Chapter V: Introduction (3)

The prints are put into the brine, and this gradually changed to clear water to prevent blisters or a separation of the albumen from the paper in the form of blisters. The water may be allowed to run into the dish, the prints being kept in motion, and in the course of an hour they will be sufficiently washed; they may then be taken out and placed between the sheets of blotting paper to remain until next morning, when they can be overlooked, the blemished prints thrown out, and the perfect may be mounted.

The fixing solution should not be used a second time, but should be thrown into a large barrel with the washings, that at some future time the silver may be recovered; when the barrel becomes full, a small amount of saturated solution of protosulphite of iron [p079] may be thrown in, the water stirred well, and when the sediment has settled to the bottom the clear liquid may be drawn off and the barrel is ready to receive the next washings of hypo.

MOUNTING THE PRINTS.

The selected prints are again placed in water and permitted to remain until they become saturated; in the meantime some starch paste should be prepared. The prints are then removed from the water and placed on a sheet of glass, face down; when all are thus placed, squeeze out all the water and they are ready to mount. Now with a wide bristle brush spread the paste evenly on the back of the print, carefully removing any lumps or dust or fibre of any kind, then insert under the edge of the print the point of a knife-blade, raise it until you can take it in the fingers, then place it pasted side down on the face of your mount, adjust it evenly and lay it on the table; now cover it with a piece of clean white paper, and with the palm of the hand rub it down until all parts are in contact and all air is expelled from between the print and mount. As the prints are mounted they should be placed in rows on clean white or blotting paper, one layer over the other; on the top place a clean sheet of paper and over that a board of the proper size with a weight on it to press the mounted picture flat; in the course of an hour they will be dry enough to spot.

SPOTTING THE PRINTS.

With a fine pencil brush and Indian ink, go over the prints and carefully touch up all the white spots and other blemishes that may be found on the surface, so that they harmonize in color with the surrounding [p080] parts. When this is done the pictures may be lubricated for burnishing.

LUBRICATING THE PRINTS.

Make a pad of Canton flannel, get a piece of white castile soap, rub the pad on the soap until it is well covered, then with this soaped pad rub the surface of each print separately, carefully covering every part of the surface; keep the pad well soaped by rubbing it on the soap after every 2 or 3 prints. While this is being done the burnisher may be heated; when the tool is hot enough to hiss when touched by a wet finger, proceed to burnish. Do not use much pressure; too great pressure will degrade the whites of the picture.

When they are all burnished go over them again with a moderately soft lead pencil, touching up and blending any streaks or spots that may be found; if any streaks or dirty lines are discovered in the direction of the draw of the burnisher, they may be removed by light friction with a piece of Canton flannel moistened with alcohol. This completes the photograph.

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO.

Mr. Ernest Lacan, a prominent artist of Paris, France, about ten years ago, wrote for the _Philadelphia Photographer_ an account of some of the prominent studios of that great city, from which I take a description of the studio and establishment of the celebrated Reutlinger.

This establishment comprises the fifth and sixth stories of a fine house on the Boulevard Montmartre.

A handsome and wide stairway leads to the studio. The first thing that strikes you on entering the ante-chamber, [p081] which is transformed into an office, is the lowness of the ceiling and the want of light. On the right is a room, larger and better lighted, for the sale of choice specimens of his work. On the left are the exhibition and waiting rooms, which are of medium size and whose principal ornaments are the framed pictures, which cover the walls. A small door leads to the skylight, of which the diagram at the head of this article is a correct view as taken from a photograph.

The view is taken from the door at which you enter. This gallery is formed of two mansards, which have been united by removing the partition; is 39 feet [p082] long by 13 in breadth; its height to the top of the upper sash is about 16 feet; the light comes from the north. It is by means of an ingenious combination of white and blue shades, that the artist succeeds in obtaining the charming effects so much admired in his productions. At the end of the gallery is a small room for ladies. The door which is seen on the left leads to the laboratory, which is divided into three small apartments. The first is used for cleaning plates, the second for their preparation, and the third for developing negatives.

This is a diagram of the studio of the famous [p083] Loescher & Petsch, of Berlin, who became so well known, some years ago, through the style of picture called "Berlin Heads," which were among the first samples of fine photographs from retouched negatives brought to this country, and which certainly created a sensation.

The shades are arranged so as to show how some of the most charming effects of illumination are produced. The room is filled with diffused light, with a ray of direct light falling so as to produce a clear high light on the prominences of the head of the sitter.

The next diagram is one of the Biglow studios. Mr. Biglow is the author of a book on lighting and posing, which had a large sale, and is a valuable book for positionists.

These three views represent forms of skylight and side-light with north exposure, by which all the finest effects possible are obtained, but other forms of exposure are capable of being utilized with fine success.

The studio of Sarony, of New York, is lighted with a top light similar to the top light of the Biglow studio, and without any side light at all.

A prominent artist of Brooklyn produces very fine [p084] work under an east light, or rather a light a little south of east, which to the ordinary photographer would be considered a very difficult light to work. Good effects can be produced, however, under any form of light by the use of shades, screens and reflectors, so that no photographer need regret a favorable location, because unable to have a northern exposure for his light.

