Chapter IV: Preventive Methods and Substances Used Against Poisons

Among the famous medicaments of antiquity reputed to be effective in counteracting poisons was “terra sigillata” or “sealed earth,” a peculiar clay which originally came from the Isle of Lemnos. Its reputation dates from the time of Herodotus, and it continues in use in Turkey and some parts of the East to-day. This red clay was formerly excavated from the side of a certain hill on August 6, with great ceremony, in the presence of the principal inhabitants of the island. The ceremony was originally associated with the worship of Diana and was carried out on May 6, each year. This particular earth was not allowed to be dug by anyone on any other day of the year except that formally set apart for the operation.

According to Dioscorides, the clay was made into a paste in his time with goats’ blood, and the Greeks stamped or sealed the earth with a representation of Diana, one of the goddesses associated with healing, and this seal was regarded as sacred. It had a universal reputation as an antidote to all poisons, and a poisoned liquid drunk from a cup made from the clay was believed to be harmless. The earth was so called on account of the seal stamped upon it in proof of its being genuine.

So great was the demand for the famous “terra sigillata” of Lemnos from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century that many other earths, for which similar properties were claimed, were exploited and recommended in books on medicine of the period. Thus a “terra sigillata” was made in Cilicia (Silesia), also in several districts of Italy, in Malta and in Palestine. In England a clay was found which was said to have the same properties. It entered into the composition of many important remedies, including the Theriaca of Andromachus, and was regarded generally as being an antidote against all deadly poisons.

On analysis made some years ago “terra sigillata” was found to consist of oxides of iron, aluminium, and magnesia, with a proportion of silicates. The whole formed an astringent and absorbent earth, its chief virtues probably being, like many other ancient remedies, chiefly due to the mystery surrounding its origin and the superstition connected with its source.[4]

Footnote 4:

See “Terra Sigillata, a famous Medicament of Ancient Times,” C. J. S.
Thompson, _Proceedings 17th International Congress of Medicine_,
London, 1913.

A curious account of how its value was once tested is recorded in the following grant dated 1580, made by Prince William, the Landgrave of Hesse, to Andreas Bertoldus of Oschatz:—

Be it knowen unto all persons, that an honest man called Bertold of Oschatz, came into the presence of the most noble Prince and Lord, the Lord William Landgraue of Hesse Court of Catzenelnbogen Ditz, Ziegenheim and Nidda etc., our gracious Lord and prince, and in humble manner declared unto him, that hee had found in an olde mine of Golde within the dominion of Schneidnitz, a new kinde of earth, which is a present help and a most notable remedie against all manner of poysons and sundrie diseases, which earth having a stampe upon it he offered to sell unto his Excellencie: who not trusting the man upon his bare worde, committed the matter to his Phisitions Maurice Thauern, and Laurence Hyper: Commanding them to make a perfect tryall of the saide earth, whereupon the saide Doctors in Phisicke to satisfie their Prince, did make a double proffe of the deadliest poysons that might be, which were, Mercurie Sublimate, Aconitum, Nereum and Apocinum, and of some one of these they gave halfe a dramme a peece to eight dogges, to four of them they gave the earth, after the poyson, and to the other foure the poyson alone: of these foure that tooke it alone, the first that tooke Apocynum: dyed within halfe an houre, the second that has taken Nereum died within foure houres: the third that swallowed Mercurie, died within nine houres after. And although they all did call up some part of the poyson, yet after most cruell tormentes with crampes and trembling they died: the fourth dogge that eat Aconitum, systeyned thirteene great panges of the crampe, so as every man thought hee woulde have died with his fellowes, yet lived he the first day, and having half of the dose of this medicine given him, he thoroughly recovered. The other foure dogges to whom the poysons before named with the like quantities of this Terra Sigillata was given, for three houres after the receiving of it, were very sicke and feeble, especially one of them to whom the double quantitie of Aconitum by negligence was given, vomited thrise: the next day they were all well and did eate their meate greedily, so as there appeared scarse any token of poyson.

