Chapter XLVI: Part 46

Ergot of the North African grass _Arundo Ampelodesmos_ Cirillo, known as _Diss_, has been collected for use, and according to Lallemant[2769] is twice as active as that of rye. It is from 1 to 3 inches long by only about ⅒ of an inch broad, generally arched, or in the large ergots twisted spirally. We find it to share the structural character of the ergot of rye; it is in all probability the same formation, yet remarkably modified.

ALGÆ (FLORIDEÆ).

CHONDRUS CRISPUS.

_Fucus Hibernicus_; _Carrageen_,[2770] _Irish Moss_; F. _Mousse d’Irlande_, _Mousse perlée_; G. _Knorpeltang_, _Irländisches Moos_, _Perlmoos_.

=Botanical Origin=—_Chondrus crispus_ Lyngbye (_Fucus crispus_ L.), a sea weed of the class _Florideæ_, abundant on rocky sea-shores of Europe from the North Cape to Gibraltar; not frequent however in the Baltic, and altogether wanting in the Mediterranean, but largely met with on the eastern coasts of North America.

=History=—_Chondrus crispus_ was figured in 1699 by Morison,[2771] yet only Todhunter at Dublin introduced it to the notice of the medical profession in England in 1831, and shortly afterwards it attracted some attention in Germany. It was never admitted to the London or British pharmacopœia, and is but little esteemed in medicine.

=Description=—The entire plant is collected: in the fresh state it is soft and cartilaginous, varying in colour from yellowish-green to livid purple or purplish-brown, but becoming, after washing and exposure to the sun, white or yellowish, and when dry, shrunken, horny and translucent.

The base is a small flattened disc, from which springs a frond or thallus 4 to 6 inches or more in length, having a slender subcylindrical stem, expanding fan-like into wedge-shaped segments, of very variable breadth, flat or curled, and truncate, emarginate or bifid at the summit.

The fructification[2772] consists of tetraspores or cystocarps, rising but slightly from the substance of the thallus, and appearing as little wart-like protuberances.

In cold water, carrageen swells up to its original bulk, and acquires a distinct seaweed-like smell. A quantity of water equal to 20 or 30 times its weight, boiled with it for ten minutes, solidifies on cooling to a pale mawkish jelly.

[2769] _Etude sur l’Ergot du Diss_, Alger et Paris, 1863; _Journ. de Pharm._ i. (1865) 444.

[2770] _Carrageen_ in Irish signifies _moss of the rock_. We learn from an Irish scholar that it would be more correctly written _carraigeen_.

[2771] _Plantar. hist. universal._ Oxon. iii. tab. 11.

[2772] See Luerssen (quoted at p. 734) i. 124 _et seq._

=Microscopic Structure=—The tissue of _Chondus crispus_ is made up of globular or elongated, thick-walled cells. The superficial layers on both sides of the lobes constitute a kind of peel, easily separable in microscopic sections. The interior or medullary part exhibits a much less densely packed tissue formed of larger cells. The larger cavities of this tissue contain a granular mucilaginous matter, assuming a slight violet tinge on addition of iodine. In water however, the cell-walls swell up so as to form a gelatinous mass, in which separate cells can at last be scarcely distinguished.[2773] In the fresh state, its cells also contain granules of chlorophyll imbued with a red matter, termed _Phyco-erythrin_. But by washing and exposure to the air, these colouring substances are removed or greatly altered, and are no longer visible in the commercial drug.

=Chemical Composition=—The constituents of carrageen are those generally found in marine algæ, especially as regards the mucilage. This latter is insoluble in an ammoniacal solution of copper (Schweizer’s test); by the action of fuming nitric acid, it yields, in common with gum, an abundance of mucic acid. The mucilage of carrageen, like many similar bodies, obstinately retains inorganic matter; after it had three times been dissolved in water, and as many times precipitated with alcohol, we found it still to yield the same quantity of ash as the raw drug itself, that is to say, more than 15 per cent. The mucilage, perfectly dried, is a tough horny substance, of a greyish colour; it quickly swells up in water, forming a jelly which is precipitable by neutral acetate of lead.

By boiling carrageen for a week with water containing 5 per cent. of sulphuric acid, Bente (1876) obtained crystals of _lævulinic acid_, C₅H₈O₃, and an amorphous sugar. The former is also afforded by cellulose of pine wood and by paper.

According to Blondeau,[2774] the mucilage of carrageen contains 21 per cent. of nitrogen and 2·5 of sulphur, a statement which we are able to point out as erroneous. We find in it no sulphur, and only 0·88 per cent. of nitrogen. The drug itself yielded us not more than 1·012 per cent. of nitrogen.

When thin slices of the plant are treated with alcoholic potash, and then after washing left for 24 hours in contact with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide, they acquire a deep blue; yet, starch granules are not found in this seaweed. Lastly in connexion with carrageen may be mentioned _Fucusol_, an oily liquid isomeric with furfurol, obtained by boiling seaweeds with dilute sulphuric acid.

=Commerce=—The plant is collected on the west and north-west coast of Ireland: Sligo is said to be a great depôt for it. Carrageen of superior quality is sometimes imported from Hamburg.

[2773] Alcohol, glycerin or a fatty oil are the liquids most suited for the microscopic examination of this drug.

[2774] _Journ. de Pharm._ ii. (1865) 159.

The largest quantities of carrageen, sometimes half a million pounds a year, are gathered near Minot Ledge lighthouse, Scituate, Plymouth county, on the coast of Massachusetts, where a systematic process of preparing it for the market is adopted.[2775]

=Uses=—The mucilaginous decoction and jelly which carrageen affords are popular remedies in pulmonary and other complaints; but as nutriment such preparations are much over-estimated.[2776]

Carrageen is sometimes used for feeding cows and calves; and under the name of _Alga marina_, for stuffing mattresses. It is largely used for industrial purposes, like other mucilaginous matter. Its mucilage serves for thickening the colours employed in calico-printing, and as size for paper and for cotton goods. In America it is used for fining beer.

=Substitutes=—_Gigartina mammillosa_[2777] J. Agardh (_Chondrus mammillosus_ Grev.) is collected indiscriminately with _Ch. crispus_. It is distinguished from the latter chiefly by having the flat portion of the thallus beset with elevated or stalked tubercles, bearing the cystocarps; but it has the same properties. _G. acicularis_ Lamouroux, a species common on the coasts of France and Spain, and having slender cylindrical branches, is occasionally collected along with _Chondrus crispus_. Dalmon (1874) who has examined it, asserts it to be less soluble in boiling water than true carrageen. Small quantities of other seaweeds are often present through the negligence of the collectors.

FUCUS AMYLACEUS.

_Alga Zeylanica_; _Ceylon Moss_,[2778] _Jaffna Moss_.

=Botanical Origin=—_Sphærococcus lichenoides_ Agardh. (_Gracillaria lichenoides_ Grev., _Plocaria candida_ Nees), a light purple or greenish seaweed, belonging to the class _Florideæ_, occurring on the coasts of Ceylon, Burma, and the Malay islands.[2779]

=History=—Ceylon moss has long been in use among the inhabitants of the Indian Archipelago and the Chinese. It is probably one of the plants described by Rumphius[2780] as _Alga coralloides_. In recent times it was brought to the notice of European physicians by O’Shaughnessy.[2781]

=Description=—The plant, which as found in commerce is opaque and white, having been deprived of colour by drying in the sun and air, consists of cylindrical ramifying stems or filaments, ⅒ of an inch in diameter and from 1 to 6 or more inches in length. The main stems bear numerous branches, simple or giving off slender secondary or tertiary ramifications, ending in a short point. When moistened, the plant increases a little in volume, becomes rather translucent, and frequently exhibits whitish globular or mammiform fruits (cystocarps). It is somewhat friable, and after drying at 100° C. may easily be powdered. It is devoid of taste and smell, in this respect differing from most sea weeds.

