Chapter V: Chromium

BY E. C. HARDER

USES OF CHROMIUM

Chromite is the principal ore from which metallic chromium and chromium products are obtained. The theoretical composition of chromite is represented by the formula FeO Cr₂O₃, which represents 32 per cent. ferrous oxide and 68 per cent. chromic oxide. In many ores, however, the ferrous oxide is partly replaced by magnesia, up to 30 per cent., and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, up to 20 per cent. Thus the composition of chromite varies considerably. The percentage of chromic oxide may be as low as 10 per cent.; that of ferrous oxide may range from 10 to 50 per cent. Other common minerals of chromium are picotite (chrome spinel), uvarovite (chrome garnet), chrome diopside and crocoite (lead chromate).

Chrome ore is consumed mainly in the manufacture of special steels and in tanning leather. The special steels comprise chrome steel, chrome-nickel steel, chrome-tungsten steel, and chrome-vanadium steel. Metallic chromium is added to such steel in the form of ferrochrome, an alloy of chromium and iron containing 60 to 70 per cent. metallic chromium. Chrome steel is tough and hard to break. It hardens rapidly and has a fine grain and a fibrous fracture; it does not break readily upon concussion and because of its hardness is difficult or impossible to cut with ordinary machine tools. Metallic chromium is present in percentages varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Special steels containing chromium are used for guns, armor plate, armor-piercing projectiles, automobile parts, machine tools, bars for prisons, burglar-proof safes, shoes, cutlery, crusher jaws, stampmills, springs and for other articles in which hardness and toughness are necessary. During the war, when a considerable shortage of chromite threatened, less chromium was used in chrome steels, and certain other hardening materials were used in its place. The results are said to have been unsatisfactory, however.

Ferrochrome used in the manufacture of chrome steels is produced in the electric furnace by smelting a mixture, in proper proportions, of chromite, coal or coke, lime, and fluorspar or silica.

Much chrome ore is used in the steel industry for refractory materials in lining open-hearth furnaces. Some of the ore thus used is first manufactured into chrome brick and some is utilized in the crude form. Chrome brick is used in open-hearth furnaces as a lining along the slag line between the magnesite bottom of the furnace and the silica-brick sides and roof. Chrome brick is used also to cover the ports of gas-fired furnaces. It is desirable for these purposes on account of its neutral reaction, which reduces the wear due to corrosion. Lump or crushed chromite is used for patching the bottoms of open-hearth furnaces, particularly the toe or apex of the bottom, the ore being either hammered in place as lump or crushed and mixed with a little water or tar and clay and then tamped into place. The use of lump chrome in repairing such furnaces is desirable on account of the rapidity with which the furnaces can be repaired and on account of the greater wear that chromite will stand. The amount of chromite used for this purpose ranges from 2 pounds to 10 pounds per ton of steel manufactured. Magnesite has been used to replace chromite for repairing furnaces, but has been found to be more expensive and to stand less wear.

Chrome brick is used in a minor way in electric furnaces for manufacturing steel, in a belt along the slag line and in the area around the pouring lips. It is also being used in furnaces manufacturing steel by the duplex process.

Chrome brick, besides being used in steel-making furnaces, is used in lining furnaces for making copper, nickel, and other metals. In these furnaces it is used in the bottoms and around the tap holes. Magnesite brick, as well as bauxite brick, have been used to replace chromite brick for this purpose.