The studio should be furnished with every requisite for the production of the finest work, such as

Lenses and Camera boxes,

Camera stands,

Pneumatic shutters for the lenses,

Scenic grounds; interior and exterior accessories, such as
balustrades, rocks, grass-mats, flowers, tables, chairs, draperies,
rugs, etc.; head-rests, screens, reflectors, and all such articles
as can be advantageously introduced in a picture to improve and
embellish.

All these things are of importance, but should be used with taste and judgment. The photograph should never be a picture of a piece of furniture, with a figure thrown in, but rather the accessories should be used only to improve the figure and make it more prominent by increasing the perspective, when possible or allowable.

CAMERA LENSES.

THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHY.

A solar beam of light is a bundle of rays; a ray being the smallest portion of light which can emanate from a luminous body.

Each of these rays possesses distinctive characters, both as regards their chemical functions and colors.

Sir Isaac Newton proved that the white light emitted [p085] by the sun is not so simple as it appears, but is composed of vivid colors, as shown by his beautiful experiment, the Analysis of Light, which is exemplified by the use of a glass prism. (See fig. 1.)

The ray of light A, E, being admitted into a darkened room through a hole A, in the shutter, would fall upon the wall at E. As soon as the prism, B, C, is placed in the path of the sunbeam so as to allow it to fall on one of its angles B, the ray will be refracted, or bent out of its course so as to pass through the prism (as in the line D) and not in the same line, A, E, that it would have done had the prism not been interposed.

Another effect also takes place; the ray of white light is decomposed into its component colors, and if you stand at a short distance from the prism, you will see that these colors are spread out in a triangular form, the base of which is on the wall and the apex at the angle C of the prism. Remove the prism and it is seen that the splendid display of colors upon the wall has disappeared, and a round spot of white light, E, is seen below the place occupied by the spectrum.

The colored image on the wall is called the prismatic or solar spectrum, which, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is composed of seven different colors. The color at the lowest portion of the image is red and the one at the other end is violet, the intermediate parts being occupied by five other colors, and the whole arranged [p086] according to the table below, the proportion of each color having been measured by Fraunhofer with the greatest care, with the results placed opposite to each, corresponding with the 360 degrees of a circle, the red ray being the least and the violet the most refracted of this chromatic image.

TOP.

Violet 109
Indigo 47
Blue 48
Green 46
Yellow 27
Orange 27
Red 56
---
360

The sunbeam, the ray of white light, contains powers within it of which the earlier philosophers had but a faint idea, besides its accompanying heat. There is a principle associated intimately with it, which has the power of decomposing and of determining the decomposition of chemical compounds.

This principle is "Actinism" and is as perfectly distinct in the nature of its properties from light, as light is from the principle of heat, with which it is also closely connected.

Actinism may then be considered as the fundamental principle, on which photography is based, and its power is exerted in forming the image on the sensitized plate in the Camera, as well as subsequently in forming or causing the impression on the sensitized paper exposed to the light beneath the negative.

In this connection we have only to consider the [p087] application of this Actinism through the medium of a combination of lenses to form an image on a sensitized plate in the Camera.

It has been shown that when light passes through a prism of glass its colors are separated; this separation is caused by the unequal refrangibility of the different colored rays, the violet being the most and the red the least refrangible of the seven rays.

A ray of light passing through a vacuum progresses in a perfectly straight line, but all matter, however attenuated it may be, has the property of refracting or bending the ray of light.

The refractive power of some substances is immense, while that of others is very trifling. The mode of the refraction depends on the comparative density or rarity of the respective media. If the medium which the rays enter be denser, they move through it in a direction nearer to the perpendicular drawn to its surface; on the contrary, when light passes out of a denser into a rarer medium, it moves in a direction farther from the perpendicular. This refraction is greater or less, that is the rays are more or less bent or turned from their straight course, as the second medium through which they pass is more or less dense than the first.

We next study the utilization of this power of refraction in the manufacture of lenses to overcome the unequal refrangibility of the colored rays of light.

A lens for use in photography is made of glass as pure and as colorless as can be procured, and is ground into such a form as to collect or disperse the rays of light which pass through it. Lenses are of different shapes, and thence receive different names. [p088]

The figures 1 to 6 represent sections of the variously shaped lenses which are combined for use in photography.

The design in forming lenses is to procure a medium through which the rays of light from any object may pass and converge to a corresponding point beyond; the manner in which the rays proceed through the lens, and then centre in a focal point, will depend on the form of the lens, its capacity for refraction and the distance of the object.

The double convex lens may be viewed as a portion cut out of the side of a sphere. Here, as in all cases of convexity, the focus of the parallel rays passing through the lens is at the centre of the sphere. (See fig. 3.)