When thus his Highnesse had seene the experience of this earth to bee so present a remedie against such deadly poysons, and that the saide Andrew Bertold had humbly craved his letters of credite, both in the favour of man and advancement of the truth, that others might have knowledge, he denied not to graunt them: But commanded that his letter, testimonial sealed with his Highnesse his privie seale, and subscribed with the handes of the foresaid Doctors, in whose presence this triall was made, should be given unto him. Which we the above named Doctors upon our allegiance to his Highnesse, and for the furtherance of the truth, because we found it as hath beene declared to be true and unseyned, most willingly have done. Given the XXVIII of July, the yeare of our Lorde 1580.

MAURITIUS THAUER, D.
LAURENCIUS HYPERIUS, M.D.
IOHAN KRUG.

Another document regarding a trial of the “terra sigillata” is as follows:—

A copie of the Letters Pattents which the noble earle Wolfgan earle of Holenhoe, Lord of Langenburg, etc. Had graunted to Andrewe Bertolde Oschatz, in witnes of the wonderful vertues of the Terra Sigillata, found latly in Germaine which hath been tried to be an approved medicine against the strongest poysons, and sundrie other grieues: faithfully translated out of the Germaine Originall.

We Wolfgangus, Earle of Holenhoe, Lorde of Langenburge Hc. Do openile make known unto all men by these my Letters, Testimoniall, that there came lately before me at Langenburge, my well-beloved friende Andreas Bertoldus of Oschatz, and declared unto mee that he had a most excellent kinde of Terra Sigillata, which was not al onely of great force against sundrie diseases: but also a most undouted remedie against all manner of venemous poisons, as had beene proved by sundrie witnessess upon a great number of dogges, which made me also desirous to see the triall of it. It happened at the same time, that one called Wendel Thumblardt was by our Lieuetenant of Langenburg for certain felonies imprisoned, who being examined by our Justices, confessed himselfe guilty of a great number of robberies: And therefore brought to the barre was condemned to bee hanged. Being yet detained in prison, and coming to his eare that there was such a medicine, so soueraigne against sundrie sicknessess, and the most deadly poisons, he made humble request as well by his parents, as by other his friends, of which there were present no small number, desiring for the mercie of God, and respect of his poore life, that being thus condemned, he might have given unto him the most deadly poison that might be devised, whereby a perfit triall might bee had of the worthiness of this medicinable earth. And in this respect, not onely for this pittiful request of his: but also for the commoditie and benefite of all Christendome, (if so be the medicine proove answearable to the report). Pardoning the offender, wee graunted his life on that condicion. Therefore the day of the date of these present, and our welbeloved Cosin the Countie George Friderick of Holenhoe, and the Lord of Langenburg, and in the presence of all our Nobilitie and Commons, the said patient received a dram and a halfe of Mercurie Sublimate, mingled with Conserue of Roses, and immediately after it he drank a dram of the Terra Sigillata in olde wine. And albeit the poison did in the judgment of our learned Phisition George Pistor Doctor of Phisicke, and John Lutzen our Apothecarie, who were both by him all the while, extremely torment and vexe him: yet in the end the medicine prevailing overcame it, whereby the poore wretch was delivered, and being restored to his health was commited to his parents. Whereas therefore the foresaid Andrew Bertold, hath humbly required to have our Letters Testimoniall for his farther credite, wee have thought good for the furtherance and advancement of the truth, to graunt him these our Letters, signed with our seale Manuell. Given at Langenburg the 25th of Januarie, in the yeare of our Lord, 1581.

Petrus Oponus or Petri de Abano (1250–1303), so called from his birthplace, Abano, wrote a work entitled “De Remediis Venenorum” in the thirteenth century in which he gives the following poisons known in his time, many of which, however, are innocuous. He mentions mercury, gypsum, copper, iron rust, magnetite (magnetic stone), lapis lazuli, arsenic sublimate, litharge, lead, realgar, cateputia juice, cucumber juice, usnea, coriander juice, mandragora, poppy, opium, scammony, aconite, oleander juice, hellebore juice, mezereon juice, fool’s-parsley, briony, nux vomica, colocynth, laurel berries, poppy, cicuta, serpentary and cantharides.

Certain charms were believed to act as antidotes to poison and the two following quotations are taken from a MS. by Petrus Hispanus (Pope John XXI) in the fourteenth century:—

CONTRA VENENUM

“Scribe nota nostra i lamina loctonus ut alio quoque
comodo et lana et dari biber et abent scribi
cum moro ut cumque nio alio nota sit nota et sine
scripta 7 lineis past.”

