Chapter V: Illustrative Lessons (1)

The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere memorizing of events and dates.

FORMS I AND II

TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"

The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.

As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the verbal story.

A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes, his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.

The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God, his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's will.

In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.

In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board. These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written reproduction that follows.

If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library, pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.

When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.

FORMS I AND II

THE FIRST THANKSGIVING

Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church"; "Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)

A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America drawn on the black-board.

Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--the returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom originate?

Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the landing-place in America marked.

This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The First Thanksgiving_. (See Appendix.)

A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I, accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring, and in modelling, as they can do.

FORM II

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, how great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.

Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble. The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it. But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with Florence's nursing.

When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health began to fail.

It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers. When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about, speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much the poor soldiers thought of her.

When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.

She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air, pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be remembered.

METHOD

It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows in the usual way.

FORM II

THE POSTMASTER

AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS

This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and importance of the postmaster.

The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3) Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and prompt person.

The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.

A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of salary may follow.

In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--the registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes, the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the making of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed.

In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank, a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in the proper method of filling out these forms.

FORM III

THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC

The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the matter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages 83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.

The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec, mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.

When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this. (See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.

This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at Montmorenci.

This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.

This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally before the class is dismissed.

As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are directed to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or in the History Reader, pp. 284-292.

NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships,
bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic
explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and
the whole story would require several lesson spaces.

References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and
Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.

FORM III

THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS

1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty in face of all their troubles.

2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc., to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170.)

3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information. It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the story to one of the children.

4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in affairs in Upper Canada.

FORM III

THE FLAG

In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice; and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.

The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be preceded by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several countries. (See Appendix.)

These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St. George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.

The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks may be given afterwards in the history lessons.

As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:

For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in.
For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in.
For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in.

When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the red cross.

The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead them to observe:

1. that it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also
be square);

2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St.
Patrick's;

3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the
width of the jack;

4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of
white;

5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal
the broad white of the St. Andrew's;

6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross
and partly white ground;

7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the
parts near the staff.

When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross, retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.

Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:

First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St. Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St. Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St. Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised in making the drawing of the Union Jack.

The following are the official regulations for the proportions of
the Union Jack:

1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.

2. The proportions are:

Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag.
White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George.
Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George.
White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George.
Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.

3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next
the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other
quarters.

Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St. Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick, a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity; and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly without disgracing our flag.

On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire rests.

For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:

FLAG DAYS

Opening and closing of each term

Jan. 1.--Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be
celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)

Feb. 10.--Union of the Canadas, 1841.

March 11.--First Responsible Ministry, 1848.

March 14.--Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791.

March 24.--Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).

Empire Day.--The school day immediately preceding May 24.

May 24.--Victoria Day.

June 3.--The King's Birthday, 1865.

July 1.--Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.

July 17.--First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.

September 13.--Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.

October 13.--Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock,
1812.

October 21.--Trafalgar Day, 1805.

December 24.--Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of
Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)

Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may also be chosen.

For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to
Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition),
to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of
Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints
of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.

THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG

What is the blue on our flag, boys?
The waves of the boundless sea,
Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride,
And the feet of the winds are free;
From the sun and smiles of the coral isles
To the ice of the South and North,
With dauntless tread through tempests dread
The guardian ships go forth.

What is the white on our flag, boys?
The honour of our land,
Which burns in our sight like a beacon light
And stands while the hills shall stand;
Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name,
And we fight, wherever we be,
For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives
Of the brave hearts over the sea.

What is the red on our flag, boys?
The blood of our heroes slain,
On the burning sands in the wild waste lands
And the froth of the purple main;
And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod
And the crest of the waves outrolled,
That He send us men to fight again
As our fathers fought of old.

We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys,
Whatever be said or done,
Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast,
And the foe be ten to one--
Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword
And a bullet in heart or brain.
What matters one gone, if the flag float on
And Britain be Lord of the main!

--Frederick George Scott

THE UNION JACK

It's only a small piece of bunting,
It's only an old coloured rag;
Yet thousands have died for its honour,
And shed their best blood for the flag.

It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew,
Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led;
It carries the cross of St. Patrick,
For which Ireland's bravest have bled.

Joined with these is our old English ensign,
St. George's red cross on white field;
Round which, from Richard to Roberts,
Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.

It flutters triumphant o'er ocean,
As free as the wind and the waves;
And bondsmen from shackles unloosened,
'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.

It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand,
O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong;
And Britons, where'er their flag's flying,
Claim the rights which to Britons belong.

We hoist it to show our devotion
To our King, our country, and laws;
It's the outward and visible emblem,
Of progress and liberty's cause.

You may say it's an old bit of bunting,
You may call it an old coloured rag;
But freedom has made it majestic,
And time has ennobled our flag.

FORMS III AND IV

SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY

The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention focused on the purpose of the day.

The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and in the future.