[2775] Bates in _Amer. Journ. of Pharm._ 1868. 417; also _Pharm. Journ._ xi. (1869) and viii. (1877) 304.

[2776] A person must eat a _pound_ of stiff jelly made of the powdered seaweed before he would have swallowed _half an ounce_ of dry solid matter.

[2777] Fig. in Luerssen (quoted at p. 734) 126.

[2778] For convenience we accept the popular name of _moss_, though it is no longer in accordance with the signification of the word in modern science (see p. 737, note 2).

[2779] The _Pharmacopœia of India_ (1868) names _Sphærococcus confervoides_ Ag. (_Gracillaria_ Grev.), a plant of the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean, not uncommon on the shores of Britain, as furnishing a portion of the drug under notice. Specimens which we have examined are widely different in structure from _S. lichenoides_, and are apparently devoid of starch.

[2780] _Herb. Amboin._ vi. lib. xi c. 56.

[2781] _Indian Journ. of Med. Science_, Calcutta, March, 1834; _Bengal Dispensatory_, 1841. 668.

=Microscopic Structure=—The transverse section shows a loose tissue made up of large empty cells, enclosed by a cortical zone 30 to 70 mkm. thick. This zone consists of small cells, loaded with globular starch granules, from less than 1 up to 3 mkm. in diameter, so densely packed as to form what seems at first sight a single mass in each cell. In the larger cells the granules are attached to the walls; they do not display in polarized light the usual cross. The thick walls of the cells show a stratified structure, especially after having been moistened with chromic acid; on addition of a solution of iodine in an alkaline iodide, they assume a deep brown, but the starch granules, which also abound in the cystocarps, display the usual blue tint.

=Chemical Composition=—The drug, as examined by O’Shaughnessy, yielded in 100 parts of vegetable jelly 54·5, starch 15·0, ligneous fibre (cellulose?) 18·0, mucilage 4·0, inorganic salts 7·5.

Cold water removes the mucilage, which, after due concentration, may be precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. This mucilage, when boiled for some time with nitric acid, produces oxalic acid and microscopic crystals of mucic acid (beautifully seen by polarized light), soluble in boiling water and precipitating on cooling. With one part of the drug and 100 parts of boiling water a thick liquid is obtained which affords transparent precipitates with neutral acetate of lead or alcohol, in the same way as carrageen. With 50 parts of water, a transparent tasteless jelly, devoid of viscosity, is produced; in common with the mucilage, it furnishes mucic acid, if treated with nitric acid. Micro-chemical tests do not manifest albuminous matter in this plant.

Some chemists have regarded the jelly extracted by boiling water as identical with pectin, but the fact requires proof. Payen[2782] called it _Gelose_, and found it composed of carbon 42·77, hydrogen 5·77, and oxygen 51·45 per cent. Gum Arabic contains carbon 42·12, hydrogen 6·41, and oxygen 51·47 = C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁. Payen’s gelose imparts a gelatinous consistence to 500 parts of water; it is extracted by boiling water from the plant previously exhausted by cold water slightly acidulated.[2783]

The inorganic salts of Ceylon moss consist, according to O’Shaughnessy, of sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides of sodium and calcium, with neither iodide nor bromide. Dried at 100° C., it yielded us 9·15 per cent. of ash.

=Uses=—A decoction of Ceylon moss made palatable by sugar and aromatics, has been recommended as a demulcent, and a light article of food for invalids. In the Indian Archipelago and in China, immense quantities of this and of some other species of seaweed[2784] are used for making jelly and for other purposes.

[2782] _Comptes Rendus_, xlix. (1859) 521; _Pharm. Journ._ i. (1860) 470. 508.

[2783] Gelose even in the moist state is but little prone to change, and the jelly made by the Chinese as a sweetmeat which consists mainly of it, will keep good for years.

[2784] Consult Martius, _Neues Jahrb. f. Pharm._ Bd. ix. März 1858; Cooke, _Pharm. Journ._ i. (1860) 504; Holmes, _Pharm. Journ._ ix. (1878) 45.

APPENDIX.

SHORT BIOGRAPHIC AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES,

Relating to Authors and Books quoted in the Pharmacographia. They may be completed by consulting especially the following works:—

CHOULANT, Geschichte und Literatur der älteren Medicin, Part I., Bücherkunde für die ältere Medicin. 1841.

KOPP, Geschichte der Chemie, 4 vols., 1843-1847.

MEYER, Geschichte der Botanik, 4 vols., 1854-1857.

PEREIRA, Tabular view of the history and literature of the Materia Medica, in the “Elements of Materia Medica,” vol ii. part ii. (1857) 836-869.

PRITZEL, Thesaurus literaturæ botanicæ. 1872.

=Acosta=, Christóbal, physician at Burgos; he travelled in the east and visited Mosambique and Cochin; died A.D. 1580.—_Tractado_ de las Drogas y medicinas de las Indias Orientales con sus Plantas debuxadas al biuvo por Christoual Acosta medico y cirujano que las vio ocularmente. Burgos, 1578. Small 4°, 448 pages (and 38 pages indices). There are translations in Latin by _Clusius_, 1582; in Italian, 1585; in French by _Antoine Colin_, 1619, etc.

See pages 154. 423. 462. 503. 565.

=Actuarius, Johannes=, a physician to the court of Constantinople, towards the end of the 13th century, author of “_Methodus medendi_,” and “_De medicamentorum compositione_.” Both these works were repeatedly printed during the 16th century; we are not aware of any recent editions.

See pages 222. 263.

=Ægineta=—See =Paulos=.

=Aëtius= of Amida, now Diarbekir, on the upper Tigris. He wrote, probably about A.D. 540-550, Aëtii medici græci ex veteribus medicinæ _Tetrabiblos_. Basileæ, 1542.

See pages 35. 175. 271. 511. 559.

=Albertus Magnus= (Count Albert von Bollstädt), 1193-1280, a Dominican monk, Bishop of Regensburg (Ratisbon).—Alberti Magni ex ordine Prædicatorum _De vegetabilibus_ libri vii., historiæ naturalis pars xviii. Edit. E. Meyer and C. Jessen. 1867.

See pages 543. 568. 678.

=Alexander Trallianus=, of Tralles, now Aïdin-Güsilhissar, south-east of Smyrna, an eminent physician who wrote about the middle of the 6th century of our era, possibly at Rome.—Alexandri Tralliani medici libri xii. Edit. Joanne Guintero. Basileæ, 1556. 8vo.—An admirable German translation, together with the Greek original, has been published at Vienna, 2 vols., 1878-1879, by Puschmann.

See pages 6. 222. 281. 325. 388. 493. 529. 595. 680.

=Alexandria=, the Roman custom-house of.

In the Pandects of Justinian there is to be found a curious list of eastern drugs and other articles liable to duty at the Roman custom-house in Alexandria, from the time of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, about A.D. 176-180. The complete list is reprinted in Vincent, Commerce of the Ancients, ii. (1807) 698; also in Meyer, Geschichte der Botanik, ii. (1855) 167.

See pages 222. 315. 321. 493. 577. 635. 644.

