Chapter I: Poisons Used by Ancient and Primitive Races

Poisons, those silent weapons capable of destroying life mysteriously, secretly and without violence, have ever had a peculiar fascination for mankind. They have played so large a part in history at various periods, in romance as well as in crime, that the subject is one which claims the attention of every student of human nature.

A poison may be generally described as any substance which, in a small quantity, when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism, destroys life by rapid action. In another sense a substance may be termed a poison that has a cumulative effect if administered for a length of time so that it ends fatally. Substances of this description were called venim, venyn, venum or bane in the Middle Ages, and also termed “slow poisons.”

It is probable that many substances which had the effect of destroying life were observed and used by primitive man from a period of remote antiquity. When injured in a tribal battle, by perhaps a flint arrow-head or stone axe, he no doubt sought for something to revenge himself on his enemy. In his search for curative substances he also found noxious ones, which produced unpleasant effects when applied to the point of a weapon destined to enter the internal economy of an opponent. He doubtless observed that the arrow-head and spear on which the blood of former victims had dried caused wounds which often proved fatal, owing to the action of what we now term septic poisons. This may have led him to experiment with the juices of plants till he discovered something of a more deadly character. The observations of primitive man as to the poisonous effects of plants on animal life is evident from some of the names which he gave to them in early times. Instances of these are perpetuated in cowbane (the water hemlock), which often has a fatal effect on cattle; sowbane, so called, says Parkinson in his Herbal, as it was observed to kill swine; wolf’s bane, leopard’s bane, henbane, and many others which might be mentioned, showing that primitive man must have observed the evil effects on the animal whose name he associated with them.

In primeval times both the poisonous and medicinal properties of plants appear to have been first discovered and kept secret by the most observant and intelligent members of pastoral and nomadic tribes. The possessor of such secrets wielded an immense power over his fellows and often combined the office of medicine-man and priest. He reserved to himself as much as possible the knowledge which he had acquired of plants and their uses, and particularly those which would produce stupor, delirium and death, for by these means he was enabled to exert a greater influence over others.

The study, therefore, of the poisons employed by primitive races for destroying life in animals and man is one of considerable interest. Arrow-heads and spear-heads, worked with depressions, probably for holding poisons, have been found in cave remains of the palæolithic period in France. Laigneau is of the opinion that these weapons were first used to destroy large animals, such as the bison and reindeer, and were probably also used in tribal warfare.

Τοξιχόν, the Greek word used to denote poison, takes its origin from a word signifying a bow, which probably symbolized a poison-tipped arrow, a custom still practised by savage tribes in various parts of the world. It seems but a natural sequence that man should have turned to his own account the knowledge he acquired of the effects of the substances which proved deadly when introduced into the body by either external or internal means, as in them he found a more secure and secret weapon by means of which he could rid himself of the objects of his jealousy, hatred or revenge.

The Greek toxican, from which the word toxicology is derived, is believed to have been used for the poisonous substance into which the arrow-heads were dipped.

Poisoned arrows are mentioned by several of the early writers, including Homer, Horace and Ovid. The latter tells how the blood of vipers was used to poison weapons, and there was a general belief that disease and death were caused by poisoned arrows shot by an offended deity, as instanced in the mythical story of Apollo, whose darts were supposed to smite man with pestilence.

The Scythians are known to have used poisons and mixed the venom they employed with human blood. Certain tribes of the Caucasus are said to have employed viper-venom mixed with decomposed human blood serum. Aristotle and Strabo state that the Celts were accustomed to poison their arrows and weapons, while Pliny and Celsus refer to the practice among the Gauls. As late as the seventh century poisoned arrows were used by the Dacians and the Dalmatians on the shores of the Danube, and among the Goths it seems to have been a common custom. Almost every savage tribe and people throughout the world have been found to have their own particular poison for this purpose, and there is little doubt that this method of making the wound caused by the weapons more deadly, has been practised from a period of remote antiquity.

Although most of the substances employed and the methods of preparation are now known to us, there are others about which little or no information can be obtained. The secret of the poison used by many barbaric tribes is still most jealously guarded and is only known to certain chiefs and their families, or the medicine-men of the tribe, who pass on the knowledge to their successors. The substances used for lethal purposes are both of animal and vegetable origin, and include poisonous insects and fish, snake venoms and poisonous plants, which are used alone or mixed together. These substances are not equally effective, as the active principle by age tends to decompose, but if the poison be freshly prepared, as it often is, it generally proves fatal. Lewin, however, states that he found an arrow poison used by the Bushmen in Australia still active after remaining for ninety years in a Berlin museum.

