Chapter V: Preface (5)

=Swivel Figures.=--High-class fabrics are often ornamented with swivel spots and figures, which are easily distinguished from the lappet or extra warp figures. In this style the figure is interwoven with extra weft by small shuttles into the ground cloth structure. Each figure is produced by an independent weft thread quite distinct from the weft pick forming the ground structure or body of the fabric. The figure threads are well bound into the cloth, the bulk of the material being on the surface. Where no figure is required in the space between, the shuttles remain idle in the loom, and the single thread from each shuttle joining the swivel figures is often cut away. Often used where a silk figure or a mercerised cotton figure is required on a cotton or worsted ground.

=Tapestry.=--A yarn-dyed figured fabric composed of two sets of warp and weft threads, woven on a Jacquard loom.

=T-Cloth.=--An all-cotton plain-woven fabric, usually woven from low-quality yarns, generally sold in the grey or unbleached state. Most of the _T_-Cloth imported into China is a heavily sized cheap grey cloth, usually 30 to 32 inches wide, 24 yards per piece, with a woven coloured heading somewhat similar to the heading in Grey Shirtings. Some _T_-Cloth is imported measuring 36 inches wide by 24 or 40 yards per piece. These Grey _T_-Cloths are generally packed 50 to 75 pieces per bale. Bleached _T_-Cloths, 31 and 36 inches wide, are also imported in small quantities. These are generally packed in cases of 50 pieces. The fabric derives its name from the mark @T@ under which it was first exported. _T_-Cloth is also known as "Mexican."

=Teasels, or Teazels.=--Thistleheads with curved bracts, used in cloth raising.

=Terry Cloth.=--A weave in looped effect. A Velvet in which the loops have not been cut. Frequently applied to cotton fabrics of the order of Agaric and Sponge Cloth. _See_ Turkish Towelling.

=Tests by Burning.=--Yarns or fibres of different origin burn in different manner. Cotton, linen, ramie, rhea, china grass, etc., ignite and burn readily with a bright smokeless and odourless flame, leaving but a small amount of ash, this being the characteristic of vegetable fibres. Animal fibres, on the other hand, are slower to ignite, the appearance of the flame is lifeless, and the fibres burn more slowly than vegetable fibres. Wool, when burnt, emits a disagreeable odour, and the residue or ash takes the form of a bead or knob. Silk burns in the same way as wool when it is free of "weighting." When artificially weighted, silk may have its weight increased to almost any desired extent--from 80 to 200 per cent. increase in weight can be obtained without creating suspicion. When such weighted silk is burnt, instead of forming itself into small black beads or knobs, it burns leaving a distinct ash, which retains somewhat the shape of the original material. Artificial or cellulose silk burns readily and in burning does not give off any odour.

=Test for Artificial Silk.=--The burning test should in most cases be sufficient to distinguish artificial from true silk, but if a chemical test is necessary, by immersing the suspect sample in a caustic potash solution it will be seen that artificial silk turns yellow, whereas true silk does not change colour. Artificial silk, which is a nitro-cellulose, burns very rapidly, leaving practically no ash whatever. A simple way of recognising artificial silk is by testing the threads under moisture. Unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric and place them in the mouth and masticate them thoroughly. Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural silk, no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength.

=Tests for Linen.=--Linen, like cotton, burns when a light is applied, leaving a white ash. Linen yarns are more irregular in their thickness longitudinally than cotton thread taken from similar woven fabrics. This difference makes the detection of linen in a woven cloth comparatively easy. The fibres are straighter, longer, and stronger when separated in the thread than cotton. The threads often snap sharp and clear when breaking them in the fingers. The oil test for linen is based upon the property which linen has of more readily absorbing oil than cotton does. When a linen and cotton mixture fabric which has been freed from dressing by washing and boiling is dipped in oil and then held up to the light it will be seen that the linen fibres look transparent, whereas the cotton remains more nearly opaque. This is due to the linen having absorbed the oil more readily than the cotton. All the cotton contained in a linen and cotton fabric can be readily dissolved by dipping the fabric in a concentrated sulphuric acid bath for one or two minutes. The sample is first freed of dressing. After washing and drying a sample so tested the linen fibre only will remain.