A plano-convex has only half of the refractive power of the double convex; the parallel rays, falling on the convex side of the lens, would converge at the distance of the whole diameter of the sphere. Thus the focal point at which the rays of light converge is always regulated by the degree of curvature of the lens. Thus the double convex lens has the greatest power of converging the rays of light; the plano-convex has only half the power of the former. Both these lenses have also the power [p089] of magnifying the image of an object seen through them in the same proportion.

The double concave and the plano-concave have the power of dispersing the rays of light and of diminishing the image of an object seen through them in the same proportion.

The meniscus lens has but a very slightly dispersive power, and the concavo-convex merely separates the parallel rays to the thickness of the lens and sends them on parallel as they entered.

All these lenses, having something of the prism in their shape, have the power to a greater or lesser extent of decomposing the light that passes through them. This is called chromatic aberration, because the colored rays do not all converge to the same focus; thus the image seen through them is surrounded by a fringe or border of color.

Single lenses lack the power of producing a straight image of a straight object; the image will have the curve of the lens through which the light passes to form it; a double convex lens will give a greater curve than a plano-convex. This is called spherical aberration.

The main object to be considered in the manufacture of a lens for photographic purposes is to produce one with the least spherical and chromatic aberration.

Spherical aberration is overcome to a great extent by the use (in connection with the double convex) of a meniscus lens.

Chromatic aberration is overcome by the use of two glasses of unequal density in forming one lens; thus [p090] the front lens of the portrait combination is composed of a double convex of crown glass and plano-concave or meniscus of flint glass, which two glasses are sealed together with Canada balsam.

The forms of lenses which are corrected for chromatic and spherical aberration will be seen in Fig. 5.

These lenses are termed achromatic, and, although each is formed of two kinds of glass, they are sealed together so as to be practically one lens.

Every manufacturer of portrait or view lenses, uses the six forms shown in the diagram (Fig. 2), in some manner peculiar to himself, but of the six, four will be found in every combination in general use, varied in radii, construction and dimension, according to the use for which they are intended.

Formerly the photographer's choice of lenses was restricted to two combinations, the double combination for portraits and the single for views. There have of late years been invented a great variety of lenses, among which and in the order of invention, probably are Petzval's Orthoscopic, Harrison's Globe, Ross's Doublet, Darlot's Wide Angle and Rectilinear Hemispherical, Steinheil's Aplanatic, Voightlander's Euryscope, [p091] and greatest of all, Dallmeyer's Patent Portrait, Wide Angle and Rapid Rectilinear Lenses.

The combinations of lenses are three, the single, double and triple; the latter is now no longer in use, or if so, its use is greatly restricted. The single combinations have greater focal length than the double, and consequently at the same diameters larger pictures are obtainable, and they are principally used for landscape or view work.

The double combinations, so called from having a second pair of lenses behind the first, which have the effect of shortening the focus about one-half, whereby the action of the light is accelerated, and both the spherical and chromatic aberrations more perfectly corrected, which result in an image more delicate in definition and more rotund in form, thus peculiarly qualifying them as portrait lenses.

In the selection of lenses for studio or view work, the intending purchaser, if desirous and pecuniarily able to avail himself of the best, will naturally inquire what make of lenses is the most widely known and used, and it will not take much time to procure a satisfactory answer to the question.

It has been conceded now for some years, both in Europe and in America, that the lenses manufactured by J. H. Dallmeyer, of London, England, are superior to all others, not only for their fitness for the work for which they are specially constructed, but for their adaptability to work beyond anything claimed for them by the maker, and also for a certain undefinable and æsthetic quality inherent in the negative made by these lenses.

The fact that there is not in the wide world a photographic [p092] establishment of any note that does not possess one or more of these lenses is strong evidence of their superiority. In the quality of the glass used, in the perfection of finish and adjustment, in softness, crispness and depth, in rapidity, illumination and every quality that recommends a lens, the Dallmeyer lenses are unrivalled.

The portrait combination now in general use, was first constructed from calculations made by Professor Petzval, of Vienna. Its optical components are, a front crown lens of unequal convex curves to which is cemented a double flint lens of unequal concave curves. The back combination is a crown lens of unequal convex curves and a concavo-convex flint lens at a little space from it. (See Fig. 6.)

For more than a quarter of a century this form of lens had been used without material change in its construction, until Mr. Thos. Ross, by a modification of the curves, succeeded in flattening the field and increased its rapidity by shortening the focus, but left it with the peculiar shallowness of focal depth, especially in the larger sizes, which has been the torment of photographers to this time.

Mr. Dallmeyer was the first to improve upon the [p093] original portrait combination, and in his new Patent Portrait Lens he has most ingeniously obtained a diffusion of focus at the will of the operator. By a quarter or half turn of the cell of the back combination the focus is diffused, giving an agreeable softness in place of the shallow plane of excessive and wiry definition so familiar to the photographer.