The poisons used by the various tribes of Bushmen of Africa vary according to the district in which they live. Livingstone states, that those who inhabited the Kalahari district used the entrails of a small caterpillar for poisoning their spears and arrows. When drawn over a sore, this insect, which is known to the natives as “Nga,” causes the most excruciating agony, and those wounded by arrows smeared with this poison die slowly in a condition of violent delirium.

Baines says the Bushmen squeeze the grub gradually between the forefinger and thumb, when a colourless fluid exudes which is smeared over the arrow-head, forming an imperceptible coating. Modern investigators who have studied the properties of this curious poison state, that its action strongly resembles some of the snake venoms and that it will retain its properties for an indefinite time. Livingstone also mentions a curious fact that the natives consider that the best antidote to the poison is to swallow the grub.

A very powerful poison employed by other tribes of Bushmen for their arrow- and spear-heads is said by Burchell to be prepared from _Amaryllis disticha_, various species of Euphorbium and Acocanthera, alone or mixed with snake venom, and a species of black spider or beetle poison.

The Bushmen or “Bosjermans” of the South African district called “Kalahari” use the juice of the leaf beetle, or the _Diamphidia simplex_. Lewin, who examined the insect, found in its body besides inert fatty acids, a toxalbumin which causes paralysis and finally death. Boehm, after examination, states that the poison from the larva also belongs to the toxalbumins. The poison grubs are of a pale flesh colour, similar to the silkworm and are about three-quarters of an inch in length. When a wound is made by an arrow poisoned with this exudation the most intolerable agony is caused, which proves fatal.

The Somali prepare a very deadly poison from various species of Acocanthera which they call Waba, Wabayo or Ouabaio, to which they sometimes add snake venom.

The Ovambos of South-West Africa employ a species of Adenium as an arrow poison, while the seeds of the strophanthus (_Strophanthus hispidus_ or _kombé_) are largely used by the tribes who inhabit the districts near the Congo and the Zambezi.

The arrow poison of the Pygmies of Central Africa, in which the red ant forms an ingredient, is described by Stanley, and is so very deadly that a single arrow has been known to kill an elephant.

According to a recent writer on Malay poisons,[1] native poisoners frequently use narcotic plants to stupefy their victims as a preliminary to robbing them. They also employ sand, powdered glass, quicklime and other powders to disconcert their pursuers. Some of them claim to be able to know a method of causing loss of voice lasting seven or eight days, by the administration of certain poisons by the mouth.

Footnote 1:

_Malay Poisons and Charm Cures_, John D. Gimlette, M.R.C.S. 1923.

Gimlette asserts that two or three clinical cases have occurred in Kelantan in which it was alleged that the witnesses in court could not give evidence for this reason.

Malay cunning is proverbial, but it is not generally known that the natives are accustomed to use poison in the same manner as employed in ancient times, namely by mixing it with honey which is sometimes smeared on the under surface of a knife. The poisoner then shares a meal with his enemy and divides a water-melon in half with the poisoned blade, but is careful to eat only the upper and harmless portion as his share of the fruit. This method is said to be common in Tregganu, where potassium cyanide is employed for the purpose.

The Malays are said to have a knowledge of slow poisons which they call “time poisons,” by means of which they can give a single dose of poison and time the death of the victim within three, six, or even twelve months, according to the dose and the particular combination used. Native experts, however, say that the idea of this “time-poison” is unfounded, but they know that the effect of certain deadly poisons is greatly accelerated or delayed if certain fruits or vegetables, such as water-melon or cucumbers happen to be eaten soon after the ingestion of the poison.

Some of the Malays believe that poisoned food can be recognized by the shadow of the right hand and fingers not being cast on eating rice. Others believe that a stirring rod of ivory will become darkened if poison has been put into the food, and in Perak a spoon made of the beak of a horn-bill[2] is said to turn black if touched by anything of a poisonous nature.

Footnote 2:

For the use of horns as antidotes or indicators of poison, see page
55.

The Malays use many different vegetable poisons for their blow-pipe darts, some of which are extremely powerful, but curiously enough some are poisonous to certain animals and not to others, and many of the poisons which destroy human life may be eaten with impunity by graminivorous animals. Thus, opium does not poison pigeons, tobacco and hemlock do not injure goats, and henbane can be eaten by rabbits. The Malay jungle natives have special markings on their blow-pipe darts, by means of which they differentiate their various poisons. That of the upas-tree is specially marked to distinguish it from the others.