“Zaare. Zaare Zaam, Zaare
Zaare ssleqer Bohorum, nabarayn
Uessally—uessredaza—asseyan—Haurahe
reamue—ayn latinume quene:
draytery, nuyyeri, quibari, yeh ay
hahanny ymkatrum hanitanery vnerym
caruhe tahuene cehue beyne
et Lana cuz aqua ... dame bibere.”

The so-called Toadstone has from early times been reputed to possess the property of counteracting the effect of poisons. These stones were believed to be found in the heads of old toads which, when caught, were placed on a red cloth and the stone recovered through the mouth. Pomet, who wrote in the seventeenth century, threw doubt on this source of origin and states that “toad stones are found in the mountains or plains, although he would not dispute that they might have been bred in the heads of old toads.” He describes two kinds, “the round and the long: the former being of a deep grey inclining to blue; the long being redder grey with reddish spots. It is false that they change colour and sweat when they approach the cup wherein there is poison.”

Lemery, a French writer of the same period, in describing these stones, states, that when applied to the sting or bite of venomous beasts, they draw out the poison. They were usually set and worn as rings and regarded as of great value. They were generally mounted so that the back of the stone could touch the skin, and were said to notify the presence of poison by producing a sensation of heat in the finger at the point of contact.

A toadstone ring is described by Jones, which he attributes to the fossil palatal tooth of a species of Ray that is believed to be a specific in cases of kidney disease when immersed in water and drunk by the patient. In the inventory of the Duc de Berry mention is made of a toadstone in a ring of gold, and similar rings are alluded to in the records of the Duke of Burgundy.

Fenton, writing in 1569, says, “Toadstones being used in rings, give forewarning of venom”; and in Ben Jonson’s “Fox” they are referred to as follows:—

“Were you enamoured on his copper rings,
His saffron jewel, with the toadstone in’t?”

Lupton, in his _Thousand Notable Things_, goes as far as to give a method of obtaining the stone from the toad:

“Put a great or overgrown toad (first bruised in divers places) into an earthen pot; put the same into an ants’ hillock, and cover the same with earth, which toad at length the ants will eat, so that the bones of the toad and stone will be left in the pot.”

Another writer, however, states that the stone should be obtained while the toad is living, and this may be done by simply placing him upon a piece of scarlet cloth, “wherewithal they are much delighted, so that, while they stretch out themselves as it were in sport upon that cloth, they cast out the stone of their head, but instantly they sup it up again, unless it be taken from them through some secret hole in the same cloth.”

The scarlet cloth, however, did not always perform this miracle, for Boetius relates how he watched a whole night an old toad he had laid on a red cloth to see him cast forth the stone, but the toad was stubborn, and left him nothing to gratify the great pangs of his whole night’s restlessness.

In the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum there is a toadstone mounted as a ring in bronze gilt of the seventeenth century; and the Londesborough Collection included a specimen described as being of metal gilt, having upon it the figure of a toad swallowing a serpent. Another set with a large greyish-brown stone mounted in silver bears an inscription on the inside of the ring, “God cureth me.”

The so-called horn of the unicorn, which was in reality the tusk of the narwhal, has been associated with mysterious properties since the time of Aristotle, Pliny and other ancient writers. Ctesias (about 390 B.C.) was the first to record the wonderful properties attributed to it. “Drinking vessels,” he says, “were made of the horn and those who used them were protected against poisons, convulsions and epilepsy, provided that, just before or just after taking poison, they drank wine or water from the cup made from it.” Other writers declared that poisoned wounds could be cured by merely holding the horn of the unicorn close to the wound.

These horns were considered of great value and in the Middle Ages are said to have been worth about ten times the price of gold. In 1553 a unicorn’s horn was brought to the King of France which was valued at £20,000 sterling, and one presented to Charles I, supposed to be the largest then known, measured seven feet long and weighed 13 lb.

Edward IV gave to the Duke of Burgundy a gold cup set with jewels, with a piece of unicorn’s horn worked into the metal; and one large horn in the possession of the City of Dresden was valued at 75,000 thalers. A piece was occasionally sawn off to be used for medicinal purposes, and it was a city regulation that two persons of princely rank should be present whenever this operation was performed.

