Chapter V: Illustrative Lessons (2)

10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)

Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in 1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800 many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.

11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger; better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the exhaustion of the soil.

12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.

We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."

NOTE.--The teacher may refer to some of the modern social
problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the
country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and
suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance,
decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A
History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
Edinburgh.)

THE ROAD TO CATHAY

The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the East--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to the discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show the development of history along a certain line.

The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used frequently.

THE LESSON

One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.

In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up, carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean, the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern trade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal, France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediæval castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of knowledge.

The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.

Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.

Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more complete solution.

Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal. The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer; but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile he was enabled to put his dream to the test.

A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his
efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's
Poem, "Columbus," _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145.

When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought he had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India; and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their chief ambition.

In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South Carolina, with the same object.

In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspé and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the gateway to the East.

With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.

Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked. A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son, and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of again. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235.)

The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on Montreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), in allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.

Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of what is now Canada. Vérendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands; also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.

Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West Company--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid great hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.

It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it has been our lot to accomplish.

Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect on trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.

TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA

The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and development methods.

For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _A History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, Edinburgh.

I. CAUSES

1. _Political._--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.

(The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the
marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had
refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full
revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and
the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant
power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)

(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off negotiations of marriage with Philip.

(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to the English throne.

2. _Commercial_.--Interference of the English in the New World, to which Spain claimed sole right.

(This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of
Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)

3. _Religious._--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.

(This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)

II. EVENTS

1. Preparations in Spain and England.

(Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well
as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His
death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible
for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the
Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet
was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it
actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were
very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the
eve of battle should be made.)

2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.

(The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were
ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were
defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political
differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless,
and most skilful in handling their ships.)

3. The affair at Cadiz.

(Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for
preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)

4. The battle in the Channel.

(Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588;
fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance
for a vivid description by the teacher.)

5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.

(Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories
of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and
recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward
Ho!_)

III. RESULTS

1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)]

2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.

3. Greater religious tolerance in England.

4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.

5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals of political, social, and religious liberty.

(See _P.S. History of England_, secs. 135-142.)

LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)

_Aim._ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.

STEP I

1. _Introduction._ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm; from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a florist's business, a rink, etc.

2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the _Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.

STEP II

(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)

1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of the Saxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33.) The following extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ may be of assistance:

The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred)
consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow
strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the
almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into
appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter,
and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole
community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture
its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some
seasons.

The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with
a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year,
fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of
its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the
cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when
they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had
been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional
cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently
allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or
otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an
abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in
each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the
fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its
various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.

Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, p. 37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the freeman.

2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certain reasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers; the people looked to these courts for justice.

3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders sought protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small landowners to "eorls."

STEP III

_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_.) Barons too powerful for the king for various reasons:

1. Their property was large and compact.

2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.

3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.

By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would probably do to strengthen his own position.

STEP IV

_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William.)

1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.

2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)

3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.

4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.

5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.

6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.

7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.

The important points of each step should be written on the black-board as they are described or developed.

(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another lesson.)

SEIGNIORIAL TENURE

The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the development of the country; and to increase their interest in the present system of tenure.

METHOD

In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it. Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what cost.

The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development, or problem, methods.

THE LESSON

1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See _Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High School History of Canada_, Chap. VIII.)

2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure, which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service. Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles. An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These _seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains. This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in France, called the Feudal System.

At this point the teacher might give a short description of the
Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its
surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in
comparison with the lords.

3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year 1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadian aristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land among settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became his vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who held their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured _habitants_ to cultivate the soil.

4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and the most gallant defenders of New France.

5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the French method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had been abolished in England.)

6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished, the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was introduced.

7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:

(_a_) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada.

(_b_) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to
improve their lands.

(_c_) It gave the habitant no chance to rise.

(_d_) It tended to divide the population into three classes.

(_e_) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made
progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of
his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working
together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit
could be developed.

8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure.

CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES

TOPICAL ANALYSIS

_Causes:_

1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces; foreshadowed in Durham's Report.

2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by population; deadlock in Parliament.

3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain and the Colonies and the United States over the _Trent_ affair, the _Alabama_ trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War.