Chromium chemicals used for tanning are mainly sodium or potassium bichromates. About half of the bichromates produced in the United States is commonly used for tanning, the remainder being used for paints, pigments, dry colors, and dyes in the paint, printing and engraving, and textile industries. Chrome yellow, chrome orange, and chrome black are used in calico printing and dyeing. Chromic oxide, or chrome green, is an indelible pigment employed in printing banknotes. Various other chrome colors are used for paints and pigments as well as in the ceramic arts. The minor uses of chrome chemicals are many.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Chromite throughout the world is associated with basic igneous rocks, such as peridotite or pyroxenite, or with the alteration products of these rocks, such as serpentine, talc schist, and related rocks. Chromite deposits are generally in the form of lenses, pods, or irregular masses that may occur singly or may be associated in groups. Besides being found as large bodies, chromite occurs as a minor constituent of these rocks, being widely disseminated through them as small specks and particles. Chromite that forms workable deposits is believed to have been separated out of the molten mass of basic igneous rock by segregation and to have formed separate bodies within the rock mass during the cooling. Most chromite deposits are found along the borders of intrusive masses not far from the contact of older rocks into which they are intruded. This is probably due to the formation of peripheral fractures during the cooling of the igneous mass, chromite being forced up into these openings. The action of convection-currents in the molten magma may also have resulted in localizing chromite bodies near the borders of the mass. However, bodies of chromite are quite abundant in other parts of the igneous masses as well, often being found at long distances from bordering rocks.

By weathering of chromite-bearing igneous rock, chromite bodies are freed and occur as loose masses in resultant residual clays. Such bodies in clay are of commercial importance in many places. The breaking down of chromite-bearing rocks results in setting free disseminated specks and particles of chromite, and these may be transported and later deposited along streams flowing out of chromite-bearing areas. In this manner accumulations of chromite sands are formed. Besides chromite, these sands usually contain considerable quantities of other heavy minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, and rutile, and the chromite in them is generally not available commercially.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

The world’s chromite supply has been obtained mainly from the following sources, named roughly in order of their importance:

New Caledonia; southern Rhodesia; western and southern Asia Minor; Ural Mountains, Russia; eastern Greece, adjacent islands, Macedonia, and Serbia; Baluchistan and Mysore, India; Quebec, Canada; Atlantic and Pacific coast states, United States; State of Bahia, Brazil; Oriente, Cuba; Japan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Austria-Hungary; and Guatemala.

The geographic distribution of the more important deposits of chromite is shown in Plate IV.

Other countries in which deposits of chromite are known but in which little or no ore has been produced are: Shetland Islands, Scotland; Norway; Sweden; Silesia; Portugal; New South Wales, Australia; New Zealand; Transvaal; Togoland; and Newfoundland.

Table 25 shows the output of chromite in the chief producing countries from 1905 to 1917.

=Australasia.=--Important quantities of chromite occur on the island of _New Caledonia_, in the South Pacific, and in smaller amounts in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.

TABLE 25.--WORLD’S CHROMITE PRODUCTION 1905-1917 IN LONG TONS[53]

-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+
|1905[54]| 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 |
-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+
United States | 22 | 107| 290 | 359 | 598|
Canada[55] | 7,657 | 8,068| 6,425 | 6,451 | 2,205|
Cuba[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Guatemala[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Brazil[57] | | | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | | | |
Islands) | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Norway | ... | ...| 105[56]| ... | ...|
Sweden | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | | |
and Herzegovina) | 183 | 315| 305 | 492 | 327|
Greece[60] | 8,759 |11,348|11,545 | 4,281 | 9,448|
Serbia[61] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Russia | 26,620 |16,708|25,940 |10,777 |21,857|
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | | |
Minor) | ... |23,404|21,111 |28,394 |11,364|
Rhodesia | ... | 3,256| 8,017 |11,927 |22,875|
India | 2,708 | 4,375| 7,274 | 4,745 | 9,250|
Japan | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
New South Wales | 52 | 15| 30 | ... | ...|
New Caledonia | 75,717 |82,910|56,461[56]|24,970[56]|39,368|
-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+

-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+
| 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+
United States | 205| 120 | 201 | 255 |
Canada[55] | 267| 140 | ... | ... |
Cuba[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Guatemala[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Brazil[57] | | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | | |
Islands) | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Norway | ...| ... | 113[56]| ... |
Sweden | 31| | | |
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | |
and Herzegovina) | 315| 246 | 197 | 300[56]|
Greece[60] | 9,311| 4,542 | 6,209 | 6,242[56]|
Serbia[61] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Russia |14,157| 1,218[56]|20,934 |21,401 |
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | |
Minor) | [59]|11,993 |16,823[63]| [59]|
Rhodesia |39,287|46,753 |61,840 |62,365 |
India | 1,737| 3,804 | 2,890 | 5,580[56]|
Japan | 2,091| 1,500 | 1,591 | [59]|
New South Wales | ...| 148 | 23 | |
New Caledonia |39,368|34,447 |41,325 |62,352 |
-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+