The sap of the upas-tree (_Antiaris toxicaria_), the active principle of which is called Antiarin, is used as a poison for their darts by the natives throughout the Eastern Archipelago, including Java and Borneo. It is extremely powerful and will sometimes cause death in thirty minutes after a wound is received. It is often mixed with the venom of snakes, scorpions or centipedes and occasionally with arsenic.

The upas-tree sap is collected in primitive vessels fashioned from palm leaves, which are then suspended a few feet above the fire. The boiling process is somewhat protracted and during the whole time the sap is continually stirred. During this operation the liquid is transformed into a thick viscid mass and in this condition it is withdrawn from the fire. When cold the sap is a solid, hard, yet brittle substance, so before it is set, the leaf is rolled up with its soft contents, the two ends tied with rattan and the poison thus kept till it is required.

The darts, which are projected by the natives with blow-pipes, consist of strips of palmwood from 20 to 30 cm. in length; they are pointed at one end and a quantity of poison is then removed from its palm-leaf receptacle and ground up until it is of the consistency of flour. It is then mixed with water and stirred up until it becomes a thin paste, which is smeared upon the points of the darts. The process of preparation takes place before a fire, and when completed they are placed with their points towards the fire until the upas sap has dried into the wood. In the case of the darts that are required for larger game, the point of the weapon is split open and a thin metal wedge or plate is inserted and the whole point is then smeared over with the poison. The opposite end of the dart comprises a small conical butt made of the soft pith of the sago palm. The darts are carried in small bamboo quivers, which are fixed into the loin-cloth of the native, the points being protected by a piece of animal skin.

North American Indians employ a poison called “Caramari,” which they prepare from the roots of a plant found along the sea coast. It is prepared by being burnt in earthen pipkins and to the residue is added a species of spider, hairy worms, bats’ wings, the head and tail of a fish called “Teborino,” toads and mancanillas. These substances are set over a fire and heated in pots till they come to the consistency of a paste.

The Choco Indians of Colombia, South America, use a poison which they extract from a tree frog which they hold on a stick near a fire, when the heat causes the glands of the skin to secrete the poisonous fluid.

The Jivaro Indians of the Amazon use a vegetable poison called “jambi” for their arrows, which is said to be made from a species of vine which grows in great profusion throughout the Upper Amazon zone. The process for extracting the poison as described by Up de Graff[3] is simple.

Footnote 3:

_Head Hunters of the Amazon_, F. W. Up de Graff. 1922.

“The vine is cut into sections a foot in length, and the thin, hard outer crust of bark is carefully removed by scraping. The main bark, white when first exposed to the air, turns brown in just the same way as an apple. This inner bark is scraped into fine shavings by means of shells and flints, and these are placed in a colander which rests upon a pot in which water is boiling. The water is poured over the contents of the colander repeatedly, until the constant action on it has drawn out the alkaloid, when the lifeless shavings are thrown away and the residue is boiled down until it resembles, both in consistency, colour and smell, plain chocolate. While still warm, it is poured into a bamboo receptacle and when cool it becomes semi-solidified.”

The head of the arrow is dipped in the “jambi” and dried in the sun or before the fire.

These arrows have a swift and painless effect on animals and birds of the forest, and after a wound from the poisoned dart projected from a blow-gun, so long as the skin is broken at any point, they are killed within about two minutes. Experiments carried out on domestic animals have proved that the poison acts painlessly, the effect being much the same as an overdose of morphine, but despite its proved deadliness “jambi” is never used by the Head Hunters in warfare.

One of the most curious preparations in use among the North American Indians is the so-called “Black Poison,” the effects of which are well known around the lakes of the Winnipeg basin and in the Swan River district. Some time after administration it changes the colour of the skin from brownish yellow or copper colour to a sooty black and at the same time causes hair to grow on unusual parts, such as the cheek bones. Its first effects are sickness, headache, and pain in the back and limbs. Afterwards, ulceration and sores break out in various parts of the body, chiefly over the joints and more particularly the knuckles. When prepared, the poison is said to be a brown snuff-like powder with a slight and rather sickening smell. A small quantity administered in food appears to be sufficient to produce these effects. It is said to be partly composed of _Rhus toxicodendron_ mixed with a dried acrid matter secreted by the glands in the skin of a species of toad.

The Indian tribes indigenous to California have a curious method of using certain plants to stupefy or poison fish. One of the most effective is “soap root” (_Chlorogalum pomeridianum_). Besides providing a substitute for soap the crushed pulp is dropped into the water, generally into a small pool or stream, and then stirred. The fish are stupefied by the poison, float to the surface and are captured either by hand or in a basket. Another plant employed for this purpose is known as “blue-curls,” or vinegar weed (_Trichostemma lancerlatum_).