_Steps toward Confederation:_

1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in 1864.

2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours Confederation.

3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union from the Imperial Government.

4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by the Fenian Raid, 1866.

5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st, 1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal Union.

_Outline of Terms:_

See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 215. Provision made for admission of new provinces.

_Expansion of Confederation:_

Admission of other provinces--Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE HISTORY OF A COUNTRY

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

GENERAL

The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating influence.

Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural products--minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast, with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and therefore a trading people.

The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers of freedom.

ENGLAND

_Position:_ The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit. Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness. The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and a means of intercourse in peace.

_Structure:_ Two regions--one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district.

_Climate:_ Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall.

_Products:_ On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural, and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an almost indispensable condition for industries, though other considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as manufactured goods.

Consult: _A Historical Geography of the British Empire_. Hereford B. George, Methuen & Co., London. _The Relations of Geography and History_. Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON

The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position.

_T._--Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does
so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the
size of the Island?

_P._--It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets.

_T._--Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the
people?

_P._--They would almost have to be sailors.

_T._--In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is
usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much
the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime
race.) What is one occupation the people would follow?

_P._--They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some
idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each
new point, as it comes up.)

_T._--What else would they do?

_P._--They would probably engage in trade or commerce.

_T._--With which countries? Study the map for a moment.

_P._--With those on the west of Europe, and with America.

_T._--Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very
favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the
map to show this?

_P._--There are a great many lines on the map that show the water
routes from Britain to almost every country in the world.

_T._--Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might
be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?

_P._--No country could attack her except by water.

_T._--How would she defend herself?

_P._--She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a
brief outline of the growth of the navy.)

_T._--Where would she get her ships?

_P._--She builds them herself.

_T._--Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?

_P._--No, she has always had the material in her own country for
that.

_T._--What are they built of?

_P._--The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best
timber,--oak.

_T._--What are they built of to-day?

_P._--Most of them are of iron.

_T._--Where does she get that?

_P._--From her own mines.

_T._--Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our
country has the same latitude?

_P._--Labrador.

_T._--What is the climate of Labrador?

_P._--Very cold.

_T._--Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?

_P._--The water around it would make it not so cold.

_T._--Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the
climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now,
how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?

_P._--They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can.

(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the class.)

ST. LAWRENCE RIVER

INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY

_Aim._--To show general connection between history and geography.

_Material Required._--A black-board sketch of that part of Canada adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of the river.

_Introduction._--The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and cities--Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg, Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and Gaspé.

_Presentation._--The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there, he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and, with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (_Ontario Public School History_, pp. 51, 114.)

As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville--its name commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the Patriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See _Ontario Public School History_, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and Girls_, p. 227.)

Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans, captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed vessels which lay in the harbour. (See _Ontario Public School History_, p. 155.)

From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See _Ontario Public School History_, p. 159.)

After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 116, and _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early settlement in Canada. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 121.)

Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination, pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of the Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspé where Cartier landed and laid claim to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic.

In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written exercise.

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603

The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting all facts but those bearing on the topic studied.

1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map, _Ontario Public School History of England_, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of Scotland.

2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling. The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in Scotland was strengthened by this.

3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept alive the English claims.

4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation begun. Friendly relations strengthened.

5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England.

6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in 1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the first time acknowledged her independence.

7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222.

8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn, 1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in Scotland.

9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war.

10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged.

11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign policy.

12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political hatred of England.

13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war.

14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later (1707).

ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND

The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation. (See Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 478.) Under Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible Government.

Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of Parliament. Disputes were constant:

1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage.

2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only one year.

3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament.

4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun. Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them.

5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned. Some members were arrested--Sir John Eliot died in the Tower--others were kept in prison for eleven years.

6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in the whole country.

His methods of raising money were:

(_a_) By granting monopolies (£200,000).

(_b_) By Star Chamber fines--large fines for slight offences.

(_c_) By illegal duties.

(_d_) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden).

His methods of establishing the English Church were:

(_a_) Religious oppression--chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the Puritans.

(_b_) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to rebellion.

This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament."

7. (_a_) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford.

