the bulbs of the fruit, from their massiveness, contain sufficient moisture to resist withering till the night, when they drink the dews, and suck up some little moisture from the roots, undiminished {279} by evaporation in the transit, to replenish the daily loss.

Sir Henry remarks, that “no man who knows any thing of wood, will put down the oak or the elm on light sand or gravel, as it is only on deep loam and clay that the oak, in particular, will really thrive and grow into timber.” No man who knows _how much a suitable soil for any kind of plant is under regulation of the moistness or dryness of the atmosphere, and other circumstances_, will refrain from smiling at Sir Henry’s very superficial acquaintance with his own subject, and at the manner he thus again brings forward mankind to testify in support of his own error. Our author will place the above quotation among the errata should he take a ride up Strath-Tay from Birnam to Kenmore.

Among other items of expense given by our author, none of which seem to be overstated, we feel grateful for the information, that compost manure of lime, farm-yard dung, and moss, can be obtained, compounded, fermented, conveyed and applied, at the rate of 6d. and 9d. per single and double load!

Sir Henry makes good his assertion, that slow grown timber is always stronger, denser, and more durable than fast grown, by a cloud of witnesses,—every forester, gardener, and carpenter of the {280} country, is ready to attest it of course! There are few sublunary matters which admit of evidence more conclusive. We quote his account of this uniform “law of nature.”

“The same general law operates in a similar way on all woody plants, but of course less rapidly, owing to the less rapid growth of trees, from the lowest bush to the oak of the forest. In all these, the culture of the soil tends to _accelerate vegetation_, and by consequence to _expand the fibre of the wood_. It necessarily renders it softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements. Let us shortly give a few examples of the uniform effect of this law of nature.

“Every forester is aware how greatly easier it is to cut over thorns or furze that are trained in hedges, than such as grow naturally wild, and are exempt from culture. Gardeners experience the same thing in pruning or cutting over fruit trees or shrubs; and, the difference of the texture of the raspberry in its wild and in its cultivated state, is as remarkable; for although the stem in the latter state is nearly double the thickness of that in the former, it is much more easily cut. On comparing the common crab, the father of our orchards, with the cultivated {281} apple, the greater softness of the wood of the latter will be found no less striking to every arboriculturist.

“Further, the common oak in Italy and Spain, where it grows faster than in Britain, is ascertained to be of shorter duration in those countries. In the same way, the oak in the Highland districts of Scotland or Wales, is of a much harder and closer grain, and therefore more durable, than what is found in England; though in such mountains it seldom rises to the fifth part, or less, of the English tree. Every carpenter in Scotland knows the extraordinary difference between the durability of Highland oak and oak usually imported from England, for the spokes of wheels. Every extensive timber-dealer is aware of the superior hardness of oak raised in Cumberland and Yorkshire, over that of Monmouthshire and Herefordshire; and such a dealer in selecting trees in the _same_ woods, in _any_ district, will always give the preference to oak of slow growth, and found in cold and clayey soils, and to ash on rocky cliffs, which he knows to be the soils and climates natural to both. If he take a cubic foot of park-oak, and another of forest-oak, and weigh the one against the other (or if he do the like {282} with ash and elm of the same description), the latter will uniformly turn out the heavier of the two.”

It is certainly the case, that luxuriant growth increases the size of the sap-vessels and cells, but with this increase of size, there is often a proportional increase of thickness of the sides of these vessels and cells, and a greater than proportional filling up of dense matter, as the alburnum is better ripened in autumn, or as the mature wood, especially of hard wood in dry situations, ripens more slowly in the course of years. There is also in many kinds more of close tissue and cellular part, in proportion to large sap-vessels, when the tree is growing vigorously than when it is stunted. (See the facts in our notice of Withers, p. 199.) _Thence culture does not necessarily render the timber softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements._ We are really angry with those smooth-tongued rogues who “fool us to the top of our bent.” _Every artificer_ who has worked slow grown ash of considerable age, that is, when most of the timber has been deposited after the tree has been seeding strongly, _assures us_ that the timber is very inferior, in all respects, to that of quicker growth. {283}

We consider the forester who has observed that thorns or furze trained in hedges are much easier cut from softness of timber than when growing in detached bushes, a much better observer than ourselves; and we would inquire whether he were certain that the greater efficiency of his blows was not owing to their being better directed, from the conveniency of access, owing to the training up, than from the timber being softer? The example of the raspberry we consider very irrelevant, it being only a semi-herbaceous plant of biennial stem.