In the sixteenth century these horns were so rare that Dr. Racq, a physician of Florence, recorded that a German merchant sold one of them to the Pope for 4,000 livres. Ambroise Paré wrote a treatise on the unicorn’s horn and its remedial properties, and Thomas Bartholinus published a work on “Observations on the Unicorn Horn” in 1678, dealing with its medical uses only.

Although it was considered of such great value, the horn was utilized for making goblets mounted in gold, and walking sticks, to which were ascribed remarkable virtues, the greatest of which, according to writers on natural history of the time, was its “resistance to all manner of poysons.”

Before the seventeenth century the genuine unicorn’s horn was supposed to be black or dark in colour, and Boetius de Boodt records that he saw a horn in Venice at the close of the sixteenth century which was said to be a genuine unicorn horn, but he believed it to be that of a gazelle. However, in the seventeenth century it came to be universally agreed that the genuine so-called unicorn’s horns were long, and of an ivory-like colour, tapering towards the tip with curling staves. Several of these horns are still kept among the treasures in churches and monasteries in Europe. One of the more famous and frequently mentioned is the horn that was preserved in the Monastery of St. Denis, near Paris. Cardanus, who described it in the sixteenth century, added that he saw it when he visited the monastery while on a journey in France. He states “it was so long that he could not reach the tip when he placed it at his side; it was not particularly thick, becoming gradually thinner towards the tip and curling like a snail’s shell. The colour was that of a hartshorn.”

This horn was greatly venerated and was included in the inventory of treasures consisting of gold and precious stones and holy relics of the monastery. Two unicorn’s horns were preserved at St. Mark’s in Venice, and in the sixteenth century were exhibited to the people once a year on Ascension Day, together with the other treasures of the Duomo.

There is frequent mention in records of ducal cups of unicorn’s horn which were used as drinking vessels by those whose lives were sought by poisoners. The effect of the poison was believed to be neutralized on coming into contact with the horn. A cup of this kind is preserved at Rosenberg which dates from the early part of the seventeenth century.

Gesner states that the rich put a piece of horn in their cups to protect themselves and to cure themselves, “but it must be a fresh piece and not one the properties of which have been exhausted by often being placed in drinks. It loses its virtue like plants do.”

Pomet, writing in the seventeenth century, says: “We ought to undeceive those who believe what we now call the unicorn’s horn was the horn of a land animal whereof mention was made in the Old Testament, since it is nothing but the horn of the Narwhal and, as to the choice of it, ought to be the whitest, largest and finest.”

It is recorded in 1650 that a certain well in Venice was remarkable for its fresh water on account of two pieces of unicorn’s horn being concealed at the bottom.

In all probability horns were used in early times as drinking vessels, not only on account of their suitability in shape, but also with the idea that they could impart their supposed health-giving properties to the liquid placed in them.

In Denmark, in the seventeenth century, unicorn’s horn was sold in the apothecaries’ shops and was much esteemed by Danish physicians on account of its medicinal properties. In 1593 there is a record that some physicians in Vienna in order to prove the efficacy of unicorn’s horn as an antidote to poisons, experimented on a dog who was first given a dose of arsenic followed by one of unicorn’s horn, and the dog subsequently recovered, while dogs to which arsenic had been given alone died from the effects. Similar tests were said to have been carried out in Copenhagen in 1636, as the result of which it was recorded that “unicorn’s horn is an antidote against poisons, just as those seen at Paris and elsewhere.”

On October 31 of that year, Drs. Fincke, Worm and Scheele met in the house of an apothecary called Johannes Woldenberg in Copenhagen and undertook the following experiment. Two pigeons and two cats were dosed with arsenic and corrosive sublimate. Unfortunately for the experiment, the pigeon which received both the poison and the antidote of unicorn’s horn, vomited the latter and died some hours afterwards. The cat which was given sublimate but no antidote, is said to have died after a short interval, while the cat which in addition to the poison was given a small dose of unicorn’s horn lived until the middle of the night. These and similar attempts to prove the value of the horn were made in Europe during the seventeenth century. It was said to be efficacious in plague and fever because they had certain symptoms in common with those produced by poisons and were called “poisonous diseases.”