-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
| 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917
-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
United States | 591 | 3,281 |47,035 |43,725
Canada[55] | 121 |11,008 |24,545 |32,457[56]
Cuba[57] | ... | ... | 34 | 17[58]
Guatemala[57] | ... | ... | ... | 179[58]
Brazil[57] | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | |
Islands) | 100 | | |
Norway | 80[56]| 344[56]| |
Sweden | | | |
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | |
and Herzegovina) | 474[56]| [59]| [59]|
Greece[60] | 6,947[56]|10,255[56]| 9,724[56]| [59]
Serbia[61] | ... | [59]| [59]| [59]
Russia | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59]
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | |
Minor) | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59]
Rhodesia |48,235 |60,617[56]|79,350[56]| [59]
India | 5,887[56]| 3,768[56]|20,160[56]| [59]
Japan | 2,075[56]| 2,932[56]| 8,149[56]| [59]
New South Wales | | | |
New Caledonia |41,336[56]|65,941[56]|74,115[64]|41,230[56]
-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------

[53] Figures not otherwise credited were obtained from “Mineral
Resources of United States, 1914” and subsequent years, U. S.
Geological Survey (figures originally obtained mainly from the
British statistical publication, _Mines and Quarries_: General report
with statistics, pt. 4, London).

[54] Figures for 1905 taken direct from _Mines and Quarries_, 1905
and 1906.

[55] Mineral production of Canada, 1916, Canada Department of Mines,
Mines Branch.

[56] _Mineral Industry_, 1917.

[57] Exports from Cuba, Guatemala, and Brazil in 1918 were
respectively 8,820 tons, 1,193 tons, and 17,854 tons.

[58] Exports.

[59] Not available.

[60] Production from the Saloniki district included under Turkey
previous to 1914.

[61] Present Serbian deposits in Turkish domain before the war.

[62] Exports from Turkey for fiscal years beginning with March.

[63] _Mines and Quarries_ reports production of Turkey in 1912 as 145
tons.

[64] Stateman’s Year Book, 1918, London.

Serpentine, in masses intruding metamorphic rocks and sediments ranging in age from Archean to Mesozoic, is abundant throughout the island of New Caledonia, and chromite invariably is associated with it as a minor constituent. Locally, large masses of fairly pure chromite are found, generally as lenticular bodies in the serpentine, but locally as irregular masses in residual clay derived from the decomposition of the serpentine.

Chromite deposits of three types are known in New Caledonia, as follows: Rock chrome, consisting of solid ore bodies in serpentine; residual chromite, as irregular bodies or scattered masses, frequently disintegrated, in red residual clay derived from the weathering of the serpentine; and chrome sand and gravel in surface wash and stream deposits. Ores of the first two classes are both important commercially in New Caledonia and are both present in most mines. Ores of the last named class are not worked.

Of these New Caledonian deposits, that of Mt. d’Or, in the southern part of the island, was the first to be discovered and worked, being found by Garnier in 1866. Later the deposits of Ngo Bay and others further south were exploited. Production and exportation of New Caledonian chromite began in the early 80’s and continued in a minor way until 1902, the production coming mainly from Mt. d’Or and the Ngo Bay deposits.