The diagram, Fig. 7, shows a section of Mr. Dallmeyer's New Portrait Lens. There are two actinic combinations, of which the front resembles the Petzval lens; the back combination differs as regards the ratio of radii of the lenses used, the crown being a deep meniscus and the flint a deep concavo-convex, with their adjacent surfaces dissimilar; their positions also are reversed, the concavo-convex of flint occupies the external position, instead of as in the Petzval, and this lens being mounted in a cell capable of being unscrewed supplies the means of regulating the spherical aberration of the system at will. The lower portion of the diagram [p094] exhibits a plan of the mount of the back flint glass lens; this cell admits of being unscrewed, one or more parts of revolutions of the screw indicated by an index and divisions; with this back lens screwed home this combination has all the good qualities of the old form of portrait lens, but with a flatter field and wider illumination.

There are three distinct classes of portrait lenses. The first are lenses of large diameter and aperture compared with their short focal length. In this class the greatest rapidity is obtained at the sacrifice of flatness of field. Of this class are the B and C lenses of Dallmeyer.

The second class are lenses of equal diameter and aperture with those just described; but with about double their focal length, and therefore less rapid, but with more field and wider illumination; of this class are the A series.

In the third class are long focus lenses, which, at three inches diameter have fifteen inches focal length; with the result of a larger and flatter field; they are, however, necessarily slow, but well calculated for out-door views, groups and copying. Of this class are the D series, which, since the introduction of the rapid dry plate, have become available for ordinary portrait work in the studio.

Fig. 8 represents the Dallmeyer Wide Angle Rectilinear Lens. It consists of two cemented combinations, [p095] each composed of a deep meniscus crown and a deep concavo-convex flint glass lens; between the two, dividing the space in the proportion of their respective diameters, is placed a revolving diaphragm, the largest aperture of which is f/15; the position of the stop being nearer the back combination avoids the central spot or flare.

This lens embraces an angle of 90 to 100 degrees; it is quite free from distortion, and particularly adaptable for taking views in confined situations, such as interiors, views in narrow streets, &c. Being a double combination its work is more finished and round than that by the single lens.

Probably the two greatest rivals to the Dallmeyer Wide Angle Lens are the Actinic Doublet of Ross (Fig. 9), and the Steinheil Aplanatic (Fig. 10). The Ross Doublet consists of a crossed crown lens, cemented to its correcting flint lens, which is a crossed concave, the whole forming a deep meniscus the focus of which is equal to the back combination or about double that of the equivalent focus of the complete instrument, the posterior meniscus combination consists of a meniscus crown lens cemented to a concavo-convex flint lens. The two combinations are mounted rigidly with a rotating disk of [p096] diaphragms or stops placed midway between the lenses.

The Steinheil consists of a front and back corrected combination of precisely the same shape, mounted rigidly and having a rotating disk of apertures placed midway between the lenses.

These are three distinct types of view lenses of wide angle, and a comparison of the diagrams will show the wide difference in the construction of the two latter from the Dallmeyer; and while they stand unrivaled for the perfection and beauty of their work, which is about equal, the Dallmeyer obtains a great advantage over the others in the thinness of its lenses, which enables it to work with greater rapidity, and indeed it has been used with great success with the drop-shutter for photographing moving objects and other similar out-door work.

While the possession of a wide angle lens is indispensable in the varied selection of out-door subjects, yet for many purposes it has been found they are unsuitable; and to meet this want Mr. Dallmeyer has constructed a modification of the wide angle, which he calls Rapid rectilinear. Its construction is shown in Fig. 11. The lenses of the front and back combination have the same general form as those of the wide angle, but they are of smaller diameter, being constructed for angles of 60 to 70 degrees only. It is four times as rapid, and is in fact an aplanatic and symmetrical lens, and may be regarded [p097] as the most perfect lens extant. As it admits of the use of a larger aperture it is well adapted for interiors, where there is space for its use, and for almost every purpose of out-door photography, requiring short exposure and no greater angle.

The use of this lens has been greatly extended since the introduction of the rapid dry plate, which admits of its employment as a portrait lens in the studio, and in fact it has become a very popular instrument for portrait work, especially for the larger and life sizes, so that there is a strong probability that before many years the Rapid rectilinear and the D series of lenses of Dallmeyer will be the most useful and the most profitable lenses for portrait work in the studio that have ever been constructed, unless the near future shall give us something not now thought possible in optics.

Dallmeyer lenses are sold only by E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., who are the agents in this country, and as these lenses are quite expensive, and are indeed beyond the means of many, the Messrs. Anthony keep other and cheaper lenses, which are good of their kind, both for portrait and for out-door work, among which are the E A lenses for portraits, and the Platyscope and other lenses for views, etc.

To those desiring advice on the choice of a lens, this much may be said. If it is intended to procure a Dallmeyer, it is only necessary to know the limit in size of the work to be done. If in portraiture, you select a lens that will cover the size of plate you intend to use. If in landscape, or architectural work, or copying, consult the catalogue and order the lens that meets the requirements of the case. There is said to [p098] be no difference in these lenses; that is, all lenses of the same series and size are exactly alike, the glass is of the same density, ground to the same curve, and polished to the same degree of fineness, so that each one is as good and no better than any of the others of the same kind and size. It is the same with the view lenses; one may order with confidence, and not be disappointed by receiving an inferior lens, while expecting the best in the world.