=Alhervi.= Abu Mansur Movafik ben Ali Alherui, a Persian physician of the 10th century. He compiled a work on medicines and food from Greek, Arabic, and Indian sources, which was published and partly translated by Seligmann: Liber _fundamentorum pharmacologiæ_ ... epitome codicis manuscripti persici bibl. caes. reg. Vienn. Vindobonæ, 1830-1833.

See pages 12. 225. 325. 490.

=Alkindi.= Abu Jusuf Jakub ben Ishak ben Alsabah Alkindi. He wrote about A.D. 813-841 at Basra and Bagdad, about various subjects of natural philosophy, mathematics, medicine, music.

See page 642.

=Alphita=, a curious list of drugs and pharmaceutical preparations, probably compiled in the 13th century, and originally written in French (according to Häser, Geschichte der Medicin, i. 1875, 648 sqq.). Daremberg, La médecine, histoire et doctrine, 1865, attributes the Alphita to Maranchus. The Alphita is contained in Salvatore de Renzi’s _Collectio Salernitana_; ossia documenti inediti ... alla scuola medica Salernitana, iii. (Napoli, 1854) 270-322.

See page 377.

=Alpinus=, Prosper, 1553-1617, Professor of Botany and “Ostensore dei Semplici,” _i.e._ teacher of drugs, in the University of Padua. He visited Egypt in 1580-1583. _De Plantis Ægypti_ liber etc. Venetiis, 1592.

See pages 44. 94. 222. 425. 500.

=Alrasis= or =Arrasi=—See =Rhazes=.

=Angelus= a Sancto Josepho, originally Joseph Labrousse, of Toulouse, born 1636, died in 1697. He was at Ispahan as a Carmelite monk in 1664, and published in 1681 at Paris a Latin translation of what he called a _Pharmacopœia Persica_. Consult Lucien Leclerc, Histoire de la médecine arabe, ii. (Paris, 1876) 84.

See pages 12. 415. 548.

=Anguillara=, Luigi (born at Anguillara, died in 1570 at Ferrara), “Ostensor simplicium,” _i.e._ professor of materia medica, in the University of Padova; author of _Semplici_, liquali in piu Pareri a diversi nobili huomini scritti appaiono. Vinegia, 1561.

See page 303.

=Arrianos Alexandrinos=—See =Periplus=.

=Avicenna.= Abu Ali Alhosain Ben Sînâ Albochâri (of Bokhara), 980-1037. A learned philosopher, mathematician, student of medicine, minister, etc., the most celebrated among Arab physicians, their “doctor princeps.” His “_Canon medicinæ_” was admired until the end of the 15th century as the most complete system of medicine, of which there are numerous editions, chiefly translations. We have particularly referred to “Avicennæ libri in re medica omnes, lat. redditi a J. P. _Mongio_ et J. _Costæo_,” 2 vols. Venetiis, ap. Vinc. _Valgrisium_, 1564.

See pages 12. 31. 125. 161. 225. 393. 429. 490. 642. 716.

=Ayurvedas=—See =Susrutas=.

=Baitar.= Abu Mohammad Abdallah Ben Ahmad Almaliqî (of Malaga), called _Ibn Baitar_. He travelled from Spain to the east, lived about 1238-1248 as a physician to the court in Egypt, and died in 1248 at Damascus. His great work on Materia Medica—Liber magnæ collectionis simplicium alimentorum et medicamentorum—has been (very unsatisfactorily) translated into German by Joseph von Sontheimer, 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1840-1842.

See pages 4. 31. 115. 211. 305. 383. 415. 425. 462. 488. 490. 675.

=Barbosa=, Odoardo (Duarte Balbosa), a Portuguese who visited Malacca before 1511, and accompanied Magalhaes in his famous circumnavigation; killed in 1522 by the natives of the Philippines. Barbosa wrote in 1516 an excellent account of India, published in Ramusio’s collection, Delle navigationi et viaggi, _&c._ Venetia, 1854. Libro di Odoardo Barbosa Portoghese, fol. 413-417. Also in “Coasts of East Africa and Malabar,” published for the Hakluyt Society, London, 1866.—Barbosa quotes the prices of many drugs found in 1511-1516 at Calicut. An abstract of this interesting list will be found in Flückiger, Documente zur Geschichte der Pharmacie. Halle, 1876, 15.

See pages 43. 241. 405. 521. 595. 600. 644. 672. 675. 717.

=Batutah.= Abu Abdallah Mohammed ... Allawati Aththangi, called Ibn Batuta, of Tangier, in Morocco. 1303-1377. The greatest of the Arabic travellers; he visited the east as far as the Caspian regions, Delhi, Java, and Pekin, and also Northern Africa as far as Timbuktu.—_Voyages_ d’Ibn Batouta, texte arabe accompagné d’une traduction par C. Defrémerie et B. R. Sanguinetti. 2 vols. Paris. 1853-1854.

See pages 404. 511. 521. 577. 669. 672.

=Bauhin=, Caspar, 1560-1624, professor of anatomy and botany in the University of Basel. See Hess, J. W. Kaspar Bauhin’s Leben und Charakter. Basel, 1860. 72 pages.—_Pinax_ theatri botanici. Basileæ, 1623.

See pages 31. 86. 388. 429. 439. 731. 740.

=Belon=, Pierre, 1517-1564, called Belon “du Mans,” with reference to his native country near Le Mans, in the ancient province of Maine, France. He travelled in the Levant from 1546 to 1549, and wrote Les observations de plvsievrs _singvlaritez_ et choses memorables, trouuées en Grèce, Asie, Iudée, Egypte, Arabie, et autres pays estranges. Paris, 1553.

See pages 175. 222. 254. 598. 615.

=Benedictus Crispus= (Benedetto Crespo), A.D. 681, Archbishop of Milan, died in 725 or 735.—_Commentarium_ medicinale, ed. by Ullrich, 1835, a small pamphlet consisting of 241 verses, in which a few drugs are alluded to.

See pages 282. 463. 493.

=Bock=—See =Tragus=.

=Brunfels=, Otto, 1488-1534, originally a Carthusian friar, then a schoolmaster at Strassburg, author of several pamphlets against Catholicism; doctor of medicine, and lastly physician to the republic of Bern. His great work—Herbarum vivæ _eicones_, etc., 3 vol., Strassburg, 1530, 1531, 1536, containing 229 partly excellent woodcuts of plants occurring near Strassburg—is the earliest instance of good botanical figures.—See Flückiger, _Otto Brunfels_, in the Archiv der Pharmacie, vol. _212_ (1878) 493-514.

See pages 170. 388. 439. 694.

=Brunschwyg=, Hieronymus, a surgeon living at Strassburg apparently towards the end of the 15th century. His “_Liber de arte distillandi_ de simplicibus, Das buch der rechten kunst zu distilieren....” Strassburg, 1500, with figures, was subsequently brought out in numerous editions and translations. In English: The noble handy work of surgery and of destillation. Southwark, 1525, fol., and The vertuose boke of distillacyon of the waters of all manner of herbes, translate out of duyche. London, 1527, fol.—See Choulant, Graphische Incunabeln für Naturgeschichte und Medicin, 1858-75.

See pages 170. 456.

=Camellus= or =Camelli=—See =Kamel=.

=Camerarius=, Joachim, 1534-1598, physician at Nürnberg. _Hortus medicus et philosophicus._ Francofurti, 1588. See _Irmisch_, Über einige Botaniker des 16ᵗᵉⁿ Jahrhunderts. Sondershausen, 1862, 4°. p. 39.

See pages 384. 390. 474.