The Coronation Chair of the royal house of Denmark in the seventeenth century was partly composed of unicorn’s horns, which are said to have been used on account of their great value, and as being more precious than gold. The making of this curious chair was commenced by Frederick III, “the columns supporting it being composed of narwhal’s teeth and the chair covered with the horn wherever possible, the same being used for the supports for the arms.” In the time of Frederick III and Christian V this chair was considered one of the most wonderful and valuable objects in the kingdom, and was celebrated both in history and story. On June 7, 1671, Christian V in magnificent robes was crowned in it, and the feet of the throne were guarded by two silver lions. The bishop who crowned the king in the Castle of Fredericksborg in his address said, “Of mighty King Solomon, history bears witness that he built a throne of ivory and covered it with the finest gold; Your Majesty is also sitting on a costly throne which in the glory of its material and shape is like unto King Solomon’s throne, and the like thereof cannot be found in any kingdom.”

From a time of great antiquity, the horn of the Indian rhinoceros has been reputed to possess the power of absorbing poisonous substances brought into contact with it.

The Chinese fashioned these horns, which they still value very highly, into cups which are sometimes ornamented with beautiful carving. The tradition in China concerning the horn was, not so much that it acted as an antidote to poison, but that it gave a sure indication when any liquid placed in it contained some poisonous substance. When a poisoned liquid was allowed to stand in the horn the latter was said to sweat and change colour. It is not therefore to be wondered at that the great emperors of the East, whose lives were frequently attempted by poison, chose these horns as drinking cups.

DRINKING CUP OF UNICORN’S HORN (XVII CENTURY).
]

[_Copyright to the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum._

ASSAY CUPS OF RHINOCEROS HORN USED TO DETECT POISON IN WINE (XVITH
CENTURY).
]

Rudolf II of Germany (1575–1612) fashioned a cup of rhinoceros horn for his own use, which is now preserved in the National Museum at Copenhagen. Several other vessels of rhinoceros horn are mentioned in Danish records, one being described as “a little flat dish of rhinoceros horn with a gilt foot and then gilded, with an Indian underneath.”

Lemery says: “The horn and nails of the animal are both used in medicine and contain in them a good deal of volatile salt and oil which are useful to resist poison.”

Pomet declares that “the horn is highly alkalescent and is also good against malignant fevers and destroys malignant acids which stir up the most pernicious diseases.”

There have been certain periods in the world’s history when every eminent personage, king, prince, minister or favourite, was deemed in danger of poison, and when not a particle of food was swallowed by them until it had been first tasted.

The traditions attached to the horn of the rhinoceros must have come to Europe at an early period, as we find that cups made from the horn, called “assay cups” were used in England as early as the fifteenth century in the time of Edward V.

The earliest allusion to the assay cups, which were made both from the horn of the rhinoceros and the unicorn, is in Russell’s _Book of Nurture_, 1480, in which it is stated:—

“Credence and tastynge is used
for drede of poysenynge
to all officers ysworne and grete
othe by chargynge.”

It was customary for the esquire in attendance on a distinguished person to first test the wine by drinking some from his assay cup. Hall, in his Chronicle (1550), refers to this custom as follows:—

“The esquier whiche was accustomed to sewe and take the assaye before kyng Rychard.”

“The Maior of London claymed to serue the quene with a cuppe of golde and a cuppe of assay of the same.”

Gutch in 1530 alludes to

“Two little Cuppis of asseye silvar and gilt.”

An assay cup of rhinoceros horn with a silver rim about 1½ in. deep, with a bishop’s mitre and the initials T.T. crudely engraved upon it, is in the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum with other specimens of the kind. It is believed to date from the middle of the sixteenth century.

On account of its association with medicine, the rhinoceros was adopted as the crest of the Apothecaries’ Society of London when it was founded in 1617.

The Chinese, who appear to have ever been suspicious of being poisoned, also made little cups of glass about 1½ in. high which they believed would crack if a poisoned liquid were poured into them.

There is an early tradition in India connected with bowls of pottery with a light greenish glaze, called Gherian ware. They are supposed to break into pieces if touched by poisoned food or liquid, and are said to have been introduced into Northern India by Mohamed Ghori in the twelfth century from whom they take their name.