=Test for Mercerised Cotton.=--Prepare a solution made by dissolving 1¼ ounces of iodide of potassium in 5 ounces of water, then add to this solution ½ ounce of iodine, and mix with another solution made by dissolving 7½ ounces of zinc chloride in 3 ounces of water. The test is applied as follows: take the suspect sample and free it from any dressing or sizing by soaking it in water; then, after freeing the sample from any superfluous water, place it in some of the prepared solution for three minutes, and then rinse the sample in water. Should the cotton tested have been mercerised it will appear of a deep blue colour. On washing with water the blue colour fades very slowly and needs long washing, whereas ordinary cotton rapidly becomes white on washing. Even dyed piece goods will show the deep blue reaction, which is the result of the testing solution acting upon the caustic soda used in the process of mercerisation. When making this test it is best to treat a "known" unmercerised cotton at the same time as the suspect sample so as to have a basis for comparison.

=Tests for Silk.=--If a silk and wool mixture or union fabric is boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes, it will be found that the wool merely swells, whilst the silk acted upon by the acid completely dissolves. By careful weighing before and after the test it becomes a matter of simple calculation to arrive at the percentage of silk present in the fabric.

=Test for Wool.=--If a fabric suspected of containing wool and cotton or other vegetable fibre is boiled for 15 minutes in a solution made by dissolving either 1 ounce of caustic soda or caustic potash in a pint of water it will be found that all the wool will be destroyed and only the vegetable fibres remain. This test, which is based upon the well-known fact that caustic soda dissolves wool, may be used to ascertain the percentage of wool in a cloth if the sample tested is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed before the test is applied. After testing and drying, the loss in weight represents the amount of wool which was present and destroyed during the test. This test may be reversed and the cotton destroyed by treating the sample with an 80 per cent. sulphuric acid solution. This, however, is a longer test, necessitating the sample being kept in the sulphuric acid solution for about 10 or 12 hours. Prior to drying and weighing the sample should be well washed in alcohol.

=Textile Fibres.=--The principal fibres which enter into the construction of textiles can be divided into the following six classes:--

_Vegetable._--Cotton, flax, ramie, rhea, china grass, jute, hemp,
kapok, and marine fibre.

_Modification of Vegetable._--Mercerised cotton, artificial silk,
animalised cotton, artificial wool, paper yarn.

_Animal._--Sheep's wool, mohair, cashmere, camel hair, alpaca,
vicuna, llama, guanaco, rabbit hair, horsehair, cow and calf hair.

_Animal Secretions._--Silk and wild silk.

_Mineral._--Asbestos.

_Metallic._--Gold, silver, and other wires, metal-coated fibres.

=Thickset.=--One of the many varieties of Fustian, which comprise Corduroys, Velveteens, Moleskins, Thickset, etc.

=Thread.=--In general, a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length is called thread. In a specific sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly united together by twisting. Thread made of silk is technically known as sewing thread; that made of flax is known as linen thread; while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool cotton. These distinctions are generally observed by the trade.

=Three-quarter Hose.=--A variety of ribbed-top stockings made for children and reaching nearly to the knees.

=Ticks, or Ticking.=--Ticking is a single cloth of either medium or heavy weight woven from cotton yarns of from 14's to 22's in warp and filling or from yarns which would give the same weight material, such as 18's warp and 20's filling. Usually woven with two-over-one or three-over-one twill weave. Ticking belongs to the class of stiff, hard-faced cotton fabrics. This feature is due to the warp-faced twill weave. These goods are made usually in two coloured warp patterns, dark blue and white and red and white. One feature which is worthy of mention in regard to Ticking and other similar lines is that they are to-day being stock-dyed in increasing quantities. This method consists of dyeing the cotton or bleaching it, as the case may be, in the raw state and then carding, drawing, and spinning just as if a grey fabric were to be made. Stock-dyeing results in the dye affecting the fibres which form the very centre of a yarn, and for this reason is a better process than dyeing the finished yarn. Brushed, sheared, sized, and calendered Ticking is either packed lapped or rolled into bolts.

=Tire Cloth.=--A fabric made from strong slackly folded yarns of good-quality cotton used in the lining of tires. The warp threads are very closely set, so as best to withstand strain. The weft threads are very openly set, so as to prevent undue pressure on the warp threads, which should lie straight and so avoid friction or cutting which might arise from the action of the inflated inner tube and the tire whilst in use. The yarn used in this type of cloth is usually made from 30's to 34's count, doubled 11 or 12 fold, necessitating great care in the subsequent twisting to ensure evenness of strength and elasticity, which in this class of cloth is essential. Tire fabrics, as used in the manufacture of automobile and bicycle tires, are made from long-staple Sea Island cotton, the yarn being combed and of a comparatively coarse number, usually 8's to 40's, and from single yarn to 12-ply. A wide range of weights is found in these fabrics, varying from 3 to 20 ounces per square yard. This fabric forms the base of the finished rubber tire.