It is not so, however, with any other make of lenses; at least I have never heard such a claim made on the part of any other maker, hence for the selection of a lens by any other maker, some thought and experiment are justifiable and even necessary. Under such circumstances, the following method of testing a lens will be found useful.

When of several lenses of the same size it is desired to select the best, attach one to a camera box and focus it on some long object placed parallel with the axis of the lens; adjust the focus so that the part of the object nearest the lens shall be in focus, but near that point where it would begin to lose sharp definition. Mark the position of the carriage on the rail, then turn the focus forward so that the same point will be as near the other extremity of sharp definition, then mark the position of the carriage on the rail and note the distance between the two marks, which will indicate the depth of sharp focus. Now stretch a line across the room and focus the instrument on the centre of the line, and note to what distance on each side of the centre sharp definition extends; this will indicate the flatness of the field. Try all the lenses in the same manner, and secure the one that has the greatest [p099] depth of focus and the greatest extent of sharp definition on the horizontal line.

Expensive lenses should be treated with much carefulness. They should be kept free from dust and dampness, and should never be cleaned or rubbed with cloth or the handkerchief; nothing but fine chamois should be used to clean a lens, the fine polish of which (one important factor in its usefulness and value) is so easily injured by abrading its surface with anything of a fibrous or gritty nature.

The lens should always be covered when the day's work is done and while the studio is being cleaned up, to exclude dust, etc., from the glasses.

Examine the lens every morning to see if the glasses are at all dimmed by damp or dust, and if so, use the chamois. You must not expect good work from lenses whose surfaces are in any way dimmed.

Study your lens with care, and learn all its good and weak points, and so enable yourself to take every advantage of instrument, light and pose in making a sitting.

CAMERA BOXES.

The camera box and lens in the hands of the competent photographer are what the brush and colors may be in the hands of the portrait painter. They are the means whereby he produces his portrait and stamps his individuality upon his work. Therefore, when we look back and consider the rude implements the pioneers in our art had to work with, we are often surprised that the work they produced was so really respectable in point of finish and excellence as it was.

Starting from a cigar box and a burning glass, not 50 years ago, the progress made, as represented by [p100] the instruments in use at this day, would seem to be fully equal to the advance from Fox Talbot's paper negative to that made on the Gelatine Dry plate.

As late as 25 years ago the box in general use consisted of two sections of square wooden tube, one sliding inside the other, in telescopic style; to the front of the smaller section was attached the lens, and the focusing glass fitted into a groove in the rear of the larger section. The lens afforded the means of adjusting the focus in its rack and pinion movement, and the ground glass had to be removed from its groove before the plate holder could be put in place.

This rude apparatus was considered in its time to be a very ingenious construction, but if the shades of Morse and Draper could contemplate the objects of art that have supplanted the rude constructions they were so familiar with and knew so well how to use, they might well wish themselves back among the living for the pleasure of working with one of the latest camera boxes.

The cameras of the present time seem constructed to meet every requirement of the most exacting intelligence. They are light, yet firm and durable, they are rigid as wood and metal can make them, and yet they are fitted to focus sharply all positions of the human form. They are complicated, yet extraordinarily convenient, and they are made in forms and sizes adapted to every possible use or demand.

There are four principal varieties of camera boxes in general use, viz:

The camera for positives, which includes the multiplier. The camera for negatives, wet or dry, for portraiture. The camera for copying, and the camera for [p101] viewing and out-door work; descriptive accounts of the several varieties will be given under their appropriate heads.

THE CAMERA BOX FOR POSITIVES AND THE MULTIPLIER.

These boxes are usually made for use with four or more lenses in a block, by which at one exposure as many pictures are made as there are lenses.

The size represented by Figs. 1 and 2 is usually employed for work in tents or portable houses, on fairgrounds and places of resort at the seaside and elsewhere during the summer season.

Fig. 1 shows the front, with the method of attaching the four lenses, which are of the 1/4 size, and they make four pictures on a 5×7 plate.

Fig. 2 shows the back of the same box with the ground glass reversed, and the plateholder partly pushed into position; there are shown also the openings through which the various sizes of pictures are made. This box can also be used with one lens for making two cartes de visite or one cabinet on the 5×7 plate. [p102] The same style may be had with the ground glass hinged to the box.

This same style of box is made also of larger sizes, to be used with one or more lenses, of which Fig. 3 represents the size for 8×10, by which with one lens can be made 4 cartes de visite or 2 cabinets on 8×10 [p103] or 7×10 plates, and with 4 lenses 8 cartes de visite on the same size plate, or with 9 lenses 18 large gems are made by two exposures.

For gallery work, however, the Figs. 4 and 5 represent [p104] the most useful form of multiplying camera, as by their aid everything that would be called for in a ferrotype gallery can be made.

With one lens can be made on 8×10 plate: 2 cabinets, 2 cartes de visite or 1 large picture. With 4 lenses can be made on 8×10 plate by 2 exposures: 8 cartes de visite, and on 5×7 plates by one exposure, 4 cartes de visite.