Gardeners certainly experience the branches and roots of crab-apple to be harder than the varieties with thicker bark, larger more downy leaves, and larger fruit. The largest growing apple varieties, however, are not the above mentioned mild varieties, but those which have a pretty close approximation to the crab. We have taken slips from some of the very largest of our pear-trees, and having placed them close to the ground on young stocks, have found they threw out spines and rectangular branching similar to crabs. Those most dissimilar to the crab have thick annual shoots, without any lateral rectangular branching, and very thick bark; they have been gradually bred to this condition by repeated sowing, always choosing the seed of those {284} partaking most of these qualities for resowing, their disposition to vary to mildness being at the same time influenced in some measure by culture and abundant moist nourishment; but these mild varieties, although they throw out a strong annual shoot while young, seldom or never reach to any considerable size of tree, unless they are nourished by crab roots, their own roots being soft and fleshy, and incapable of foraging at much depth or distance. Their branches and twigs as they get old, are also very soft and friable, covered with a thick bark, but the timber of the stem is very little inferior in hardness to crab timber.

We ask, if even the fact of these unnaturally tender varieties (obtained by long-continued selection, probably assisted by culture, soil and climate, and which, without the cherishing of man, would soon disappear), being of rather more porous texture of wood, goes any length to prove our author’s assertion? We have paid some attention to the fibre of the genus Pyrus, and find that the Siberian crabs have by far the smallest vessels. Having grafted the large Fulwood upon the smallest Red Siberian Crab, or Cherry-apple, the new wood layers above the junction swelled to triple the thickness of those below. By ingrafting other kinds upon other {285} stocks, we have found the reverse to take place, no doubt owing to those with largest vessels swelling the most, there being the same number of vessels above and below the junction, each corresponding, or being a continuation of the other[57]. But this small Siberian crab, when ingrafted upon a common crab, grew fully as quickly during several years as the Fulwood under the same circumstances; and the timber, though of much finer texture, scarcely exceeded the other in hardness. Sir Henry tells us, that the oak is less durable in Italy and Spain than in England[58]. We tell Sir Henry, that the red-wood pitch-pine from Georgia and the Floridas, on the confines of the torrid zone, is more durable than the red-wood pine from Archangel, on the confines of the frigid zone. But does this fact {286} regarding the oak of the south of Europe, prove any thing regarding the oak of England,—that it will always he deteriorated by culture for several years after planting, or that the quality may not suffer as much from slowness of growth as from fastness, or from the climate being too cold as from being too warm?

The reason why Highland Scots oak spokes are superior to English, is, because the latter are generally split from out the refuse of the timber cut for naval purposes,—principally _the branches and tops_ of large trees; whereas, those from the Highlands of Scotland are from _the root cuts_ of copse. We believe most carpenters of Scotland are aware of this. The oak from the Highlands of Scotland is, however, for the most part, of excellent quality, growing generally on _dry gravel and rock_, not on cold moist _clayey soils_. The hardest we have ever seen was from a steep, dry gravel bank, of south exposure, in an open situation, much exposed to the western breeze. The Highland oak from these soils is generally of a greyish colour, and very dense; whereas that from moist soils is often reddish-brown, and defective. Should Sir Henry weigh portions of oak from these soils in a pair of material, in place of mental scales, we think his conclusions would be {287} somewhat different.—The strongest, hardest ash we have seen, was cut from a hard, dry, adhesive clay, of course a young tree.

Sir Henry, speaking of the Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland, states that “it is from a want of soil, and not of climate, that woods of any given extent cannot be got up in these unsheltered, but romantic situations.” Of many situations of these bleak districts, this must be admitted, but we cannot receive it as a general fact; and even where it holds true, the want of (proper) soil, or formation of peat, is a _consequence_ of the want of climate, although _this_ may have reacted to increase the evil. There must have been a greater warmth of climate, at least in summer, when the forests grew, which lie buried in the mosses of the northern part of Scotland, and of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, as some kinds of timber are found in situations where such kinds, by no circumstances of gradual shelter under the present climate, could have grown. There are several indications of a greater warmth having been general throughout Britain, and even farther eastward, and that a slight refrigeration is still in progress. We instance the once numerous vineyards of England,—the vestiges of aration so numerous upon many of our hills, where it would now be considered fruitless to attempt raising grain, even {288} with the assistance of modern science; and the report that the Caspian is gradually overflowing her shores, a probable consequence of diminished evaporation from decrease of heat.