Another substance which was regarded with great veneration as an antidote to poisons, especially in the East, was the bezoar stone, a calculus found in the intestines of Persian wild goats, cows, a species of ape and other animals. These stones vary much in size from that of a small egg down to a hazelnut, and are of a yellowish brown colour.

Pomet says, “If you would have the finest and best oriental bezoar, you must choose that which is shining, of a pleasant scent, tending to that of ambergris. The shape is of no consequence, whether round, smooth or rough, and whether white, yellow or grey, but the principal colour is usually an olive.”

It was introduced into Eastern medicine by the Arabs, but its reputation is of much greater antiquity. The name is said to be of Persian origin and derived from the word “pad-zahr,” “an expeller of poisons,” and is mentioned first by Avenzoar, an Arab physician of Seville, about the year A.D. 1140.

It was known to the Hebrews in ancient times as “Bel Zaard” which means the “Master,” or “every cure for poisons.”

Oriental Bezoar.
]

Oriental Bezoar.
]

[_Copyright._

Occidental Bezoar.

BEZOAR STONES.
]

There are several varieties of these stones, the most esteemed being the Oriental, which come from Persia. On dividing the calculus, it appears to have been formed by a deposit of calcium phosphate round some nucleus, such as hair or the stone of a fruit. One that is still preserved in the Museum of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital has a date stone as the nucleus. It was believed that the special virtues of the stone were due to some unknown plant on which the animal had fed.

The Occidental, another variety of bezoar stone, is said to be obtained from the llamas of Peru, and a European variety is got from the chamois of the Swiss mountains, but these varieties never commanded the great value as did those from the Orient, which are said by early writers to have been sold for ten times their weight in gold. The Occidental bezoar stone is usually much larger than the Oriental and has a dull surface.

Lemery mentions a bezoar stone obtained from the hog, which is of a whitish colour inclining to green. It is said to be produced in the gall of certain swine in India and is very highly esteemed by the natives.

All varieties of bezoar had a reputation for counteracting the effects of poison. They were generally preserved in elaborate cases of pierced gold with a chain attached so that they could be suspended in the wine or liquid before it was drunk. “The Portuguese above all nations,” says a writer of the seventeenth century, “drive a great trade with bezoar, because they are always on their guard and watching one another for fear of poison.”

As well as an antidote to poison, the bezoar came to be regarded as a valuable remedy for fevers and was also applied externally in skin diseases. It was given internally in doses of 4 to 16 grains and, in Portugal, in time of plague, the stones were loaned to sufferers at about the equivalent of 10_s._ a day.

Three bezoar stones were sent by the Shah of Persia, as a royal gift, to the Emperor Napoleon a little over a century ago.

Ambroise Paré, when surgeon to Charles IX of France, relates that one day, when the king was at Clermont, a Spanish nobleman brought him a bezoar stone which he assured him was an antidote to all poisons. The king sent for Paré and asked him if he knew any substance which would annul the effects of any poison. Paré said that could not be, for there were many sorts of poisons which acted in very different ways. The Spanish nobleman, however, maintained that this stone was a universal antidote and as the king was eager to test the question, the Provost of the Palace was sent for and asked if he had any criminal in his charge condemned to death. He replied that he had a cook who had stolen two silver dishes, who was to be hanged the next day. The offer was thereupon made to the cook that he should take a poison and the alleged antidote immediately afterwards, and if he escaped with his life he should go free. The cook gladly consented, and an apothecary was ordered to prepare a deadly draught and administer it, to be followed by a dose of the bezoar. This was done. The poor wretch lived for about seven hours in terrible agony which Paré tried in vain to relieve. After his death Paré made an autopsy which showed that the antidote had no effect at all. It was sublimate which had been given. “And,” the writer concludes, “the king commanded that the stone should be thrown into the fire; which was done.”

A stone called Draconites, described by Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) as a shining black stone of pyramidal shape, was also believed to be antidote to all kinds of poisons.

A cup or goblet made of electrum, an alloy composed of gold and silver known to the ancients, according to Pliny, had the property of revealing any poisonous liquid which was placed in it, by exhibiting certain circles like rainbows in the liquid, which it also kept sparkling and hissing as if on fire.