In 1902, L. Bernheim formed the Société le Chrome, in which French capital was largely interested. This company operated mines in the northern and southern parts of the island. It developed the Tiebaghi deposits near the port of Pagoumene, now among the most important in New Caledonia. The exportation of chromite soon increased, and gradually New Caledonian ore replaced Turkish ore in the market. In 1911 the Chrome Co., Ltd., of London, was formed and acquired from the Société le Chrome the Tiebaghi and other mines. At the same time it acquired the right from the Rhodesia Chrome Mines Co., Limited, to market the Rhodesian ore, thus securing practically a monopoly of the world’s chromite trade. The Chrome Co., Ltd., is controlled by French and English interests. Chalas & Sons, Finsbury Pavement House, London, E. C, are the largest stockholders. There were formerly German stockholders. L. Bernheim does not seem to be associated with the Chrome Co., Ltd., but it is said that he still owns chromite deposits in New Caledonia. Besides the operations of the Chrome Co., Ltd., there are a number of independent operations in different parts of the island. These are mainly under the control of inhabitants of the island.

=Africa.=--The important chromite deposits of southern _Rhodesia_ are near the town of Selukwe, which is connected by railroad with the shipping port of Beira. They occur scattered through an area of schist and serpentine. One hundred and twenty chromite bodies have been mapped out, but the only ones that have been developed are ten closely grouped large bodies at Chrome Mine northwest of Selukwe. One of the largest bodies is 180 feet wide and 240 feet long. The ores are high grade, averaging between 48 and 51 per cent. chromic oxide.

Recently considerable publicity has been given to the discovery of what are reported to be among the largest deposits of high-grade chromite in the world in the Umvukwe Hills in the Lomagundi district 30 miles from Banket Junction, southern Rhodesia. The ore is said to occur over a large area in bodies in serpentine. More than two million tons is reported to have been uncovered. The deposits were discovered by Albert Peake, of Umvukwe Ranch, and are owned by Peake Brothers, who are said to have offered them to the Imperial government on special terms.

Chromite was mined in Rhodesia for the first time in 1905, the ore coming from claims near Selukwe held by the Bechuanaland Exploration Company, Ltd. Production steadily increased, slowly at first but more rapidly after 1910, when the Selukwe mines were taken over by the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1910 the staking of chromite claims in the Hartley district was reported and in 1911 chromite was discovered at Victoria. Shipments from Selukwe stopped in August, 1914, after the declaration of war, but began in December and increased during 1915 and 1916. In 1917 the discovery of the large and valuable deposits of chromite in the Lomagundi district (already mentioned) was reported. Previous to 1916 the entire production of Rhodesian chromite came from the Selukwe mines of the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1917, however, another company, the Rhodesia Metals Syndicate, Ltd., entered the field and is producing important amounts of ore.

=Asia.=--Before _Turkey_ lost most of her European possessions after the Balkan wars, the chromite deposits of the Kossowo, Uskub, and Monastir district of Serbia and the Saloniki district of Greece were within her borders. Now, however, only the deposits of _Asia Minor_ remain to her.

Chromite deposits are widely scattered through many parts of _Asia Minor_ and are said to be numbered by the hundreds. The most important deposits are grouped into three districts: In the regions of Brussa and Kutahia south of the Sea of Marmora, where the important Daghardi deposits are found; near Macri, Denislu and around the Gulf of Adalia in the southwestern part of the peninsula, as well as on the neighboring Island of Rhodes; and near Mersina, Adana, Aleppo, and elsewhere in the region around the Gulf of Alexandretta northeast of the Island of Cyprus. Smaller deposits are reported in the vilayets of Angora and Kastamuni in the north central part of Asia Minor and near Beirut and Damascus in Syria. All the ore bodies are found in more or less schistose and decomposed serpentine in groups of lenslike or irregular bodies.

The chromite mines of Asia Minor have produced important quantities of ore. From about 1870, when Turkey began to supplant the United States as the world’s principal producer of chromite, to near 1900, Asia Minor furnished the bulk of the chromite for the world’s consumption. Most of the ore mined has come from the mines in the Brussa region on the south and southwest slopes of the Mysian Olympus and from the mines of the Macri region. The Brussa and Kutahia deposits are said to have produced an average of about 20,000 tons annually for many years, of which the Daghardi mine is said to have furnished nearly three-fourths. This deposit consists of high-grade ore averaging 51 to 55 per cent. chromic oxide and has been estimated to contain about 10,000,000 tons of ore. Probably this is somewhat an exaggeration, although doubtless the deposit is large and important.