That this is not wholly owing to the moisture and cold consequent to the moss formation, or to any cover or want of cover to the earth, of timber, or of any other plants which might possibly have effect upon the temperature by shade, evolution of vegetable heat, electric or meteoric agency, we think proved, should the asserted fact be correct, that, in the small _oes_ of Shetland, (so distant from any considerable portion of land as not to be under these influences, and so small, that the climate must be solely dependant upon the sea), timber is found in the morasses, although the climate will not now admit of timber growing, being apparently equally deteriorated as that of the Mainland. It is not improbable that the superior former climate of the North of Scotland and Islands was owing to their having formed, at one time, an extensive country, perhaps joined to the continent, and thus partaking of the continental climate, that is, having a colder winter and warmer summer, capable of producing considerable vigour of arboreous vegetation, and not so favourable to the generating of that fixed vegetable incubus, peat-moss, who has crept over, and folded {289} in her chill embrace, the once fair districts of northern Scotland. The fogs and more steady low temperature of insular situation, which now prevail, not only induce that chemical change in dead and dying vegetables which forms peat-moss, and preserves this moss from decay, but also being too cool for the vegetation of the gramineæ, &c. tend only to promote the general spread of sphagni and other moss-generating plants, which, again, are almost the only plants that can vegetate on acrid moss-flow, as they draw little or nothing from below, and are nourished directly by the moisture and other fluids of the atmosphere.

Our eastern shore affords sufficient proof that the ocean has both receded and advanced recently—at least recently in comparison with the great changes which have occurred to modify the surface of the earth. In proof of this recession, we have the upper _carses_, or deltas, visible in every firth or creek where a river falls into the German Sea. These carses, on the firths in Ross-shire, at Dun near Montrose, around the upper end of the Firths of Tay and Forth, are all of nearly equal level, about 20 feet above the highest stream-tides. The gravel bar at Montrose is considerably above the present sea-level. A number of caves exist on this {290} eastern coast, evidently worn into the rock by the action of the sea at the height where the waves have broken. These caves have nearly one level, corresponding in height with that of the carses. There are also many places where the coast has been shorn away by the action of the waves, and a shelf of rocks left extending out some hundred paces. This abrasion, which takes place nearly at, or a little above, low water-mark, is effected by innumerable hard pebbles (the most indurated parts of the rocks which give way being converted into battering material for further reduction), being upborne and dashed against the rock by the continuous heaving and lashing of the waves. Wherever any breach commences from the feebler opposition of any softer part, the action of the waves and battering train proceeds with increased impetus and concentration, especially if the breach be wedge-shaped narrowing inward, thence caves of considerable extent are hallowed out. The rocks thus abraded and undermined, tumble down and are ground into sand, which is swept by the tides and motion of the waters into the depths of the ocean, or borne along to the upper end of the bays, or to some part of the coast where more sluggish lateral tides, and particular motion of the waves leave it and throw it ashore to be blown up into {291} downs. There are some former islands which have been altogether shorn down to this sea-level, of which the Bell-Rock, extending nearly a mile of shelf, affords a well known specimen. In many places of the coast, these shelves accord with the superior former level of the sea, and with the floors of the caves.