=Cato=, Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius, 234-149 b.c. In the book _De re rustica_, the earliest agricultural work in Roman literature, Cato treats of many useful plants, the complete list of which will be found in Meyer’s Geschichte der Botanik, i. 342. We have usually referred to _Nisard’s_ edition in “Les Agronomes latins,” Paris, 1877.

See pages 172. 245. 269. 289. 329. 627.

=Celsus=, Aulus Cornelius; about 25 B.C. to A.D. 50.—A. Cornelii Celsi de medicina libri octo, ed. C. Daremberg. Lipsiæ, 1859. The list of useful plants mentioned by him will be found in Meyer’s Geschichte der Botanik, ii. 17.

See pages 35. 43. 179. 234. 291. 439. 493. 677. 680.

=Charaka=, _i.e._ book of health. An old Sanskrit work, analogous to Susruta’s Ayurvedas (see Susruta), yet reputed in India to be older than the latter. Charaka is now being published, since 1868, at Calcutta, and also at Bombay, but is not yet translated in any modern idiom. There are Arabic versions of the end of the 8th century, as stated by Albirûnî in the 11th century, and by Ibn Baitar (see B.) For further particulars consult Roth, _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, xxvi. (1872) 441 sqq.

=Charlemagne=, the great Emperor, 768-814. He ordered, in 812, by the “_Capitulare_ de villis et cortis imperialibus,” a considerable number of useful plants to be cultivated in the imperial farms. Several other plants are also mentioned, for similar purpose, in the Emperor’s “_Breviarium_ rerum fiscalium.” A full account of both these remarkable documents will be found in Meyer’s Geschichte der Botanik, iii. 401-412. See also B. Guérard, Explication du Capitulaire de Villis; Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes, IV. (1853) 201-247. 313-350. and 346-572.

See pages 92. 98. 172. 179. 245. 269. 308. 329. 488. 542. 545. 627.

=Chordadbeh=—See =Khurdadbah=.

=Circa instans=—See =Platearius=.

=Clusius=, Charles de l’Escluse, born at Arras, in the north of France, A.D. 1526; died A.D. 1609. He lived at Marburg, Wittenberg, Frankfurt, Strassburg, Lyons, Montpellier; travelled in Spain and Portugal; paid, in 1571, a visit to London, and again in a later year. Clusius was, from 1573 to 1587, the director of the imperial gardens at Vienna, and from 1593 to 1609 professor of botany in the University of Leiden. Among the works of this eminent man the most important, from a pharmaceutical point of view, are: 1. Aliquot _notæ_ in Garciæ aromatum historiam. Antverpiæ, 1582. 2. _Rariorum plantarum historia._ Antv., 1601. 3. _Exoticorum libri decem._ Antv., 1605.—See Morren, Charles de l’Ecluse, sa vie et ses œuvres. Liége, Boverie, No. 1, 1875, 59 pp.

See pages 17. 21. 73. 83. 96. 202. 211. 254. 272. 287. 390. 401. 425. 429. 453. 521. 589. 648. 657.

=Collectio Salernitana=—See =Alphita=.

=Columella=, Lucius Junius Moderatus. Born at Cadiz; he wrote between A.D. 35 and 65 the most valuable agricultural work of the Roman literature: “_De re rustica_ libri xii.” It has been translated by _Nisard_, together with Columella’s book, “_De arboribus_,” for Firmin Didot’s “Agronomes latins.” Paris, 1877. The list of the numerous plants mentioned by Columella will be found in Meyer’s Geschichte der Botanik ii., 68.

See pages 97. 245. 664.

=Constantinus Africanus=. Born at Carthage in the second half of the 10th century. A physician who spent his life in travels in the east and in studies in the medical school at Salerno (see S.), and in the famous Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino; died A.D. 1106. He transmitted the medical knowledge of the Arabs to the school of Salerno, of which he may be called the most distinguished fellow. See _Steinschneider_ in _Virchow’s Archiv für patholog. Anatomie und Physiologie_, 37 (1866) 351; and in _Rohlfs’_ Archiv für Geschichte der Medicin, 1879, 1-22. Steinschneider shows that Constantin’s work, De Gradibus, is chiefly based on that of _Ibn-al-Djazzâr_, who died about A.D. 1004.

See pages 130. 211. 377. 494. 573. 584. 600.

=Conti=, Niccolò dei. A Venetian merchant, who spent 25 years (from 1419 to 1444?) in India. His interesting accounts are by far the most valuable of that period. They have been published for the Hakluyt Society (ed. by Major): India in the 15th century, Lond., 1857, 39 pp. A still more valuable edition and translation is due to Kunstmann: Kenntniss Indiens im 15ᵗᵉⁿ Jahrhunderte. München, 1863. 66 pp.

See pages 282. 521. 577. 582. 636.

=Cordus=, Valerius. Born A.D. 1515 at Erfurt, professor of materia medica in the University of Wittenberg, then the most eminent man in that science. After his premature death, at Rome, in 1544, his works were published by _Conrad Gesner_, in a large volume printed in 1561 at Strassburg. It contains: (1) Valerii Cordi _Annotationes_ in Dioscoridem; (2) _Historiæ stirpium_ libri iv.; (3) De artificiosis _Extractionibus_, and several other papers of V. Cordus, besides the most remarkable book, _De Hortis Germaniæ_, by _Conrad Gesner_ himself. A very careful biographic notice on _Cordus_ is due to Irmisch, Einige Botaniker des 16 Jahrhunderts ... Sondershausen, 1862. 4°. pp. 1-34.

See pages 31. 148. 170. 248. 260. 429. 526. 580. 644. 648. 650. 661. 713. 733. 737.

=Cosmas=—See =Kosmas=.

=Crescenzi=, Piero de’, 1235-1320. He wrote, about A.D. 1304-1306, at Bologna, an esteemed book on agriculture, which was repeatedly printed towards the end of the 15th century, for instance, Opus _ruralium commodorum_ Petri de Crescentiis, Argentine, 1486. There are numerous later translations and editions.

See pages 6. 157. 180. 661.

=Dale=, Samuel, a physician in London, 1659-1739. _Pharmacologia_ seu manuductio ad Materiam medicam. Lond., 1693, 12mo.

See pages 592. 615. 616. 648. 681. 731.

=Dioscorides=, Pedanios, of Anazarba, in Cilicia, Asia Minor. He wrote, about A.D. 77 or 78, his great work on materia medica, the most valuable source of information on the botany of the ancients.

See pages 6. 35. 43. 92. 97. 147. 161. 166. 172. 175. 179. 183. 234. 262. 276. 291. 292. 305. 310. 321. 325. 328. 331. 377. 384. 388. 434. 439. 464. 486. 493. 503. 519. 529. 556. 558. 567. 568. 581. 594. 609. 627. 638. 644. 655. 661. 664. 672. 675. 677. 680. 690. 699. 715. 723. 728. 729. 733.

=Dodonæus=, Rembert Dodoens, 1517-1585, physician at Malines, Belgium.

See pages 303. 388. 439. 699. 729. 731.

=Edrisi=, or Alidrisi, an Arab nobleman, born about A.D. 1099 in Spain, living at King Roger’s court, Palermo, where he compiled, in 1153, his remarkable geographical work. It summarizes all the earlier geographic literature of the Arabs, adding much valuable information gathered by the author from merchants and other travellers.—_Géographie_ d’Edrisi, traduite en français, par P. Amedée Jaubert, 2 vols. Paris, 1836-1840. _Description_ de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, trad. par Dozy. Leyde, 1866.

See pages 115. 305. 316. 494. 503. 577. 584. 642. 644. 680.