The chromite mines in the Macri region have furnished a considerable part of the output of Asia Minor, but much of the ore mined in recent years has been of low grade, running as low as 40 per cent. chromic oxide. The chromite near Denislu and that near the Gulf of Adalia, on the other hand, is said to be very rich, some deposits containing ore averaging as high as 56 per cent. chromic oxide.

Most of the chromite mines of Asia Minor are probably now under the control of the Turkish government, having reverted back ten or fifteen years ago when increasing competition of New Caledonia chromite in foreign markets resulted in the shutting down of many of the mines. The taxes on both worked and undeveloped mineral properties are so heavy in Turkey that unless mines are bringing in continuous and substantial revenues, they cannot be held by private individuals.

It has been the policy of Turkey not to allow her mineral properties to fall into the hands of foreigners. Even while the exploitation of the chromite deposits was most vigorous, therefore, the mines, although in many places worked by foreign firms, were largely owned by the Turkish government or by Turkish subjects who leased them. Thus in 1904 the principal deposits near Brussa were owned by an officer of the Porte and were operated by J. W. Whittal & Co., an English firm in Constantinople, while other deposits in the same district were worked by Patterson & Canghellari, an English company located in Smyrna. The famous Daghardi deposit, in the Kutahia region, at that time was owned by the Turkish minister of marine and was operated by a Turk named Raghit Bey.

In the Macri district, a number of low-grade deposits were in 1904 under the control of Patterson & Co., of Smyrna, and the mines near the Gulf of Adalia were controlled by a French syndicate. Some large deposits near Denislu, in the interior, north of Macri, are said to be lying undeveloped owing to the refusal of the Turkish government to permit mining.

The chromite deposits in the region surrounding the Gulf of Alexandretta have been worked in a small way both by Turks and foreigners. Among operators in the region are mentioned Durian Effendi, a Turk, representing the Ottoman Bank; Husni Herikizadeh Effendi, a Turk of Adana; Nader Brothers, of Mersina; Alfred Keun & Co. of Smyrna; Protopazzi Brothers, of Smyrna, and Mavrommati & Sons, of Mersina, both probably Greek firms; Loizides, of Mersina; and Hadji Kemal Bey, of Constantinople. Durian Effendi is mentioned also as having operated chromite mines near Beirut.

The most important chromite deposits of _India_ are in the northern part of Baluchistan, but the mines of the Madras and Mysore districts in southern India have also furnished important amounts of ore. A small production has come from Bengal. The deposits of Baluchistan are large and the ore is rich, much of it averaging nearly 55 per cent. chromic oxide. One deposit is reported to be 440 feet long by 5 feet wide. The ore bodies are segregations in serpentine. The problem of transportation is difficult, as the ores are far from the coast and land transportation facilities are poor. Nevertheless, those mines have made a steady output since they were opened in 1903. The largest production was in 1907, when the yield exceeded 7,000 tons. Since then there has been a decrease owing to competition from New Caledonia and Rhodesia.

Chromite ore bodies were exploited in Madras as early as 1861 and small amounts of ore were mined intermittently. The ores are associated with magnesite veins in serpentine. Since 1907 a steady production is recorded from Madras, which has increased recently. Important deposits of chromite are found in Mysore. These deposits have produced more than 2,000 tons of ore annually in recent years, which is reported to have been sent to the United States. The chromite deposits of Bengal are said to be small and unimportant. In Bombay a large body of low-grade chromite is said to measure 1,000 by 300 feet and to average 34 per cent. chromic oxide.

Before 1910 chromite mining in _Japan_ was sporadic and unimportant, but since 1910 the output has been steady and increasing. The principal occurrences of chrome ore are in the southwestern part, the mines of Wakamatsu, in Hoki, being the most important. The ore is said to average about 40 per cent. chromic oxide. Chromite is also reported to occur in the northern part of Japan. The Japanese chromite deposits are small and soon exhausted.