With 9 1/9 lenses on 7×10 plate can be made with two exposures: 18 gems; with 4 exposures, 36 gems; and with 8 exposures, 72 gems; on 5×7 plate with 1 exposure, 9; 2 exposures, 18; and with 4 exposures, 36 gems.

The carriage and plate holder of these boxes move vertically and horizontally, thus giving the operator the power of making a great variety of sizes and of using any size of plate from 1/4 upwards to 8×10. On the 1/4 plate can be made with one exposure, 4 1/9 gems; 8 of the next smaller size by 2 exposures; and 16 of the smallest size, by 4 exposures, thus bringing into use only 4 of the 9 lenses; the second size is made by placing the lenses horizontally, also the openings in the back of the box, the plate also is laid on its side in the holder.

These boxes are finished in a variety of styles, plain or ornamental, and are fitted with holders for negatives as well as the usual rabbeted holders for ferrotypes, and by their use all the work of a small establishment might very easily be done, as all the sizes of ferrotypes are made from 16 gems on 1/4 plate to 72 of the same size on 7×10 plate, and by one lens everything, positive or negative, from 1/4 to 8×10 size, are made without difficulty. [p105]

THE CAMERA FOR NEGATIVES, WET OR DRY.

CLIMAX IMPERIAL CAMERAS.

For the gallery making no pictures larger than 8×10, the above, figure 6, represents the camera box that is the best fitted in every respect. It is light, compact and durable, and it is most accurately adjusted for cartes de visite, cabinets, 4×4 or 8×10 pictures in every style, full length, half lengths or heads. It has the double swing back, with the tangent movement, and is fitted with the Benster holder, which is represented in the cut.

This style can be had in every variety of finish, from the plain to the most ornamented, in mahogany or ebonized wood, with brass fittings or nickel or silver-plated, as may be most desired.

For galleries where larger work is called for, figure 7 represents a box that is made in all the sizes from 11×14 to 25×30, and it is fitted with an attachment (see Fig. 8 for 8×10 to 1/4 plate), thus enabling the photographer with one box to fill every order for pictures, from a card to a life-size portrait. [p106] This box is fitted with the double swing back, tangent [p107] movement, the telescope bed, which renders it very compact, and with the Benster holders.

[p108]

Figs. 10 and 11 represent varieties of cameras of a highly ornamental kind. They are made of hard wood, ebonized, and with nickel-plated fittings. Fig. 10 has the Wright's patent metallic swing, Fig. 11, the tangent movement.

The "Benster" Plate-holder (see page 109) is intended to, and will undoubtedly, supersede the Bonanza holder for wet plate work, as it is a more perfect silver saver than the Bonanza, while its easy adjustability to every size of plate places it away ahead of anything known or in use heretofore. The operator who has ever used this holder will never consent to go back to any of the old styles while he can procure the Benster. The plate rests on pure silver wire, and there is a trough with large bottle [p109] beneath, into which all the silver waste readily finds its way. As the trough is raised, the upper ledge descends, so that the centre of the plate is at all times in the centre of the holder, no matter what size is used. This obviates the use of inside kits, and adapts itself at once to _any size of plate_, from the largest the holder will admit to one not under three inches square. This is unquestionably the best gallery plate-holder made. By a recent improvement, the horizontal bars may be instantly fastened for plates of any size, and there is also an attachment for the vertical adjustment. For _dry plate studio_ work it is the holder _par excellence_.

[p110]

CAMERA BOXES.

THE COPYING AND ENLARGING AND REDUCING CAMERA.

Copying constitutes a large portion of the business of every gallery, and a camera for that purpose is almost indispensable, as the portrait camera is entirely unfitted for a major portion of the copying work that comes.

The copying camera requires no swing back, but does require great length of bellows and bed, which has often to be supplemented by the cone when a very small picture is to be enlarged to a great size.

A special form of copying camera is adapted to enlarging and reducing negatives, and for making transparencies. This form, Fig. 14, can be so arranged as to render it possible to remove the lens from the position as seen in Fig. 14 to the front, so that the two [p111] forms, Figs. 13 and 14, might be combined in one for copying and making transparencies.

THE CAMERA FOR VIEWING AND OUT-DOOR WORK.

The Success Camera, for viewing, Figs. 15 and 16, [p112] is an instrument calculated in every way to meet the requirements of professional out-door work. It is made in a form to secure the utmost rigidity and strength with the least weight. The bellows is conical, the bed is folding, the double swing back is convenient and easy of adjustment. In front, below the lens, is a small recess, or closet, in which extra tubes, flanges, screws, screwdriver, etc., may be safely carried; when folded, its bulk is small and occupies but little space. From the front to the outside surface of the bed, as folded, is only six inches, and the weight for 11×14 box, with ground glass and plate-holder, is only twenty-two pounds. By referring to the cut, 16, the compactness of this camera may be realized.