=Tram.=--A thrown silk thread taking its name from the French _trame_, meaning weft, softer and more flossy and having less twist than organzine. It is generally used for weft, which, as it bears little strain in weaving, need not be as strong as the warp, but should be soft and bulky, so that when beaten in successive threads will lie close together and fill up the interstices of the web.

Tram and organzine are, with the exception of spun waste silk, the only kinds of silk thread used for weaving--varying, however, in quality of silk, amount of twist, and in size.

=Trunk Length.=--Applied to women's hosiery midway between ordinary and opera length, usually widened gradually above the knee.

=Tubular Cloth.=--The most commonly met with examples of Tubular Cloths are the ordinary pillow slip, tubular lampwick, tapes, etc., which are in common use.

=Tulle.=--A plain, fine silk net. Practically the same as Maline.

=Turkish Towelling.=--Essentially Terry Cloth woven as an all-cotton fabric having as a salient feature an uncut loop-pile surface. Sold by the linear yard for the making of bath robes, etc. Woven unbleached or with some coloured yarns for bordering effect and subsequently bleached, the coloured yarns used resisting bleaching. Otherwise woven in sizes suitable for cutting into lengths, which are then sold as Turkish Towels.

=Tussore, or Tussah.=--The wild silk from which Shantung and Pongee are made. Applied to these fabrics when heavily and coarsely woven.

=Tweed.=--Rough, unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible texture, woven on a plain weave from wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more shades. Originally the product of the weavers on the banks of the River Tweed. The face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.

=Twill Weave.=--A twill weave is a weave that produces diagonal lines across the cloth. In this class of weave the filling threads pass over one and under two, or over one and under three, four, five, or six, or over two or three and under one, two, three, or four, or over four and under four, three, six, etc. Where there are the same number of warp and filling threads to the inch, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if the warp threads are closer together than the filling threads, the twilled lines produced will approach more the horizontal. Twill weaving permits the introduction of more material into the cloth than a plain weave and produces, therefore, a closer and heavier fabric. A twill effect in a material is also called a diagonal, from the direction it has in relation to the length of the cloth. This diagonal effect is continually produced by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted. Twill weaves may be divided into four common classes: (1) regular, (2) broken, (3) fancy, (4) figured.

_Regular Twills._--A regular twill is referred to as a twill of so many "ends" or "shafts"; by this is meant a twill which contains a number of warp and weft threads which, added together, equal the number of "ends." Thus a five-end twill can either have (_a_) four warps and one weft, (_b_) three warps and two wefts, or (_c_) two warps and three wefts--this form of twill will be seen to be a reverse weave to (_b_).

_Broken Twills._--A twill effect produces a twill line which, when the number of warp and weft threads are equal, is at an angle of 45 degrees. In a broken twill effect this line, which may be compared to the left-hand stroke of a letter @V@, is combined with another twill line running in an opposite direction and which is simply a turning or "reversing" of the threads in the regular twill weave. Broken twill effect enters largely into the weave design of Harvard Shirting.

_Fancy Twills._--As the term indicates, fancy twills is a style of weave which, whilst always retaining the main features and essentials of a "regular" twill, has been made fancy by alternating the arrangements of the thread and thus producing "elongated twills," "corkscrew twills," or "combination twills." The description of fancy twills could only be attempted by the use of illustrations and pages of explanations.

_Figured Twills._--Figured twills are regular twills with a small figure introduced between the diagonal lines. The designs introduced are generally small figures produced by plain weave or a small diamond-shaped spot made by either the warp or the weft threads being brought to the surface and made to form the design. The designs are never very elaborate.

=Twin Needle.=--A double row of interlocked machine stitching used for covering raw edges and seams of knit underwear.

=Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth (China).=--All Native Cotton Cloths, whether woven on a hand or power loom, which are not--

(_a._) Nankeen as defined in Customs Notification No. 876 (_see_
Nankeen);

(_b._) Specially enumerated in the General Tariff of 1858 for the
Trade of China; or

(_c._) the produce of a Privileged Factory and at the same time
enumerated in either the General Tariff of 1858 or the Revised
Import Tariff--

are grouped under the heading "Unclassed Native Cotton Cloth." This group comprises:--

1º. All cotton fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave
or a combination of these weaves, in part or whole, from yarns,
whether single or folded, which have been either mercerised,
gassed, dyed and mercerised, or dyed and gassed prior to weaving,
whether woven in a cloth having a solid colour effect or whether
woven so as to produce a striped or woven figured effect.