EXERCISES SUGGESTED

1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1, 49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp. 55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given (pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of Education on several occasions.

2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire; for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the size of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the Persian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercial and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of losing it, etc.; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the Canadian ensign.

3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red" cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_) "The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships, too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population and area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany, France, etc.

4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the population of the United States increase in the first century after the Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations as they can find in their text-books.)

5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.

6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.

TYPE LESSONS

FORM IV

INTRODUCTORY

As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it assists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to see more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the class.

EGERTON RYERSON

One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life. The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following sketch may serve as an example:

Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:

I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville,
near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the
County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British
army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the
Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a
native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote
ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American
revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to
New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was
Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan
settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his
family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some
2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the
army, besides his pension.

Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."

The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it. Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing restored him to health.

Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the brushwood in and around the village."

In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ of the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in 1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.

In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable in a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the just pride of our Province and his own best monument.

In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise he made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country a system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not second to those in any country in the world."

He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities, ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.

NOTE.--If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim
Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add
interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction
to them.

For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:

With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the
history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was
worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new
interest in its political life was awakened, new movements
inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with
responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal
rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third,
educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without
distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is
known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for
equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the
Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third
as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational
control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson
played a very prominent part and, because these affected the
politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.

NOTE.--For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My
Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J.G.
Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS
OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J.H. Putnam.

THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY

The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day, and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."

_Teacher._--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected
by the road?

_Pupil._--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.

_T._--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?

_P._--Because it is near the sea.

_T._--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.

_P._--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.

_T._--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?

_P._--It freezes up.

_T._--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter,
and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was
chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on
the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?

_P._--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.

_T._--We can tell better a little later which one was actually
chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should
they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many
people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?

_P._--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.

_T._--Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How
would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we
send our goods to Europe now in winter?

(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could
ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)

_T._--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence
before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?

_P._--By using the canals.

_T._--How can we ship by rail?

_P._--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.

_T._--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and
the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals
already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and
others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before
Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to
Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have
a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may
see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can
you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as
the western terminus of the new railway?

_P._--Yes, Quebec would be the one.

_T._--Why?

_P._--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for
sending their goods as far as Quebec city.

_T._--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been
shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?

(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything
till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections
were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible.
Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through
the United States.)

_T._--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of
wanting to build a railway of their own?

_P._--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.

_T._--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made
between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity
Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely.
This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to
depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of
trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the
Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils
are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the
Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that
there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that
would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway
was needed from Quebec to Halifax?

_P._--Because there was danger of war, and because the United
States might interfere with Canadian trade.

_T._--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have
found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why
it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out
is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and
had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it
done, what route would you be likely to follow?

_P._--I think I should take the shortest way.

_T._--Where would the road go then?

(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)

Tell where it would run.

_P._--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick,
and Nova Scotia.

_T._--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the
reasons for building it at all.

_P._--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is
in the United States.

_T._--What is the next way they might think of?

_P._--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.

_T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)

_P._--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine,
into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

_T._--Would they take that way?

_P._--No, because it is too near the border of the United States.

_T._--Why do you say "too near"?

_P._--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come
over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear
up the rails.

_T._--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route
could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?

_P._--They would stay as far from the border as possible.

_T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)

_P._--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.

_T._--How far?

_P._--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to
Halifax.

_T._--Would that be the cheapest line to build?

_P._--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.

_T._--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which
of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as
far from the border as they could?

_P._--The military reason.

_T._--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most
interested in the military considerations?

_P._--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.

_T._--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where
would the money come from?

_P._--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.

_T._--Why?

_P._--Because there were not very many people here then.

_T._--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes
even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the
railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was
to be built.

The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles), and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized, that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer together, and that other railways have since been built on the two rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand Trunk Pacific.

The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.

BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE

1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of
the road

2. Reasons for building the road

(_a_) Military
(_b_) Commercial

3. Selection of the route

(_a_) Routes that were possible
(_b_) Reasons for the final choice

4. Facts about the road

(_a_) Principal places on the road
(_b_) Branches of the road
(_c_) Length and cost

5. Value of the road to the new Dominion

The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and the chief commercial centres served by the railway.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.

NOTE.--This lesson should be preceded by an information
lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where
the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference
between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.

The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon. The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation, in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at such length.

This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention would be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, and development--is supposed to be used.

1. _Domestic System of Manufacture._--Before 1760 the manufacture of cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where, with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.

2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny._--The first important invention of the period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle, usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight). From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used to-day.

3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame._ Sir Richard Arkwright invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.

4. _The Mule._ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to weave any grade of cloth.

5. _The Power-loom._ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners could make.

6. _The Steam-engine._ These machines were run by hand or water-power. In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.

7. _The Cotton-gin._ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern States that led to the Civil War.

8. _Coal-mining and Smelting._ These machines were made of iron, and coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.

9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these explosions.