In proof of the sea having advanced upon the land, there are vestiges of submerged forests (the stumps of the trees standing erect where they grew, at or a little above the present lowest ebb) existing at different places on the eastern coast, both of England and Scotland, and these vestiges standing upon a former carse or alluvium of the rivers, are visible in the same firths with the upper level of carse, of course generally more to seaward than these higher carses, as deposition of rivers occurs at what may be termed deposition point, that is where the rivers, from the stemming of the sea-water, begin to widen—where the firths commence; and the slowness of the motion of the water gives time for the subsidence of the floated mud. By reason of the flux and reflux of the tide into the mouths of rivers, this deposition takes place only at or near high water, that is, when the strength of the inward tide-flux ceases, and before that of the reflux begins. It is {292} most abundant at the windward shore, or where there is least surf, and among the tall gramina and other vegetation where there is least undulation and current; the deposition which occurs at this time, some distance below high water level, is floated away by the current of the following flux and reflux, unless some object afford a nucleus of formation. Hence deltas or carses usually form near the shore of firths, generally soon rise to high-water level, and have often steep, or even abrupt, banks, collecting at one place, and giving way before the waves and undermining current at another. There is a deposition of another kind than river diluvium, which also takes place at the bottom, or further end, of bays and firths, and is sometimes mixed with the preceding: This consists, as mentioned above, of the abrasion of the rocks, or shores of the bay and neighbouring coast, and also of molluscous exuviæ, borne along by the motion of the waters; but this is generally rather an accumulation than a deposition, occurring in greatest quantity where a heavy swell rolls dead in.

Although we have pretty accurate proof that the present elevation of the German Sea has remained nearly steady for several hundred years, yet our new formation of carse, at the present high-water level, {293} bears a small proportion to the extent of the upper carse; from which may be inferred, either that the sea has remained a shorter time at the present level, or that some general cause has more recently operated to diminish the deposition, such as inferiority of present climate not producing so much littoral vegetation,—tides or higher winds preventing subsidence by greater undulation or current, till the diffused mud be carried out to sea[59]. The junction of the higher and present sea-level carses, abrupt and always definite, that is, not gradually declining from the one to the other, would seem to indicate a quick subsiding of the sea, or rising of the land, such as has been known to result from subterraneous derangement. The very accurate level of these carses proves, that this portion of the world has remained a very long time pretty free from these disturbances, recently so prevalent in some other quarters; and if the change of sea-level has been owing to such disturbance, it follows, from the extent and regularity of the upheaving or subsidence, that the cause must have been very deep seated, or of great magnitude.

We begin to think, from our disposition to ramble from the Allanton system, that we tire of Sir {294} Henry; and we believe, should _he_ follow us thus far, that he will be tired of us. On looking back on what we have written, we are almost disposed to accuse ourselves of being splenetic; but the truth is, we regard the whole art as very unimportant, if not positively pernicious, at least in the way in which it has been exemplified by Sir Henry, as a throwing away of valuable labour to no purpose, if it ought not indeed to be considered as a mere pander to luxury and caprice. We have no sympathy with the aristocratical object of the book, and as little with the aristocratical tone in which it has been bepraised by Sir Walter Scott. We should also have no greater pleasure in the discovery of a royal road to virtue than we should have to the discovery of one to science,—the four cardinal virtues being, as every body knows, writing books, building houses, and raising trees and children, but we should hope, neither by proxy, nor by the _Allanton System_. While, however, we thus state our opinions with freedom, we do not hesitate to add, that Sir Henry’s volume has afforded us more information, or, at least, more materials for reflection, than any other of the works which we have brought under the notice of our readers. {295}

* * * * *

We shall finish our remarks on Sir Henry’s work, by making some observations upon a quotation made by Sir Henry Steuart, from “A Treatise on the Forming and Improving of Country Residences,” by the Author of the Encyclopædia of Gardening, &c.—an author, who combines talent, successful industry, and enlightened benevolence, in no common degree. We are sorry to appear before this author, whom we have long esteemed, in opposition; yet we regret the less, as we consider him one of the few who prefer accuracy and truth to an old opinion, and whose name stands too high to be affected by a casual misconception.