2º. All fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a
combination of these weaves from grey, white, or dyed yarns which
subsequent to weaving have been mercerised or dyed in the piece.

3º. Generally all cotton fabrics woven so as to imitate foreign
yarn-dyed fabrics, whether same are devoid of a raised finish
or have been raised on either back or face of the cloth,
irrespective of whether the yarn has or has not been mercerised
prior to weaving and irrespective of whether the cloth has or has
not been mercerised after leaving the loom.

The term "=Native Cotton Cloth=" (China) is applied to hand-loom fabrics other than Nankeen, unclassed native cotton cloths or fabrics that are specifically enumerated in the General Tariff of 1858 for the Trade of China. The name is given to a group of cloths which answer to the following description:--

1º. All hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20
inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton
yarn which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom, but which
have not been either mercerised or gassed.

2º. All hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20
inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton
yarn which have been either resist, discharge, or direct printed
but which have not been either mercerised or gassed after leaving
the loom.

=Union Broadcloth.=--This fabric, also known under the name of Poncho Cloth, is a plain-woven cotton warp and woollen weft fabric, woven in the unusual width of 74 inches and averaging in length of piece from 36 to 38 yards. The selvedge of this class of fabric is distinctive, showing a long unshorn hairy surface. The face of the cloth does not show the weave or yarn intersection points, as it has a typical Broadcloth finish, but these are distinctly to be seen on the back of the fabric. A Union Broadcloth of the above description, typical of that generally exported to China, averaged in value during the years 1904 to 1914 about 1_s._ 6_d._ per yard.

=Union Cloth.=--As the name implies, Union Cloths are woven with warp and weft of different fibres. They are also called "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft. Union Cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." In the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different. When light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." In some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union dyes are employed.

The principal Union Cloths met with are: Brilliantines, Glacés, and Sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft; Alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; Lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft; Italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Beatrice Twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. All authorities do not agree as to what constitutes a Union, the following definition having been met with: "Fabrics are union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending." In the Morley (Yorkshire) trade a "Union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling Broadcloth.

=Union Yarns.=--These yarns, as the name indicates, are the product of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable of being spun.

Union Yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the fibres. When the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as Carded Union Yarns. Another form of Union Yarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of different material. Some Union Yarns have the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of Angola yarn.

Union Yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour.

=Velour.=--This name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton or a combination of both. As a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse, stiff, pile variety. The name is French for Velvet, hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. As a woollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term Velour. Some manufacturers would class as Velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished Cashmere," a second as a "Saxony," with Velour slightly different from either of these.

=Velvet.=--This name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "All-silk" in this definition of Velvet applies to the pile only, for Velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that a Silk Velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as "silk backed."

=Velvet Finish.=--A finish produced upon woollen fabrics by wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance.

=Velvet of Silk mixed with other Fibres.=--This class of fabric includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of Velvet, _i.e._, have their pile shorter than that of Plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or even vegetable fibres, such as cotton. Where it is clearly stipulated that they are "Velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton.

=Velveteen.=--This name is given to the class of fabrics that in reality are but Cotton Velvets. Like true Velvets, they are woven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. Velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft threads--which are afterwards cut--additional to and on a firmly constructed woven ground texture. Weft pile can be recognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp threads. Common Velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner. Velveteens are also known as Velverets or Fustians. Standard widths for Velveteens are 19 inches, 22½ inches, 24½ inches, and 27½ or 28 inches.

=Venetians.=--A wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. As applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy, warp-face, Dress Satin (or Sateen) of strong texture and closely woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. Light weights would be sold as Sateen or Dress Sateen. Woven with about 200 to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes by mercerising the fabric. The weave is of an upright warp twill character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress Venetians were made, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave.

=Vesting (Vestings).=--A generic term embracing a wide range of fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countries for men's vests, but used in China for either men's or women's outer or inner garments. Fabrics of several combination of weaves showing fancy stripes or small checkings, and often coloured to the extent of some coloured warp threads appearing here and there on the surface and left floating (where not used) on the back of the fabric are common in this class of goods. This heading covers Welts, Piqué, Fancy Piqué, etc.

=Vigogne.=--The French form of the word "vicuña"; applied to a soft woollen dress material.

=Vigoreux.=--A worsted material, printed in the yarn so as to produce a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. This differs from Beige in that the yarns are printed before being spun, giving the finished goods the appearance of having been woven from mixed yarns.