=Fernandez=, latinized =Ferrandus=. Born at Madrid 1478. From 1514 to 1525 he was “veedor de las fundiciones do oro de Tierra-firma in America,” _i.e._ superintendent of the foundries of gold in the American continent; died 1537 in Valladolid. _Historia general y natural de las Indias_ islas y tierra firme del mar oceano por el Capitan _Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdés_, primer chronista del nuevo mundo. Publ. dal codice orig. y illustr. p. J. _Amador de los Rios_. This complete edition has been published in 4 vols., from 1853 to 1855, by the Academy of Madrid. We have not seen the earlier partial editions, viz. “_Summario_ de la natural y general Historia de las Indias,” Toledo, 1526, fol., “_Primera parte_ de la Historia natural y general de las Indias,” Sevilla, por _Cromberger_, 1535, fol.; nor “Cronica de las Indias,” 1547. See also Colmeiro, La Botanica y los Botánicos de la peninsula Hispano-Lusitana, Madrid, 1858, 26, No. 220 (_Fernandez_) and 149; also _Haller_, Bibl. botanica, i. 272, who calls him _Gundisalvus_ or _Gonsalvus Hernandez_. He is also quoted by others as _Oviedo_.

See pages 95. 101. 186. 213. 453. 466. 534.

=Fuchs=, Leonhard, 1501-1566, Professor of medicine in the University of Tübingen from 1535 to 1566, author of De _historia stirpium_ commentarii insignes.... Basileæ, 1542, fol., a work equally remarkable for the excellent woodcuts and the careful descriptions.

See pages 170. 429. 453. 456. 469. 652.

=Galenos=, Claudius Galenus Pergamenus, A.D. 131-200, a most distinguished medical writer, imperial physician at Rome. Many drugs and officinal plants are mentioned in his numerous works, which were held in the highest reputation during the middle ages.

See pages 35. 222. 268. 503. 519. 559. 609.

=Garcia=—See =Orta=.

=Gerarde=, John, 1545-1607, London, surgeon.—The _Herball_, or generall historie of plantes, 1597.

See pages 31. 71. 170. 218. 254. 268. 453. 459. 480. 486. 487. 537. 552. 568. 589. 611. 655. 661. 694. 700. 729.

=Gesner=, Conrad, 1516-1565, Zürich, the most learned naturalist of his time (See also Cordus).

See pages 299. 384. 390. 439. 456.

=Helvetius=, Jean-Claude-Adrien, 1661-1727, physician at Paris.

See pages 26. 371.

=Hernandez=, Francisco, physician to King Philip II. of Spain; he lived about the years 1561-1577 in Mexico.—Quatro libros de la naturaleza y virtutes de las plantas y animales que estan recevidos en el uso de medicina en la Nueva España.... Mexico, 1615.—We have only referred to Antonio Reccho’s translation: Nova plantarum, animalium et mineralium Mexicanorum Historia, rerum medicarum Novæ Hispaniæ _Thesaurus_. Romæ, 1651, fol. (first edition, 1628). Hernandez must not be confounded with _G. Fernandez de Oviedo_ (See _Fernandez_).

See pages 202. 206. 657.

=Hildegardis=, 1099-1179, the abbess of the Benedictine monastery St. Ruprechtsberg, near Bingen (“Pinguia”) on the Rhine. Her “_Physica_” one of the most interesting mediæval works of its kind, is contained in tom. cxcvii. (1855) 1117-1352 of _J. P. Migne’s Patrologiæ cursus completus_, under the name “Subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creaturarum.... Liber i. De Plantis.

See pages 305. 378. 476. 512. 551. 584.

=Ibn Baitar=—See =Baitar=.

=Ibn Batuta=—See =Batuta=.

=Ibn Khordadbah=—See =Khurdadbah=.

=Idrisi=—See =Edrisi=.

=Isaac Judæus=, or Abu Jaqûb Ishaq ..., an Egyptian Jew, living at Kâirowan, in Northern Africa, as a physician to the prince of the Aglabites; died about A.D. 932-941. See Choulant, _Bücherkunde für die ältere Medicin_, 1841, 347; also Meyer, Geschichte der Botanik, iii. 170.

See pages 217. 225. 325. 377.

=Isidorus=, Hispalensis, Bishop of Sevilla, about A.D. 595-636, author of a great cyclopœdia, _Etymologiarum_ libri xx. We have referred to it in “Sancti Isidori Opera omnia,” in the vol. lxxxii. (1859) of J. P. Migne’s Patrologiæ cursus completus.

See pages 305. 380. 493. 529. 664.

=Istachri=, Abu Ishaq Alfarsi Alistachri (_i.e._ of Istachr, the ancient Persepolis, in the Persian province Fars). His geographical work has been translated (in the Transactions of the Academy of Ham) by Mordtmann: Das _Buch der Länder_ von Schech Ebn Ishak el Farsi el Isztachri. Hamburg, 1845.

See pages 316. 414. 716.

=Kamel= (or =Camellus=), George Joseph, born at Brünn, Moravia, A.D. 1661, a member of the company of Jesus A.D. 1682. By permission of his superiors, he left in 1688 for the Marianne islands and the Philippines. After having acquired a certain knowledge of botany and pharmacy, he established, at Manila, a pharmaceutical shop with the view of supplying medicaments gratis to the poor; he died there in 1706. Kamel communicated his botanical investigations to _Ray_ and _Petiver_ (see R.); consult also A. de _Backer_, Bibliothèque des Ecrivains de la compagnie de Jésus, iv. (Liége, 1858) 89.

See pages 148. 432.

=Kämpfer=, Engelbert. Born in 1651 at Lemgo, Westphalia; travelled as a physician in Persia (1683-1685), India, Java, Siam (1690), Japan (1690-1692); graduated in 1694 at Leiden, and died in 1716 at Lemgo. His work, _Amœnitatum_ exoticarum fasciculi v., Lemgo, 1712, was intended as a specimen of more elaborate accounts of the various observations of the well-informed and zealous author. But only a _History and description of Japan_ was published in German in 1777, by Dohm at Lemgo. Kämpfer’s unpublished manuscripts and collections were purchased, in 1753, by Sir Hans Sloane, for the British Museum.

See pages 20. 44. 167. 263. 272. 315. 512. 513. 527.

=Kazwini=, an Arabic geographer of the 13th century.—Ethé, Kazwini’s _Kosmographie_. Leipzig, 1869.

See pages 503. 521. 573.

=Khurdadbah= or Ibn-Chordadbeh, engaged, towards the end of the 9th century, in the police and postal administration of Mesopotamia, and collecting informations about the products and tributes of the empire of the Khalifes. They are translated by Barbier du Meynard: Le _livre des routes et des provinces_, par Ibn Khordadbeh. Journal asiatique, v. (1865) 227-296 and 446-527.

See pages 282. 512. 518. 573. 577. 642.

=Kosmas Alexandrinos Indikopleustes=, a Greek merchant, a friend of Alexander Trallianus (p. 752), living in Egypt, travelling in India, and lastly, towards the middle of the 6th century, a monk. His monstrous work, _Christiana topographia_, contains, nevertheless, a small amount of valuable information. We referred to it as contained in Migne’s Patrologiæ cursus completus, series græca, t. lxxxviii. (1850) 374.

See pages 281. 577. 599.

=Lefebvre= or Le Fèbre, Nicolas, 16..-1674, Paris (partly also London), “Apoticaire ordinaire du Roy, distillateur chymique de sa Majesté”—_Traité de la Chymie_, Paris, i. (1660) 375-377.

See pages 65. 381.