“The general effects of pruning,” says this author, as quoted by Sir Henry Steuart, “is of a corresponding nature with culture, that is, to increase the quantity of timber-produce: the particular manner in which it does this is by directing the greater part of the sap, which generally spreads itself into side branches, into the principal stem. This must consequently enlarge the stem in a more than ordinary degree, by increasing the annual circles of the wood. Now, if the tree be _in a worse soil and climate than those which are natural to it, this will be of some advantage_, as the extra increase of {296} timber will still be of a quality _not inferior_ to what would take place in its natural state; or, in other words, it will correspond with that degree of quality and quantity of timber, which the nature and species of the tree admit of being produced. If the tree be in its natural state, the annual increase of timber occasioned by pruning, must necessarily _injure its quality_ in a degree corresponding with the increased quantity. If the tree be in a better climate and soil than that which is natural to it, and at the same time the annual increase of wood be promoted by pruning, it is evident that such wood must be of _a very different quality_ from that produced in its natural state (that is _very inferior_).”—“_Whatever tends to increase the wood in a greater degree than what is natural to the species when in its natural state, must injure the quality of the timber._ Pruning tends to increase this in a considerable degree, and therefore it must be a _pernicious practice_.”—“Mr Knight has shown, in a very striking manner, that timber is produced, or rather that the alburnum or sap-wood is rendered ligneous, by the motion of the tree, during the descent of the tree (or proper) sap. It is also sufficiently known, that the solid texture of the wood greatly depends upon the quantity of sap which must necessarily {297} descend, and also on the slowness of the descent. Now, both these requisites are materially increased by side-branches, which retain a large quantity of sap, and, by their junction with the stem, occasion a contraction and twisted direction of the vessels, which obstructs the progress of the (proper) sap. Of maple and birch, those trees which have fewest side-branches bleed more freely than the other, but during a much shorter space of time. These hints, therefore, afford additional evidence against pruning, and particularly against pruning fir trees, which, as Mr Knight justly observes, have larger vessels than the others, and therefore, when in an improved soil and climate, side-branches for the purposes above mentioned are essentially necessary to them, if solid, resinous, and durable timber be the object in view.

“From the foregoing remarks, I think the following conclusions may be drawn.

“First, That trees should be planted as much as possible in soils, situations, and climates, _analogous to those of their natural state_; and that it is chiefly in this state, or when there are some defects relative to it, that pruning or culture can be exercised with advantage. {298}

“Secondly, That in proportion to the superiority of the soil, &c. in which trees are placed, over the natural soil of these trees, in the same proportion pruning and cultivating the soil ought to be avoided, and thinning encouraged.

“Thirdly, That particular regard should be had to the soil and situation, where either larches, or any other of the pine tribe, are planted, to remain as the final crop. For as the roots of these chiefly run along the surface, and as in them the great current of the sap is chiefly confined to one channel, that is the trunk, consequently that tribe of trees is peculiarly liable to injury and change, when subjected to unnatural agency.

“Fourthly, That the only way in which oak timber of safe quality can be provided for the British navy, is by enclosing, preserving from cattle, and properly managing, those royal forests where oak is the natural produce of the soil. (Alas! there is reason to fear, that on some future day the neglect of this advice will be regretted). Park oak is very frequently much inferior to _forest oak_ in durability.”

We differ from the author of the Encyclopædia of Gardening here, even _in limine_, in his {299} assumption, that pruning is of a corresponding nature with culture, in increasing the annual circles of the wood[60]. Culture, if judiciously executed, increases these annual circles; but common pruning up (which, from the general bearing of the language, we suppose is meant), nine times out of ten diminishes them, and merely tends to extend the stem in length, by throwing all the new formation of branches to the top of the tree, in place of partly to the sides. Thence the tree acquires a slenderer figure, and more delicate constitution; and from greater height, and being without cover of side-branches, loses more by evaporation, and receives less moisture from the ground, which is dried by the breeze passing along under the branches; the principal process of vegetation, assimilation by the leaves, being reduced by the pruning, and carried on at an unnatural height, in a colder less genial atmosphere, under a diminished supply of nourishment from the ground, is consequently less productive of new assimilized {300} matter; and this smaller quantity requiring to be extended along a greater length of stem, the annual rings are necessarily thinner.