=Viyella.=--A light cloth, largely made from cotton and wool scribbled together. It is similar to Ceylon Flannel and differs from it only in name. This fabric is one of many known under "trade-marks 'patented' or 'registered' names," which are sometimes sufficiently popular to embrace many different weaves under one head.

=Voile.=--This name is used to designate a more or less transparent light fabric made generally of cotton. Woven with a square mesh produced by plain one-over and one-under weaving, Voile averages 55 meshes per inch, with an average width of 42 inches, and generally in pieces of 60 yards.

Voile when dyed is piece-dyed and not woven from yarn which was dyed previously to being woven. The yarn used in the weaving of Voiles is a hard-twisted yarn.

Woollen Voiles are also woven, the characteristics being similar to Cotton Voile, but in weaving Voiles with worsted yarns, if the yarn is not very free from loose fibres, the fabric is finished by having its face singed or sheared very close, so as to ensure a clear-faced material.

=Wadding Pick.=--A thick weft thread of low quality inserted often without interlacing between the two fabrics in a double cloth and between the two warps in a warp-backed structure. This gives weight and solidity to the fabric. The wadding pick remains out of sight, and the appearance of the fabric is not affected thereby.

=Wale.=--This term has the same meaning as "warp welt," or "welt," and is used to describe a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals.

=Warp.=--Warp is the name given to that set of threads that runs lengthways of a piece of cloth. When the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the warp thread, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick."

=Warp Pile.=--Warp pile can be recognised by simply withdrawing from the fabric being examined a few "picks," or weft threads. If the material is a warp-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" remain entangled or looped and adhering to some of the drawn weft threads. This can be easily seen if a common Velvet ribbon is experimented with, when, upon drawing out the weft threads separately from selvedge to selvedge, it will invariably be seen that each alternate weft thread will have the loose bits of "cut warp pile" attached. Where the material is extra closely woven it is possible for every weft thread that is withdrawn to have the loose bits attached in the manner described.

Warp-pile fabrics include two varieties, the "uncut pile," such as Turkish or Terry Towels and Towelling, Brussels Carpets, Patent Tapestry Carpets, etc., and "cut pile," like warp-pile Plushes, Velvets, ribbons, etc.

=Warp Print.=--A fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps prior to weaving, appears somewhat faintly and in an indefinite outline. _See_ Chiné.

=Warp Ribs.=--The term "warp ribs" is used to designate a warp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a number of weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in which the warp threads are on the face of the fabric. Poplin is a typical warp-ribbed fabric.

=Warp Sateen.=--A common form of Cotton Sateen cloth is that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threads appearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of the weft threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object of weaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Warp Sateen will be much closer in the warp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger in that direction.

=Warp Welt.=--A fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals, as in the case of Bedford Cords and Piqués. In cotton goods, when the cords run lengthways of the piece, the fabric is known as a "warp welt." Sometimes called "wale."

=Warp-faced Cloth.=--A fabric which shows on its face a greater number of warp threads than "picks," or weft threads.

=Waste and Condenser Wefts.=--These are made from certain waste cotton which accumulates in certain parts of the machinery during the process of spinning yarn. This waste is treated by special machinery, which spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in weaving Sheetings.

=Waste and Flocks.=--Cotton mill waste is the by-product derived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill. Each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average 15 per cent. visible and invisible waste. The visible waste is of two kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made on spinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slight twist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejected by all machines up to the spinning frame. The invisible waste is equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cotton during the process of manufacture. Flocks are short fibres removed from cloth during the process of napping.

=Waste Cloths.=--Cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns, generally plain woven and of low grade. The weft thread is coarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton.

=Watering.=--As a textile term, it is used to designate the process whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on the face of plain-woven fabrics--especially silks. The process of giving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by either passing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which, bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal, making it reflect light differently. The same result is obtained by pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarser weft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentations on the face of the fabric it is pressed against. A fabric is said to be "watered" when ornamented by either of the above processes. The principle of this operation is that two fabrics of precisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water" each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of the threads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficiently marked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "To tabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective "tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streaked with wavy lines.

=Weaving.=--Every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp and the filling (this latter is also known as weft), which are interlaced with each other to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling, or weft, threads run across from side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling interlace with each other constitutes the weave. The term "end" in weaving is used to designate the warp thread, while each weft or filling thread is called a "pick." The fineness of a cloth is expressed by saying that it has so many "ends" and "picks" to the inch. The character of the weave offers the best basis for classification of woven goods, and nearly all varieties of cloth may be classified under the following weaves:--

Plain weave.
Twill weave.
Satin weave.
Figure weave.
Double-cloth weave.
Pile weave.
Gauze weave.
Lappet weave.