=Liber pontificalis= seu de gestis Romanorum pontificum. Romæ, 1724 (edition of _Vignolius_). A new edition will be brought out in the Monumenta Germaniæ.

See pages 137. 142. 281.

=Macer Floridus=, wrote, A.D. 1140, the book _De viribus herbarum_. The editio princeps was printed A.D. 1487 in Naples; the best edition is that of Choulant, Leipzig, 1832 (140 pages). Nothing exact is known about that author himself.

See pages 627. 642. 684.

=Marcellus Empiricus=, a high functionary of the two emperors Theodosius, towards the end of the 4th and in the beginning of the 5th centuries.—De _medicamentis_ empiricis, physicis ac rationalibus liber. Basileæ, 1536.

See pages 183. 729.

=Marcgraf=, Georg, 1610-1644, astronomer and geographer to Count Johann Moriz von Nassau. See Piso.

See pages 187. 211. 228. 371.

=Masudi=, or Almasudi, Maçoudi A.D. 900-958. Born at Bagdad, travelled in Arabia, India, and in the East of Africa. One of the distinguished geographic writers of the Arabs. His works are being published by the Société asiatique of Paris: _Les Prairies d’Or_, texte et traduction par Barbier de Meynard et Pavet de Courteille, 8 vols., 1869-1873 (in continuation).

See pages 503. 573. 584. 600. 680.

=Mattioli=, Pierandrea. Born in 1501 at Siena; living as a physician at Trento, Görz, Prag; died A.D. 1577. There are many editions of his chief work, _Commentarii_ in sex libros Pedacii Dioscoridis Anazarbei de medica materia. The first, in Italian, was published in 1544 at Venice.

See pages 32. 147. 183. 390. 439. 456. 609. 650.

=Meddygon Myddvai=—See =Physicians=.

=Mesuë=, the younger. Jahjâ ben Mâsaweih ben Ahmed.... Born at Maredin, Kurdistan, physician to the Khalif Alhakem at Cairo; died A.D. 1015.

See pages 40. 225. 493.

=Monardes=, Nicolás, 1493-1588, physician at Sevilla.—Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias occidentales, que sirven en medicina. Sevilla, 1569. Latin edition by Clusius, _De simplicibus medicamentis_ ex occidentali India delatis, quorum in medicina usus est. Antwerp. 1574. See Hanbury’s appreciation of the book: Pharm. Journ. i. (1870) 298.

See pages 148. 202. 206. 443. 466. 534. 537. 697. 705.

=Mutis=, José Celestino, 1732-1808; 1760, physician to the viceroy of New Granada; 1782, in charge of an “expedicion real botanica” of that country. See Triana’s work, quoted at page 369. Triana much reduces, apparently with good reason, the merits of Mutis, which would appear to have been overrated by Humboldt.

See pages 106. 345.

=Nikandros Kolophonios=, of Klaros, near Kolophon in Ionia, in the 2nd century B.C. Physician and poet.

See page 6.

=Nostredame=, Michel de. Born 1503 at Saint-Remi, Provence. Physician and astrologer at Aix and Lyons; died A.D. 1566 at Salon, Provence.

See page 405.

=Oribasios Pergamenos=, a friend and physician to the emperor Julianus Apostata, 4th century. We referred chiefly to _Bussemaker_ et _Daremberg_, Oeuvres complètes d’_Oribasius_, 6 vols., 1851-1876.

See pages 35. 129. 175. 183. 222. 559. 729.

=Orta=, Garcia de, or Garcia ab Horto. (Years of birth and death unknown.) He was a student of medicine and natural sciences in the Universities of Salamanca and Alcalá, and a teacher and physician in the University of Coimbra (or Lissabon?). In 1534 Garcia accompanied Martim Affonso de Souza, grand admiral of the Indian fleet, to Goa, and lived there as a royal physician (Physico d’El Rey) to the hospital. Garcia appears to have been still living there in 1562, when he obtained the vice-regal privilege for his book “_Coloquios_ dos simples e drogas he cousas mediçinais da India, e assi dalguãs frutas achadas nella ande se tratam.... Impresso em Goa, por Joannes de endem as x de Abril de 1563,” 436 pp., 4°. (British Museum).—F. A. von Varnhagen has caused the Coloquios to be reprinted in 1872 at Lisbon. Garcia de Orta’s Coloquios are, notwithstanding the utterly diffused style of the work, a precious source of information on eastern drugs. They had the good chance to be translated, as early as the year 1567, by Clusius, who omitted the insignificant parts of the book, re-arranged it conveniently, and added valuable notes. See Flückiger in Buchner’s Repertorium für Pharmacie, xxv. (1876) 63-69.

See pages 43. 86. 130. 154. 200. 225. 241. 272. 405. 415. 429. 462. 512. 521. 527. 547. 585. 638. 644. 712.

=Oviedo=, Capitan Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdés—See =Fernandez=.

=Palladius=, Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus, an agricultural author of the 4th or 5th century of our era, living probably in northern Italy. We have chiefly referred to _Nisard’s_ edition of the fourteen books of Palladius “_De re rustica_,” which is contained in Firmin Didot’s “Les Agronomes latins,” Paris, 1877.

See page 328.

=Parkinson=, John, 1567-1629 (?), an apothecary of London, and director of the Royal Gardens at Hampton Court. _Theatrum botanicum_, or an herball of large extent.... London, 1640. fol.

See pages 84. 189. 287. 429. 469. 470. 500. 556. 589. 616. 623. 648. 698. 731.

=Paulus Ægineta= (Paulos Aiginetes), a physician of the first half of the 7th century of our era, who appears to have lived for some time at Alexandria. Author of “seven books” on medicine, which have been first published, in Greek, in 1528 at Venice, and, in Latin, in 1532 at Paris, translated by Winter (Guinterus) of Andernach: _Compendii_ medici libri septem. We have also referred to the translation of Adams.

See pages 3. 35. 175. 183. 271. 281. 559. 563.

=Pavon=, José, a Spanish botanist, who explored in common with Ruiz the flora of Peru. Biographic particulars about Pavon are wanting even in Colmeiro’s La botánica y los botánicos de la peninsula Hispano-Lusitana, Madrid, 1858. 181.

See pages 345. 590.

=Paxi= or =Pasi=, Bartolomeo di; the author of a curious book giving practical information about the weights and measures in use in various countries. There are many editions, the first of which, as examined in 1876 by one of us (F. A. F..) in the library of San Marco, Venice, is found to bear the following title:—“Qui comincia la utilissima opera chiamata _Taripha_, la qvol tracta de ogni sorte de pexi e misure conrispondenti per tuto il mondo fata e composta per lo excelente e eximio Miser Bartholomeo di _Paxi_ da Venezia. Stampado in uenezia per Albertin da lisona uercellese regnante l inclyto principe miser Leonardo Loredano. Anno domini 1503. A di 26 del mese de luio.”

See pages 235. 609.

=Peres=—See =Pires=.

=Periplus Maris Erythræi=, a survey of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean as far as the coast of Malabar. In his interesting account, written about between A.D. 54 and 68, the author, commonly called Arrian of Alexandria, gives a list of imports and exports of the various places which he had visited or of which he had good informations. See _Vincent_, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, etc. London, vol. i. (1800), ii. (1805); also C. _Müller_, Geographi græci minores, i. (Paris, 1855) 257-305. Anonymi (_Arriani_ ut fertur) Periplus maris erythræi.

See pages 35. 142. 272. 493. 520. 529. 577. 599. 664. 675. 680. 715.