We admit that a tree becomes more _stemmy_ by being repeatedly pruned up;—we admit, that, on removal of the lower branches, the upper part of the stem may have, for a few seasons, larger annual circles; but the annual circles will be diminished in thickness in a much greater proportion on the lower part of the stem;—we admit, that the timber, from being deposited in a clean lengthened cylinder, becomes far more useful, there being less redundant matter than when scattered out into _stemmy_ branches, to which disposition, trees in open situation sometimes incline, especially if not transplanted very young, but to which they are nevertheless much more disposed under the common mode of pruning in an early stage of their growth, than when left to themselves;—we admit, that trees, by pruning, raised to lengthened stem, and thence performing less assimilation, partly compensate for this less assimilation, for some time, by making more stem deposit in proportion to the other deposit, which extends the parts more immediately necessary to new formation,—the roots and twigs; but the deficiency of productory parts soon {301} reacts to diminish the amount of _all_ the new products. In tall trees, this greater deposition on the stem, in proportion to that on the roots, twigs, and leaves, some will think instinctive; some will refer it to an effort of nature to supply the necessary strength to enable the stem to resist the great strain of the winds upon the elevated top. If it take place to a greater extent than what arises from the greater elongation of the necessary vessels of communication, perhaps it is owing to the evaporation or stagnation of the sap on the tall exposed stem, and to the considerable motion or waving of the stem by wind promoting deposition, evincing one of the deep balancings of material cause and effect, or circumstantial regulation, which mocks the wisdom of the wise. We admit, also, that pruning, in the first place, impedes formation of flower-buds, and will sometimes thus prevent exhaustion of trees by seeding, which is so prejudicial both to the quality and quantity of the new wood deposit; but the consequent greater length of stem, greater exposure to evaporation, constriction of bark, and slenderer connecting tubes between leaf and roots, all tend subsequently to promote formation of flower-buds, although the removal of the lower branches may for a few seasons serve to {302} prevent this. We therefore consider pruning, excepting in a very slight degree, to guide to one leader, and to remove the sickly, lower, moss-covered branches a few seasons earlier than they would have dropped off in the common course of decay, to be generally preventive of quantity of wood-deposit, even of common marketable timber, in any considerable number of years, although pruning to a greater degree is often necessary where fine clean timber is required.

Our author’s next implied assumption, that a tree produces best timber in a soil and climate _natural_ to it (we suppose by this is meant the soil and climate where the kind of tree is naturally found growing), is, we think, at least exceedingly hypothetical; and, judging from our facts, incorrect. The natural soil and climate of a tree, is often very far from being the soil and climate most suited to its growth, _and is only the situation where it has greater power of occupancy, than any other plant whose germ is present_. The pines do not cover the pine barrens of America, because they prefer such soil, or grow most luxuriant in such soil; they would thrive much better, that is, grow faster, in the natural allotment of the oak and the walnut, _and also mature to a better wood in this deeper richer soil_. But the {303} oak and the walnut banish them to inferior soil from greater power of occupancy in good soil, as the pines, in their turn, banish other plants from inferior sands—some to still more sterile location, by the same means of greater powers of occupancy in these sands. One cause considerably affecting the natural location of certain kinds of plants is, that only certain soils are suited to the preservation of certain seeds, throughout the winter or wet season. Thus many plants, different from those which naturally occupy the soil, would feel themselves at home, and would beat off intruders, were they once seated. We have had indubitable proof in this country, that _Scots fir, grown upon good deep loam, and strong till_ (what our author would call the natural soil of the oak), _is of much better quality, and more resinous, than fir grown on poor sand_ (what he would call the natural soil of the Scots fir), although of more rapid growth on the loam than on the sand; and the best Scots fir we have ever seen, of equal age and quickness of growth, is growing upon Carse land (clayey alluvium).

The reason that Scots fir is of better quality, and more resinous, on good loam and moist till, than on poor siliceous ground, may probably be, that the loam contains more oleaginous matter, and other {304} vegetable products which bear a near relation to resinous, and which, transmitted upwards from the roots, may occasion richer assimilated juices. Men fed upon whale or seal blubber, if the digestion is good, have much fatty deposit upon the body, and the perspired fluid is oil. It is a fact well known to every intelligent farmer, that _infield_ or _croft_ land, that is land, which, having been earliest cultivated, was, of course, the best soil at first, and which has also been long highly manured at the cost of the _outfield_, and therefore containing much oleaginous and other matter, products of organization, produces grasses and other vegetables much more nutritive to cattle than the _outfield_, even though these vegetables be of the same species, and by reason of more careful culture of those of the _outfield_, also of the same size of plant. We have also considered that light, poor sandy soil, which throws up a considerable flush of vegetation in the spring, partly because it has then sufficient moisture, but which almost entirely gives over producing throughout the latter part of the summer, partly because the winter’s moisture is exhausted, may throw out the frame or skeleton of a considerable growth, or annual layer of wood, in the early part of the season, but may not afford sufficient matter for the filling up or {305} maturing the layer into good dense timber later in the season, when the assimilated fluid or sap is believed to descend.