=Web.=--Web is the name given to a piece of cloth at the moment it is taken from the loom and previous to its having been treated to produce the special feature of the class of cloth the web belongs to.

=Weft.=--When the word "weft" is used in connexion with weaving or woven fabrics, it always signifies the filling threads, each of which is also called a "pick." Weft threads run across the width of the fabric.

=Weft Pile.=--Weft pile can be recognised by withdrawing from the fabric under examination a few "picks," or weft threads. If the material is a weft-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" are not entangled or looped round or adhering to the weft thread that has been drawn out, but that they remain entangled among the warp threads.

If, however, a few warp threads are withdrawn separately, it will be found that every alternate warp thread, as a rule, will have the loose bits of "cut weft pile" attached or looped round.

=Weft Ribs.=--The only difference between these and warp ribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. The term "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to the grouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribs running lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face of the fabric.

=Weft Sateen.=--A Weft Sateen is woven on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the weft threads appearing on the surface of the fabric, and therefore four-fifths of the warp threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object of weaving on this principle is similar to that aimed at when weaving a Warp Sateen, that is to say, it is done to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Weft Sateen will be closer in the weft threads (or picks) than in the warp threads, and therefore stronger in that direction.

=Weft-faced Cloth.=--A fabric which shows on its face a greater number of "picks," or weft threads, than warp threads.

=Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths.=--The accepted standard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is--

_For Ladies' Wear_:--

4 ounces per yard represents a "very thin" cloth.
8 " " " "thin" cloth.

_For Men's Wear_:--

12 ounces per yard represents a "thin, or "tropical," cloth.
16 " " " "thin medium" cloth.
20 " " " "medium" cloth.
30 " " " "thick" cloth.
40 " " " "very thick" cloth.

Naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with the composition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly" makes of 20 ounces being very thick.

=Weighting.=--The process of adding to the natural weight of a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances.

Cotton fabrics are generally weighted by subjecting them to a process which causes them to absorb either zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, starch, or alkali silicate. Woollens and worsteds are generally weighted with zinc chloride. Silk is generally weighted with muriate of tin, and few of the silks on the market are free from weighting. Modern methods make it possible to increase the weight of pure boiled silk to five or six times its original weight. Hooper, in his book on "Silk," states: "It was early found that silk would absorb about one-third its own weight of water without feeling wet to the touch. The dyer found that it would absorb other things besides water, muriate of tin amongst them. As a matter of fact, it may be, and indeed it is, made by the dyer to take up, with the dye, so much of that metal that 12 ounces of boiled silk can be increased in weight to 80 ounces, and yet look like very bright silk."

The term "weighting" has the same value as "filling" or "loading."

=Welt.=--The double thick portion or wide hem at top of plain hose.

=Whip Thread.=--The crossing thread in a gauze fabric.

=Whipcord.=--This name is given to hard-twisted worsted twills in either solid or mixed colours. The twill or diagonal in this class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhat resembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip.

=White.=--As a textile term, this word is applied to fabrics which are not in their loom state, _i.e._, in the grey, but which have been bleached and rendered white.

=White Brocades.=--Under this name would be classed bleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weave in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design. Soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of Brocades and other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better the figure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. White Brocades are all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. Lappet and swivel figured fabrics would not come under the heading "Brocades"; such style of figuring is not brocaded.

=White Cambric.=--Cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabric of light weight and soft finish. Cotton Cambric, in which the yarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. It is woven without a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of 120 yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. In plain white, a Cambric is finer than a Lawn. Cambric of French origin is generally finer in texture than the Manchester Cambric. Cambric varies in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. The finer qualities are made from hard-twisted cotton. The warp yarn is often of a different thickness to that used for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. The term Cambric is also commonly applied to Muslins. White Cambric is a bleached material.

=White Drills, or Drilling.=--White Drills are, when not otherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), which have been bleached but not dyed or printed. The better qualities of warp-faced sateen-weave Drills are known as Satin Drill, and these are extensively exported to the Far East; their distinctive features lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, and finish.

=White Goods.=--A generic term covering a great variety of bleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combination of weaves.

=White Irishes.=--The term Irishes originally was applied to linen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around Belfast. It is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weave similar to white cotton Calico. Generally in pieces 36 inches wide and 42 yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish.