From the mode of construction the bed is rendered peculiarly rigid, and in their attachment and arrangement the brass guides are protected from injury. In case that, through accident, any part should get broken, it can readily be replaced without returning the camera.

The Novel View Camera is the latest response to the demand for something that shall be very light and very convenient. Its construction is the result of a series of experiments entered into with a view to obtaining an instrument in the make up [p113] of which there shall be no unnecessary weight, and combining easy adjustment with great rigidity. It being absolutely necessary that a view camera shall permit the use of the plate both horizontally and vertically, all the older forms of view cameras were built square, to permit the shifting of the plate, thus adding very much to the weight of the instrument. In this instrument, however, all that is possible has been done to reduce the bulk and weight; in doing so several new [p114] improvements have been adopted. The box itself is very little larger in outside measurement than the largest plate it will take, and the double holder is so perfect as to be very little if any heavier than the glass plates it is intended to contain. The greatest improvement is the revolving bellows, the front end of which is fastened in the light frame-work in such a way that when the back is detached from the bed the whole bellows revolves, instead of requiring to be unbuttoned, as heretofore, making a great saving in time. The back is held to the bed by metal plates having slotted holes, which permit the passage of round screw-heads, which slide over the slots and thus hold very firmly. The back may be detached and changed from a vertical position to a horizontal in so short a space of time as two seconds, by the watch.

These boxes are made with a double swing, the combination of the two swings making it possible to avoid all distortion of lines.

These cameras are made in all sizes from 4×5 to 18×22, and they are decidedly the camera of the period. The 3 suitable sizes are fitted with partitions, and extra fronts for stereoscopic work.

The novel dry plate holders for these cameras are stripped of every unnecessary bulk and weight; each will contain two plates, except the sizes above 8×10, which are fitted with a patent shield, each one of which has two slides working in the end and in the side of the shield, therefore the slide can be withdrawn from the side of the shield, no matter in what position the camera is placed. These shields are single for one dry plate only. All the sizes of Novel Cameras above 8×10 are made with the ground glass of the same focus [p115] as for wet plate holders; if desired wet plate holders can be furnished to order.

THE KLAUBER CAMERA.

A new idea has been perfected and carried out in connection with the Novel Camera, making it a combination View and Portrait Camera with the above name. See Cuts 18 and 19. A portrait attachment has been constructed to fit the back of the larger sizes of the Novel Camera, which can be attached or detached in a few seconds, thus rendering it unnecessary that there should be two large and expensive cameras in one gallery. This is an exceedingly valuable improvement for the larger sizes in more than one particular. The 18×22 size, with ground glass and two plate holders, weighs only 50 lbs.; the measurement of this size outside is 11×22×30-1/4 inches only.

[p116]

Thus it will be seen that every variety of work in the gallery may be done with two or at the most three Cameras.

The Climax Imperial Cameras for work up to 8×10; a Klauber Camera for portrait and view work from 8×10 to any size desired, together with a Copying Camera, would make a superb outfit for any gallery.

CAMERA STANDS.

A stand or support for the camera box and lens, by means of which the box and lens can be raised or lowered or moved about the room with facility.

The stand best suited for the purpose is one that is strong, and heavy enough to be very rigid and firm, but not so heavy as to be cumbersome and difficult to move. For raising and lowering the camera, which in some cases is quite heavy, there are several appliances, such as levers, screws, weights, &c., &c., and [p117] the different styles of camera stands may be designated by the name of the mechanical power which is applied for that purpose, viz:

Lever Stands, Screw Stands, Balance Stands.

THE LEVER STAND.

The Lever Stand, Fig. 20, is one of the oldest forms of camera stand, and is still used in many establishments. The method of raising the top may be seen in the cut. There are two levers, one for each end, by means of which the camera may be inclined upwards or downwards. The levers are held in place by means of springs which press a beveled edge steel plate--attached to the levers near the handles--against a serrated plate of steel, attached vertically between the handles. (See cut.)

This style of camera stand is more used for very large and heavy cameras than for the smaller kind. They are very firm and rigid, and exceedingly durable, being made of hard wood, well seasoned, and they are consequently not at all liable to get out of order; in fact, a well made stand would last a life-time, if one cared to have a camera stand last so long. The next style in order is the

SCREW STAND,

which is a very popular stand, and its most popular form is that called the Knickerbocker Stand, which is made in 4 or more sizes and has 2 styles of [p118] tops; the top seen in Fig. 21 has the name of the inventor of the stand and is called the Stoddard Top; the other, No. 22, is the Acme Top. This form of stand is better adapted for light camera boxes, and is therefore preferred in small establishments and tintype galleries to the other styles, which take up more room and are not so portable.

[p119]

THE BALANCE STAND.

This style comprises a greater variety of forms than all the others combined, it requiring the least exertion to move the box up or down. The weight of the camera box when placed on the stand top is counterbalanced by weights which rest upon a shelf attached to cords, which pass over pulleys and downwards, to be fastened to uprights which support the top; when properly balanced it requires only a touch of the hand to raise the box or to lower it.

THE BOWDISH STAND.