(_b_) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles.

(_c_) This led to Charles' final blunder--the attempt to arrest the five members.

8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control.

SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS

FORM IV

I. _The Era of Reform in Britain_:

1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people,
and gave them higher ideals

2. Social Reforms: (_a_) Canning, the friend of the oppressed
(_b_) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery
(_c_) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform
(_d_) Revision of the criminal code

3. Political Reforms: (_a_) The Reform Bill
(_b_) The Chartist Agitation
(_c_) The repeal of the Corn Laws

II. _The Puritan Movement_:

1. Its beginning under Elizabeth

2. Its growth under James I

3. The struggle and victory under Charles I

4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth

5. Its dissolution under Charles II

6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the
misrule of James II.

FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE

THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE

The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on "Civilization" in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (latest edition), is to provide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of which he may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certain inventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day that they are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must be left entirely to the discretion of the teacher.

NOTES

The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told in history, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H. Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankind from the earliest times to the present. There are three stages of savagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close of each stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. The problem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discovery would enable the people to do that they could not do before.

1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on raw nuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could have warmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of _fire_.

2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh; they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with the invention of the _bow and arrow_.

3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; he could kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; with stronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into more distant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of _pottery_.

4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire. Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiled meat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the _domestication of animals_.

5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidly domesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of the chase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel and transportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact and commerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Larger communities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property became individual, instead of being communal.

6. This stage began with the invention of _iron-smelting_. Immense progress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building, road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools. By these tools man was now able to express his æsthetic nature as never before. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly.

7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism to the lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventions that man has ever made--_writing_. This made possible the recording of man's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of each generation for all succeeding generations, and making history possible.

8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group of inventions,--_gunpowder_, _the mariner's compass_, and _paper_ and the _printing press_. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, and the human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world.

9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, and placed mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the _steam-engine_. The revolution which this brought about is so recent as to need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p. 87.) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the race on a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of the World the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, giving man the conquest of the last element still unmastered?

THE NEW LEARNING

1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of the most important movements in English history, by having them study the meaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning.

2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditions prevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, because a knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding of many of the causes of the New Learning.

The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called the Renaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. The Renaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a new interest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight was passing, and the man of affairs, with his broader sympathies, his keener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, was coming into prominence.

How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became the great problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turned their attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it was believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation of the meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the old literature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revival of Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two great literatures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge was investigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this great intellectual awakening.

3. The following were the chief causes of the movement:

(_a_) The Crusades

(_b_) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453

(_c_) The introduction of the mariner's compass

(_d_) The invention of gunpowder

(_e_) The invention of the printing press

(_f_) The overthrow of the feudal system

(_g_) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities

(_h_) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demands and needs of the times

4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must be shown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will be necessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the people of northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highly cultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on the people of Europe by their mingling with the nations of the luxurious East--the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholars of Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with the conditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alone gave an impetus to the New Learning.

The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. The introduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their more general use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growing independence of thought, and a desire for greater political and religious freedom.

The other causes may be similarly treated.

5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars of whom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too, were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movement affected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken in education, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods of instruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of new schools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. The whole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual and more moral life.

6. Its effects:

(_a_) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for social reform;

(_b_) It made possible the Reformation;

(_c_) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to the extension of the usefulness of the universities;

(_d_) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise, and encouraged commercial activity;

(_e_) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and music.

(_f_) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered the spirit of scientific research;

(_g_) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which became responsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in the condition of the people, and in the development of Europe since that time.

NOTE: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus,
Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear
short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development
of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to
anticipate its chief results.

It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy
several lesson periods.

THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867.

In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there are several distinct stages:

I. 1760 to 1763--Military Rule:

1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three
districts

2. Little disturbance of French customs; the _habitants_ content

3. Influx of "old" subjects--their character. (See _Ontario Public
School History of Canada_, p. 109; _History of Canada_, Lucas and
Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7.)

II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act):

1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray

2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects

3. Conditions of government:

(_a_) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all
appointed by Crown

(_b_) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended
on will of Governor

(_c_) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed

(_d_) All money matters in hands of Council.