=White Italian.=--The name White Italian is not generally applied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an Italian. Such a fabric is a White Mercerised Sateen; however, occasionally an invoice covering Coloured Italians will be found to include so-called White Italians. In such cases the colour assortment list (which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, the invoice) will show the number of white pieces included in the shipment. The ordinary Italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyed material, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade, considered to be a colour, a White Italian cannot be considered as coming under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

=White Jean.=--A White Jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-end twill, similar in weave to a Grey Jean, but which has been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into what is known as a "market white" fabric. The process of bleaching proper is always preceded by a series of operations that have for their object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removing loose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeing the surface so as to free it from all "nap." The distinctive weave of this fabric is given under "Grey Jeans," which is the class of Jean most often met with.

=White Lawn.=--Lawn is a plain-weave light-weight cotton fabric of soft finish made from yarns varying from 1/40's to 1/100's. Lawn has a soft, smooth feel, which is due to the absence of sizing or starching and to the process of brushing and calendering, _i.e._, passing the fabric through heavily weighted steam-heated rollers. Lawns vary in quality and weight similarly to other fabrics, their weight varying between 1¼ and 2¼ ounces per yard; in width they vary from 27 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 42 yards per piece. Lawn in plain white is coarser than a Cambric. The yarn used in the weaving of Lawn is generally of fine Egyptian cotton. White Lawns are also made of linen yarn, and when so made would be called Linen Lawn. India Lawn is a calendered fabric, about 12 yards to the pound and 28 to 36 inches wide in book-fold or 40 inches in long-fold. Victoria Lawn has a very stiff finish. Bishop's Lawn is slightly heavier in weight than "Linon" or "India Linon," bleached and finished to a bluish tint, and derives its name from the style of finish. The same fabric finished differently would be known under other names. White Lawn is a bleached material.

=White Muslin.=--Muslin is a light-weight, open, plain-weave cotton fabric made generally of low-count yarns, that is to say, of fairly coarse yarn. Muslins, Lawns, and Cambrics are all materials which are similar in construction but vary by their quality, Muslin being the lowest grade of the three. A very common kind of Muslin is known as Butter Muslin or Cheese Cloth. Muslins vary in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. Foundation Muslin, Book Muslin, and Butcher's Muslin are varieties of Muslin so dissimilar to the true Muslin that they should not be considered as coming under the classification of true Muslin, which, whilst it varies considerably, should always answer to the description of "a fine, soft, thin, open, plain-woven cotton fabric." White Muslin is a bleached material.

=White Sheetings.=--A bleached light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric. Under the heading "Grey Sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as Sheeting. Where such Grey Sheetings have been rendered white by being bleached and are no longer in their loom state, they are known as White Sheetings.

=White Shirtings.=--Essentially a bleached all-cotton fabric woven with a plain one-under and one-over weave, having the warp and weft threads approximately equal in number of threads and counts. It differs from Grey Shirtings only in finish, White Shirting having been subjected to a bleaching process after leaving the loom, whereas Grey Shirting remains in its loom state, _i.e._, in the same condition as when it was taken off the loom. The same remarks as to the similarity between a Grey Shirting and a Grey Sheeting applies to White Shirtings and White Sheetings. Similarly, a White Shirting may be termed a White Calico, which is a term used to designate practically any cotton cloth coarser than Muslin. Varying in width and weight, they are generally put up in pieces of from 36 to 40 yards. The length marked on the outside of the piece may not always correspond to the number of yards in the piece if the yard is taken as one of 36 inches.

=White Spotted Shirtings.=--Like White Striped Shirtings, the ornamentation in this class of fabric would be produced by combination of weave and would not be the result of printing or be due to the presence of coloured yarns. The essentials of this class of fabric are similar to those of White Striped Shirtings, _i.e._, the fabric is all cotton and the ornamentation due to weave and weave only.

=White Striped Shirtings.=--The fabric which would properly come under this classification would be essentially all-cotton fabrics containing stripes, produced by a combination of weave and not the result of printing or due to the presence of coloured yarns. A plain-weave ground may be combined with a sateen-weave stripe. Such a fabric would not be called a Fancy Shirting, which in the trade is generally understood to be "either printed on the woven, bleached fabric, or of fast colours, dyed upon the warp, or combination of each." White Striped Shirtings are mostly made on a Jacquard loom, and in the white condition the woven pattern constitutes the only effect or ornamentation in the finished cloth.

=White T-Cloth.=--A bleached all-cotton fabric, plain woven from low-quality yarns. An ordinary _T_-Cloth which has been bleached. Generally sold in lengths of 24 yards and varying in width from 32 to 36 inches. The name is said to be derived from the mark @T@ of the original exporters.