=Physicians of Myddvai= (Meddygon Myddfai). Rhys Gryg (_i.e._ the Hoarse), prince of South Wales (died in 1233 at Llandeilo Vawr), had his domestic physician, namely Rhiwallon, who was assisted by his three sons Cadwgan, Gruffydd, Einion, from a place called Myddvai, in the present county of Caermarthen. They made a collection of recipes, the original manuscript of which is in the British Museum. Another collection has been compiled, from the original sources, by Howel the Physician, son of Rhys, son of Llewelyn, son of Philip the Physician, a lineal descendant of Einion, the son of Rhiwallon. Both these compilations have been published at Llandovery in 1861, together with a translation, by John Pughe, under the above title (470 pp.)

See pages 6. 40. 65. 71. 141. 157. 161. 170. 180. 299. 305. 310. 316. 334. 380. 383. 393. 401. 450. 464. 469. 476. 488. 556. 625. 635. 642. 652.

=Pires=, Tomé (or Pyres, Pirez, as he also writes his name himself), a Portuguese apothecary. He was the first ambassador sent, probably in 1511, from Europe, or at least from Portugal, to China. Pires addressed, in 1512-1516, several letters from Cochin and Malacca to the Admiral Affonso d’Albuquerque and to King Manuel of Portugal. One of them, written January 27, 1516, from Cochin to the King, enumerates many drugs which were to be met with in that place—“dando l-lhe noticias das drogas da India,” says the writer. This letter, still existing in the Real y Nacional Archivo da Torre do Tombo (corpo chronologico, part i. fasc. 19, No. 102), was communicated in 1838 by Bishop Condo Don Francisco de San Luiz to the Portuguese Pharmaceutical Society, and published in their “Jornal de Socied. Pharm. Lusit. ii. (1838) 36.” It will also be found in the pamphlet[2785] “Elogio historico e noticia completa de Thomé Pires, pharmaceutico e primeiro naturalista da India; e o primeiro embaixador europeo a China. Memoria publicada na Gazeta de Pharmacia por Pedro José da Silva.” ... Lisboa, 1866. 47 pp. (“y 22 fac simile de sua signatura”). We had, moreover, before us an authentic copy of the letter under notice, obligingly written 1st December, 1869, for one of us by Senhor Joaquim Urbano de Veiga, the Secretary of the Sociedad Pharmaceutica Lusitana. According to _Colmeiro_, La Botánica y los Botánicos de la Peninsula Hispano-Lusitana, Madrid, 1858. 148, Peres was attached to the factory of Malacca as a “scribano” (secretary?) and “por tener conocimientos farmacéuticos,” and was sent to China, with the character of an ambassador, in order to examine more freely the plants. He was imprisoned, says Colmeiro, at Pekin, and there died soon after 1521 in prison. Yet _Abel Rémusat_, in the 34th volume of the “Biographie universelle” (1823), p. 498, and also in his “Nouveaux mélanges asiatiques” ii. (1828) 203, states that Pires proceeded first to Canton, and reached Pekin in 1521. From this place he was sent to Canton and imprisoned for many years from political causes. He was still living in 1543.

See pages 43. 255. 681.

[2785] Library of the Pharm. Soc. of Great Britain, London, among the “Pamphlets. No. 30” (Sept. 1878).

=Piso=, Willem. The Dutch, having conquered in 1630 from the Spanish the north-eastern part of the Brazilian coast, between Natal and Porto Calvo, Count _Johann Moriz von Nassau-Siegen_ was appointed, in 1636, Governor-General of these possessions. He left them in 1644; the history of his reign is contained in the work of _Barlæus_, Rerum per Octoennium ... gestarum ... historia, Amstelodami, 1647. The Count had also instituted a scientific exploration of the environs of Pernambuco (or Recife), his residence, by his physician _Piso_ and _Marcgraf_, the friend of the latter (see M.), who lived also at the Count’s court. They devoted several years (from 1638 to 1641) zealously to their task. The results of their investigations are found in—(1) Historia naturalis Brasiliæ, published by Joh. de Laet, Lugd. Bat., 1643. (2) Pisonis de _medicina brasiliensi_ libri iv., et G. Marcgravii _historiæ rerum naturalium Brasiliæ_ libri viii. Lugd. Bat., 1648. (3) Pisonis de _utriusque Indiæ historia naturali_ et _medica_ libri xiv. Amstelodami, 1658.

See pages 27. 113. 114. 130. 152. 211. 228. 371. 591.

=Platearius, Matthæus=, one of the most distinguished writers of the famous medical school of Salerno, about the middle of the 12th century. He compiled the remarkable dictionary of drugs, “Liber de simplici medicina,” which was extremely appreciated during the next centuries, and even reprinted as late as the beginning of the 17th century. The work begins with a definition of the signification of the term Simplex medicina; it is in these words: _Circa instans_ negotium de simplicibus medicinis nostrum versatur propositum. Simplex autem medicina est, quæ talis est, qualis a natura producitur: ut gariofilus, nux muscata et similia.... The work of Platearius is therefore usually quoted under the name _Circa instans_. The list of the 273 drugs enumerated in “Circa instans” will be found in Choulant (_l.c._ at p. 751), p. 298. We have referred to “Circa instans” as contained in the volumes—Dispensarium magistri Nicolai præpositi ad aromatarios, Lugduni, 1517, or Practica Jo. Serapionis, Lugd. 1525.

See pages 225. 316. 581.

_Plinius_ (Cajus Plinius Secundus), A.D. 23-79, the well-known author of the “_Naturalis historiæ_ libri xxxvii.” We have particularly used _Littré’s_ translation, “Histoire naturelle de Pline,” published in 2 vols. by Firmin Didot, Paris, 1877.

See pages 6. 35. 43. 97. 147. 161. 179. 234. 276. 281. 291. 305. 310. 325. 329. 333. 377. 434. 439. 474. 486. 488. 493. 503. 519. 529. 543. 556. 558. 576. 595. 609. 627. 644. 661. 664. 672. 677. 680. 729. 733.

=Plukenet=, Leonard, 1642-1706, physician, director of the Royal gardens, London; collector of a large herbarium still existing in the British Museum.

See page 16.

=Polo=, Marco, a noble Venetian, the most famous among mediæval travellers. He spent 25 years, from 1271 to 1295, in Asia, chiefly in China. The account of his travels was written, in French, in 1298, by _Rusticiano_ of Pisa, and published since in numerous translations and abstracts. We have chiefly referred to the two following excellent works: (1) _Pauthier._ Le livre de _Marco Polo_, publié pour la première fois d’après trois manuscrits inédits de la Bibliothèque impériale de Paris, 1865. (2) _Yule._ The book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian, concerning the kingdom and marvels of the East, with notes and illustrations. 2 vols. London, 1871, second edition 1874.

See pages 200. 282. 494. 510. 512. 520. 584. 636. 717.

=Pomet=, Pierre, “marchand épicier et droguiste à Paris, rue des Lombards, à la Barbe d’Or.”—Histoire générale des drogues, 1694, fol. 528 pages, 400 engravings. There are later editions in 2 vols., 4°; that of 1735 by the author’s son, an “apotiquaire” at St. Denis. See _Hanbury’s_ appreciation of the book, Pharm. Journ. i. (1870) 298.

See pages 21. 26. 73. 118. 126. 148. 260. 263. 479. 617. 623. 648. 657.