Other tribes of Indians in South America use curare, which they extract from a certain species of strychnos and other plants, which were first brought to England by Sir Walter Ralegh in 1595. Although a deadly poison when introduced into a wound or injected under the skin, curare is practically harmless when swallowed; indeed Humbolt states the Indians lick it off their fingers and use it as a stomachic tonic.

The Ainos of Japan are said to have used a preparation made from aconite and tobacco, while the natives of the New Hebrides are stated to smear their arrows with damp earth containing the tetanus bacillus which infects the person wounded by them.

Besides the use of poisons for offensive purposes, the institution of trial by ordeal still exists among barbaric tribes to-day, especially in Africa. The substances employed vary with the locality inhabited by the tribe. Muavi, which is used by several tribes in Western Africa, is prepared by scraping the bark of a poisonous tree, known only to the witch-doctors. A decoction of the scrapings is made with water and the resulting draught, which is of a highly poisonous nature, is administered to the suspected person. The action of muavi is generally rapid; vomiting is quickly caused, followed by convulsions and death. When both the accuser and the accused are seized with vomiting the natives declare that the draught has been badly prepared, and should the result not prove fatal to either party the test is repeated. When the guilt of one of the parties has been established by death, his property is at once confiscated and his wife and children are killed. So great is the belief of the natives in the infallibility of the Muavi test that they never hesitate to submit themselves to the trial and are said frequently to volunteer to go through the ordeal in order to prove their innocence.

The Balantes and other tribes who inhabit the West Coast of Africa employ Sassy bark (_Erythroplæum Guineense_) for their trial by ordeal. They prepare the poison by mixing the finely scraped or powdered bark with powdered glass, together with the dried and powdered viscera of the victims of the preceding trial. When required for use the mixture is made into a paste with water, about two spoonsful being administered for a dose.

It is customary for the chief of another tribe to preside at the ordeal trial, whose duty it is to see that it is properly carried out. Each person who undergoes the trial has to pay him a fee in cash or in kind, the latter being in the form of rice, chickens or goats. The preparer of the poison and his assistants also receive an honorarium. When one of the Balantes is accused of a crime or witchcraft he must undergo the trial, as after once being suspected he is no longer protected by the ties of blood and friendship, and a father may even denounce his son or a husband his wife.

Other West African tribes use the Calabar bean, commonly called the Ordeal bean, which contains a powerful poisonous principle called Physostigmine, a drug which is of great value to ophthalmic surgeons to-day in the treatment of the eyes. It is so powerful that a fiftieth part of a grain is considered a poisonous dose. It was customary at one time, in Old Calabar and at the mouth of the Niger, where the plant grows, to destroy it whenever found, a few only being preserved to supply seeds for judicial purposes, and of these seeds the store was kept in the custody of the native chief. Now it is preserved and the beans exported to Europe on account of the value of their active principle in medicine.

Witchcraft plays an important part in the daily life of most African natives and to witchcraft they attribute every ill that befalls them. One kind is practised secretly by evil-doers and the other by the witch-doctors with the view of destroying the effects of the evil-doers. The witch-doctors or medicine-men are undoubtedly the most powerful individuals in their tribes; they hold the lives of all in their hands, and are daily employed to satisfy the passions of their neighbours. According to native ideas, death or sickness never occurs through natural causes, but is always the result of somebody’s act. Whenever anyone is accused of having practised witchcraft or of having committed any other crime, the Calabar bean or the trial by ordeal is used to decide the case, except when the accuser is a witch-doctor, when both the accuser and the accused have to submit to the test.

Roscoe in his book, _The Soul of Central Africa_, alludes to a mysterious poison prepared by the medicine-men of Ankole. It is a tribal custom that should the king feel ill, or through age find his strength failing him, it is his duty to end his life by taking a dose of poison. The ingredients for the fatal draught are always kept at hand by the royal medicine-man, who stores them in a crocodile’s egg. “It must have been a strong poison,” says the explorer, “for it took effect rapidly, ending the king’s life in a few moments. I could not, however, discover the ingredients; the man absolutely refused to divulge the secret. The king thus experienced no lengthened illness, but passed away in a few minutes after swallowing the fatal potion and his body was at once prepared for the ceremony.”

Thus to primitive and barbaric people in various parts of the world we owe much of our knowledge of the properties of many powerful vegetable poisons.