=White Venetians.=--What has been said of White Italians holds good _mutatis mutandis_ of White Venetians. Such fabrics are in reality White Warp-faced Sateens, and, white not being considered a colour, they do not come under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

=Widow's Lawn.=--A better quality of Lawn made from linen, well woven, very clear and even in texture.

=Width.=--The practice has grown up in the trade to refer to the width of a fabric either as "actual" or "nominal." The former term explains itself and means that the width as given is actually that of the piece referred to, and that it is not less than stated. "Nominal," on the other hand, is understood to mean that the fabric referred to may vary by as much as half an inch below the width specified on the contract.

=Window Holland.=--A plain-woven all-cotton cloth, stiffened after weaving with about one-fifth of its weight in starch or other sizing material. It is used as window shades.

=Wolsey.=--A proprietary name applied to certain all-wool materials, especially underwear.

=Wool.=--Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and other similar animals, such as the goat, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and camel.

The chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinking power. This felting property, from which wool derives its chief value and which is its special distinction from hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fibre but mainly upon the scales with which the fibre is covered. The process of felting consists in the fibres becoming entangled with each other, and the little projecting scales hooking into each other and holding the fibres closely interlocked.

The wool of commerce is divided into three great classes:--

1. Short wool, or clothing wool (also called carding wool),
seldom exceeds a length of 2 to 4 inches.

2. Long wool, or combing wool, varying from 4 to 10 inches.

3. Carpet and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very
coarse.

Combing wools take their name from the process of "combing" which they undergo when being prepared for spinning into yarn. Combing wools are longer than carding wools; they are also harder or more wiry and less inclined to be spiral or kinky.

Carding wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are shorter than combing, and, in addition, they possess the power of felting (that is to say, of matting together in a close, compact mass) to a much greater degree.

The first and finest clip of wool is called lamb's wool; it is taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months and, never having been clipped before, it is naturally pointed at the end. All subsequent cut fleeces are known as wether wool and are less valuable than the first clip. The ends of such wool are thick and blunted on account of having been previously cut.

Wool, unlike cotton, is not capable of being worked into a yarn without first being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.

=Wool-dyed.=--A term applied to fabrics dyed in the loose or top form--as distinct from yarn-dyed or piece-dyed.

=Woollen.=--This term is used in contradistinction to worsted, and implies difference of material and method of manufacture. Wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," in opposition to "all wool."

=Woollen and Cotton Flannel.=--A fabric answering to the description of true Flannel, usually woven with either a plain or twill weave, soft finished, but which is made from carded union yarn, _i.e._, yarn composed of wool and cotton in varying proportions according to the quality of the material it is intended to produce. If a Woollen and Cotton Flannel were described as a Union Flannel it would be composed of distinct yarns, some of which were all cotton and some all wool. In its broad acceptance the term is applicable to any fabric woven partly of wool and partly of cotton to resemble true All-wool Flannel.

=Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.=--This term is used to designate fabrics which are composed of the fibres of wool and cotton which have been blended or scribbled together rather than to fabrics composed of distinct threads which are all-cotton and all-wool yarns woven together. A cotton warp and wool weft fabric is a union, not a mixture. Mixtures may be recognised, when dyed, by a careful examination of the fibres constituting the yarn. When such fibres are not of the same colour, it will be found to have been due to the difference of affinity for the dye between cotton and wool. The burning test is not close enough. Carbonising is the surest test that can be applied to determine the presence and percentage of cotton in any Woollen and Cotton Mixture fabric.

=Woollen Fabric.=--The typical woollen is a full-handling fabric in which structure and colouring cannot always be defined on account of the threads and picks, and even the fibres, having become thoroughly intermingled in passing through the operations of finishing. Strictly speaking, a woollen fabric should be made of fine wool (possibly noils included); but in the English Law Courts a definition of "woollen" fabrics as being composed of mungo, shoddy, cotton, etc., has been accepted.

=Woollen Lastings, Craped.=--A fabric similar in the main to a Plain Lasting, but which, owing either to special process of weaving, chemical process during finishing, or to the action of suitably engraved rollers through which the material is made to pass, has a face finish resembling Crape Cloth, Plain, under which heading will be found the distinctive characteristics of Crape Cloth.

=Woollen Lastings, Figured.=--Like Cotton Lastings, this fabric is essentially a plain twill or kindred weave fabric, firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. It is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, but smooth in appearance and ornamented by the introduction of a figure, pattern, or design produced either by means of an extra thread or by combination of warp and weft threads.

=Woollen Lastings, Plain.=--A plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. It is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, smooth in appearance, and free from any ornamentation produced either by weaving or printing. Used extensively in the manufacture of boot and shoe uppers.