=Porta=, Giovanni Battista, 1539(?)-1615, a distinguished Napolitan nobleman. Of his remarkable works we have before us—_De distillatione_, lib. ix. Romæ 1608, 154 pp. It is partly contained also in Porta’s Magiæ naturalis libri xx, 1589, yet not in the earlier editions of the Magia, the first of which appeared in 1558. Another work of the same author, the _Phytognomica_, Naples, 1583, may be mentioned as one of the chief works treating on the “Doctrine of Signatures.” There are several editions of it, usually containing the curious figures of the tubers of orchids as especially connected with that superstitious doctrine.

See pages 118. 263. 385. 479. 526. 580. 653. 655.

=Præpositus=, Nicolaus, one of the eminent physicians of the school of Salerno (see S.) living in the first half of the 12th century. He gives in his _Antidotarium_, first edition, Venetiis 1471, the composition of about 150 medicines, which were much used, under his name, during the following centuries. They are enumerated in Choulant’s book, mentioned p. 751 before.

=Pun-tsao=, a great Chinese herbal, written by _Le-she-chin_, in the middle of the 16th century. It consists of 40 thin octavo volumes, the first three of which contain about 1,100 woodcuts. For more exact information consult _Hanbury_, Science Papers, 212 et seq.

See pages 4. 76. 83. 167. 510. 520.

=Ramusio=, Giovanni Battista.—Terza editione delle navigationi e viaggi raccolti già da G. B. Ramusio, 3 vol. fol. Venetia, 1554. A valuable collection of accounts of mediæval travellers, chiefly Italian.

See page 4.

=Ray= (Wray, or Rajus) John, 1628-1705, a clergyman and distinguished botanist. His Herbarium is preserved in the British Museum. Historia plantarum, 3 vols., folio, London, 1686-1704.

See pages 254. 277. 481. 482. 615. 731. 740.

=Redi=, Francesco, a physician of Arezzo, who lived at Florence. _Esperienze_ intorno a diverse cose naturali e particularmente a quelle che ci son portate dell’ India. Firenze, 1671.

See pages 24. 111. 287.

=Rhazes= (Abu Bekr Muhammad ben Zakhariah Alrazi) from Raj, in the Persian province Chorassan, where he was a physician to the hospital and subsequently at Bagdad; died A.D. 923 or 932.

See pages 3. 271. 393. 642. 716.

=Rheede= tot Draakestein, Hendrik Adriaan van, 1636-1691, Dutch governor of Malabar. He ordered the most conspicuous plants of India to be figured and to be described, mostly by Jan Commelin, professor of botany at Amsterdam. This great and valuable work is the _Hortus indicus malabaricus_, 12 vols. folio, Amstelodami 1678-1703, with 794 plates.

See pages 130. 189. 211. 297. 403. 421. 425. 547. 565. 580. 644. 677. 726.

=Ricettario Fiorentino=; one of the earliest, if not the very first, printed Pharmacopœia published by authority. It bears title: Ricettario di dottori dell’ arte, e di medicina del collegio Fiorentino all’ instantia delli Signori Consoli della universita delli speciali. Firenze, 1498. Folio. We have referred to the edition of 1567, printed at “Fiorenza, Nella Stamperia dei Giunti 1574.” There are other editions of that Florentine Pharmacopœia down to the year 1696.

See pages 40. 410. 706.

=Roteiro.= The account of the famous expedition of _Vasco da Gama_ to the Cape (22nd November, 1497), due to one of his companions, _Alvaro Velho_. The author enumerates in his remarkable pamphlet (see title at page 496) several spices and drugs of India, stating their prices there and in Alexandria. See also _Heyd_, Geschichte des Levantehandels, ii. (1879) 507.

See pages 404. 496.

=Ruel=, or =Ruellius=, also =de la Rouelle=, Jean. 1474-1537. Physician at Soissons, lastly canon at Paris. De natura stirpium libri iii. Parisiis, 1536. Folio. (See also _Scribonius Largus_.)

See pages 31. 388.

=Ruiz=, Hipolito. 1754-1816. A Spanish botanist, in 1777 appointed director of the celebrated exploration of Peru and Chile. (See also Pavon.)

See pages 79. 345. 590.

=Rumphius= (Rumpf), Georg Eberhard, 1627-1702. Dutch governor of Amboina. He figured and described 715 plants of that island in the Herbarium amboinense, 7 vols., Amstelodami, 1741-1755, folio, 696 plates.

See pages 130. 189. 211. 278. 297. 336. 421. 565. 600. 673. 726. 749.

=Saladinus=, of Ascoli (probably Ascoli di Satiano in the Capitanata, Apulia), physician to one of the Princes of Tarentum (and apparently also to the grand constable of Naples, Prince Giovanni Antonio de Balzo Ursino). He is the author of the “_Compendium aromatariorum_ Saladini, principis tarenti dignissimi medici, diligenter correctum et emendatum. Impressum in almo studio Bononiensi, 1488;” 4°. 58 pages. Further on, the author calls himself Dominus Saladinus de Esculo, Serenitatis Principis Tarenti phisicus principalis. At the end of his pamphlet he gives the list of drugs “communiter necessariis et usitatis in qualibet _aromataria_ vel _apotheca_.” ... This book intended for the druggists, _aromatarii_, was written between A.D. 1442 and 1458, as shown by Hanbury, Science Papers, 358.

See pages 148. 183. 225. 377. 388. 456. 582. 585. 600.

=Salerno=, the school of medicine. During the middle ages, from about the 9th century, there were flourishing in the said Italian town a large number of distinguished medical practitioners and teachers. It is one of their merits to have transmitted the medical art and knowledge of the Arabs to mediæval Europe.—See also _Alphita_, _Constantinus Africanus_, _Platearius_, _Nicolaus Præpositus_. That once famous institution continued an obscure existence even down to the year 1811, when it was suppressed, November 29th, by order of Napoleon.—See pages 31. 225. 321. 334. 377. 690.

=Sanudo=, Marino, a well informed Venetian writer, author of (1) Vite de _duchi_ di _Venezia_, in Muratori, Scriptores rerum italicarum xxii. (Mediolani, 1733) 954 et seq. (2) _Marinus Sanutus_ dictus Torsellus Patricius Venetus, _Liber Secretorum_ fidelium crucis super terræ sanctæ recuperatione et conservatione, in Orientalis Historiæ, tom ii. (Hanoviæ, 1611) 22; lib. i. part i. cap. 1. The latter work contains, at page 23, a classified list of eastern drugs; among the most valuable spices, Sanudo mentions cloves, cubebs, mace, nutmegs, spikenard; among those less costly, cinnamon, ginger, olibanum, pepper.

See pages 245. 636.

=Scribonius Largus=, a Roman physician of the first century of our era. He accompanied, in A.D. 43, the emperor Claudius when he attempted the definite conquest of the island of Britain. Scribonius is the author of the valuable book, _Compositiones Medicamentorum_ seu Compositiones medicæ, the earliest edition of which is due to Ruel, Paris, 1529.

See pages 6. 35. 42. 147. 179. 219. 245. 331. 493. 503.

=Simon Januensis=—See pages 6. 44. 582. 652.

=Sloane=, Sir Hans, 1660-1753. In 1687 physician to the governor of Barbados and Jamaica. His library and large collections of natural history formed the nucleus of the British Museum. He wrote (1) _Catalogus_ plantarum quæ in insula Jamaica sponte proveniunt vel vulgo coluntur ... adjectis aliis quibusdam, quæ in insulis Maderæ, Barbados, Nieves et St. Christophori nascuntur, Londini, 1696. (2) A _voyage_ to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, St. Christophers and Jamaica. London, 1707-1725, fol.

See pages 18. 73. 188. 203. 288. 591. 615. 629. 710.