Our author states, that the timber of pruned trees must be inferior to that of trees with many side-branches, because the consequent contracting and twisting of the vessels as they pass the junction of the branches and stem, obstruct the descent of the sap, thence the timber is better matured, and in firs has more of resinous deposit. We admit that the resinous deposition is more abundant in knots and in some of the parts adjacent; but the timber is not better throughout. Worm-eating may be observed to commence generally in the neighbourhood of knots. Although one part of the wood, in consequence of the obstruction of the knot, be more dense and resinous, another part, immediately above or below the knot, where the growths are extended to fill up the vacant space, where the worming commences, is less dense, and of inferior durability, and corruption begun, extends. The knotted timber, of course, is very inferior in strength and value to the clean. We would refer the longer continued flow of sap from maple and birches, which have many side-branches, in part, to the lower or side-branches commencing to vegetate sooner in the {306} spring than the top of the tree; this successive commencement of vegetation prolonging the bleeding.

Again, in larch, we find that by far the hardest and most durable wood is grown upon poor, hard, thin tills (that is, thin of vegetable mould upon the diluvium), even where the root-rot commences about thirty years of age. Now, we ask, is this the natural soil of larches? We have not, however, found larch from rich loam, of better quality than from poor sand, as we have observed in Scots fir. We also consider larch, grown on a proper larch soil—on sound soil and subsoil, or sound rock, common in acclivous situation—superior in quality to larch of equal quickness of growth, raised on rich loam or sand, though not equal to larch of slow growth from the above mentioned poor tills.

We would ask how our author is enabled to assume, as an axiom, that trees produce the best timber in their natural locality? We would also desire some _rational_ information to shew in what manner pruning up can in any way conduce generally, to the increase of the timber, or to the enlargement of one-stemmed vegetables. A tree naturally rises in one stem. It throws out its branches in the disposition most favourable to draw the fullest benefit from the light and air. It of its own {307} accord (that is when man does not meddle), gradually raises its pyramidal centre, with proportional lateral spread, as high as is befitting, for the fullest expansion of the individual, under the circumstances of its location. Man may mar this beautiful natural balance easier than decypher the proximate cause he may throw the new deposit of wood in greater proportion upon the upper part of the stem, rendering his beam more suitable from equality of thickness, and particularly in pines, of cleaner, smaller growthed, more durable timber, thence more valuable. But the tree will neither produce the same quantity of measurable timber in a considerable number of years, nor will it ultimately reach to nearly the same size, nor continue life nearly so long, as when left to itself. Man’s interference is useful in removing competitors, in giving it lateral room for extension, in _training_ it skilfully to one leader and subordinate equality of feeders, should transplanting, early pruning up, or other cause, destroy the natural regular pyramidal disposition—not in pruning it up, thus reducing it to narrower compass, and destroying its balance to the locality.

The use of the infinite seedling varieties in the families of plants, even in those in a state of nature, differing in luxuriance of growth and local adaptation, {308} seems to be to give one individual (the strongest best circumstance-suited) superiority over others of its kind around, that it may, by overtopping and smothering them, procure room for full extension, and thus affording, at the same time, a continual selection of the strongest, best circumstance-suited, for reproduction. Man’s interference, by preventing this natural process of selection among plants, independent of the wider range of circumstances to which he introduces them, has increased the difference in varieties, particularly in the more domesticated kinds; and even in man himself, the greater uniformity, and more general vigour among savage tribes, is referrible to nearly similar selecting law—the weaker individual sinking under the ill treatment of the stronger, or under the common hardship.

As our author’s premises thus appear neither self-evident, nor supported by facts, it might seem unfair, at least it would be superfluous, to proceed to the consideration of his conclusions and corollaries. {309}

VII. CRUICKSHANK’S PRACTICAL PLANTER.

After the preceding parts of this volume had gone to press, we received a copy of Cruickshank’s Practical Planter. We endeavour to give a short view of the contents.