The most popular form of this stand is the Bowdish. See cut 23. The description will be rendered quite intelligible by observing the weights which are in the centre, between the three legs, and the cords which pass over the pulleys to the three supports of the top. From the peculiar construction of this stand it has the most simple [p120] means of adjustment; it is raised or lowered by touch, and a binding screw serves to keep it immovably in position.

Another form of this stand is the Automatic, Fig. 24, which is a later form than the Bowdish, and has several improvements not yet applied to the latter. It is entirely new in shape and principle; it is very light and simple. The various changes are made quicker and easier than with any other stand. A coil spring bears most of the weight in raising and lowering, and self-acting [p121] stops hold the centre frame and bind it firmly at any height desired by the operator, no set-screw being required to make it rigid. It has also a new and superior device for tilting the top. Another form of this, very popular stand is the Gem City Stand, see Fig. 25, [p122] which in some respects is even better than the Automatic; beside the weight balancing the camera box it has a crank in common with the Automatic for raising and lowering. It also has a very convenient arrangement for copying, which is an extension which moves under the top of the stand and holds an upright support for the picture to be copied; this is a very convenient arrangement for galleries where there is not enough copying done to require a special copying box.

There is another form of stand in use, in which the balancing weight is replaced by a crank and pulley; of this kind is the Handy Camera Stand.

Of this style there is another form that has advantages of its own, which would seem to render it peculiarly a useful and appropriate stand for light boxes; it is the Magic Camera Stand. [p123]

All these various styles of stands are made in sizes to suit cameras from 8×10 to 25×30.

Fig. 28 represents a style of stand which does not classify, but which is a useful stand in a portable gallery or tent. [p124]

THE PNEUMATIC SHUTTER FOR THE CAMERA.

This device for making exposures in the photographic studio has proved to be so useful and popular as to have secured almost general recognition and adoption among the photographers of America.

The possibility of making exposures in the studio, unknown to the subject, placed a very decided advantage in the hands of the operator, who, standing at any point, could watch the expression of the subject and seize the right moment to secure the impression desired; so that the pneumatic shutter seemed to be the proper complement to the lightning dry plate.

There is a great variety of these shutters exhibited and for sale, and the number continually increases.

The earliest example of this style of shutter that we know of is the Cadett, an English invention, which, in its introduction into this country, served as a stimulus to the inventive genius of Americans, and, as a consequence, we have the great variety that now may be selected from. An effort was made to apply electricity to use in working a shutter, but it did not succeed, and so the rubber tube and bulb became the accepted means for applying the force necessary to open and shut the slides or doors constituting the shutter.

An attempt has been made to apply a time regulator to the pneumatic exposer that shall keep the lens uncovered for a period of time at the will of the operator, which shall be regulated by an index pointing at a figure representing a definite period of time. By turning the index to any figure, from 1 to 20 or more, representing seconds, the shutter is held open for that time, and then closes automatically. This shutter is opened, in the first instance, by pressure upon a bulb, [p125] in the same manner as any of the pneumatic devices. We may enumerate, among the various shutters, those giving the most satisfaction in use,

CADETT'S PATENT PNEUMATIC PHOTOGRAPHIC SHUTTER.

It has often been remarked by eminent photographers that the arrangement is a most useful one which enables persons to be photographed without being aware of it. The efforts in this direction necessitated the operator being close to the camera; here we have an instrument which permits him to be at any part of the studio he pleases.

Many have experienced the difficulty of taking children's portraits with the proper amount of profile; with the above device all difficulty vanishes--the operator may be by the side of the child and attract its attention to any direction, and he has the means of exposing and capping the lens with far greater rapidity than with the usual method.

DIRECTIONS.--After the day's work is done the rubber tubing should be taken off the instrument; this will prevent a partial vacuum in the bellows and tube, which would otherwise ultimately occur. These instruments are now constructed for application either inside or [p126] outside the camera. Its use is very simple--squeeze the ball end of the tube and the shutter opens.

This instrument no sooner made its appearance than Yankee ingenuity set to work to improve on it, or at least to produce something similar that might not infringe on the patent.

The first effort was to bring electricity into use to move a shutter inside the camera box, and a very good device was perfected and sold to numbers who were convinced of the usefulness of the idea, but were unwilling to pay the price demanded for the English instrument. This electrical apparatus, however, soon played out, and few operators had the time or knowledge necessary to keep the battery in order; and in many instances after the sittings had been made it was found, on attempting to develop the plate, that no exposure had taken place, hence these electrical shutters were soon relegated to the limbo of played-out photographic apparatus, of which every gallery of any standing has one. [p127]

For simplicity of construction and operation, for reliability and good results obtained with it, the "Eclipse" Shutter has gained an enviable reputation. It is safe to say that no shutter is better or more favorably known.

The "Eclipse" is made wholly of metal, and is finely finished. It attaches over hood of lens by a velvet-lined collar, and has a clamp to securely hold it in place. It is made in five standard sizes, collars for hoods of lenses being attached to a shutter of the most suitable size.