The principal chromite deposits of _Russia_ are in the southern part of the Ural Mountains and are associated with serpentine and soapstone. The deposits are classed under three heads: Large granular masses in serpentine, finely disseminated chromite in serpentine, and chromite sand in platinum- and gold-bearing placers. The characteristic occurrence of chromite bodies in the Urals is as segregations within areas of dunite largely altered to serpentine. Platinum in scattered grains is associated with chromite in the dunite in several places. Recently chromite deposits have been reported in the northern part of the Caucasus Mountains.

=Europe.=--The chromite deposits of the _Balkan Peninsula_ may be grouped into four main districts: central Serbia; southern Serbia; Saloniki, in eastern Macedonia; and Magnesia, southern Thessaly, and the neighboring islands. The chromite deposits are found in serpentine derived from the alteration of peridotite.

The chromite mines of _Serbia_ and _Macedonia_ for many years furnished a small production, credited to European Turkey, which before the last Balkan War embraced all the chromite-bearing areas. Many of the deposits of central Serbia are poorly situated with reference to transportation, the ore being hauled on carts to the railroad stations and thence by rail to the coast. In eastern Macedonia some of the mines are relatively near the coast and the ore is carried on carts to Saloniki. The mines of Serbia and Macedonia were worked in part by individuals and in part by the same firms which mined the chrome ores of Asia Minor, such as Patterson & Co., Whittal & Co., and others.

The chromite mines of Magnesia, Thessaly, and adjacent islands in eastern _Greece_ have furnished a more or less continuous output for the last 30 or 40 years. The ore mined, however, has been mainly of low grade, most of it averaging between 30 and 40 per cent. chromic oxide. It is said to be used largely for refractory purposes. Before 1908 most of the Grecian production of chromite came from the mines of Magnesia, but more recently the mines of southern Thessaly have furnished most of the ore. Mines in the Grecian Archipelago have also furnished some ore. The annual output of Greece has varied from a few hundred tons to more than 15,000 tons. During the past 20 years it has rarely fallen below 5,000 tons.

Chromiferous iron ore in considerable quantity is mined in Greece, most of it being exported. In 1913 ten or more mines were worked. The production has averaged more than 100,000 tons annually. The mines are operated in part by Greek and in part by French and British firms.

The chromic iron ores produced in the former _Austrian Empire_ have come mainly from the central part of Bosnia, but the chromite mines in Upper Styria and those on the Roumanian border have also furnished an appreciable output, the ore being low-grade. The deposits of Bosnia are in serpentine. The ore is of good quality and has been mined for use as a furnace lining. On and near the left bank of the Danube River in the Banat, Hungary, there is an extensive area of serpentine containing chromite in bunches. The deposits have been worked to a slight extent.

=North America.=--In _Canada_ chromite-bearing areas of considerable extent are found in the southern part of the Province of Quebec, where nearly all the productive chromite mines of Canada are situated. The ore occurs in serpentine in irregular masses and pockets without definite form, that range in size up to 75 feet along the longer axis, rarely reaching 100 feet. The amount of high-grade ore in the Quebec chromite deposits is not large, but low-grade ore bodies which under normal market conditions can not be mined at a profit are numerous and of large size. The low-grade ores range in content of chromic oxide from less than 20 per cent. to 35 or 40 per cent. Nearly all the Canadian ore mined has been exported to the United States. From 1910 to 1914 the output of chrome ore from the Quebec mines was insignificant, owing to the cost of mining low-grade ores and the lack of a market for them. When the price of chromite rose late in 1914, American firms began active developments in the field, and subsequently two concentrators were built by the Mutual Chemical Co. The output of Canadian chromite, both of crude ore and concentrates, during the war period was noteworthy, the production rising from 121 long tons in 1914, to 47,035 long tons in 1916 and 43,725 long tons in 1917.

The principal American firms interested in the development of the Canadian chromite deposits during the past few years have been the Mutual Chemical Co., the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., the Electrometallurgical Co., and the Quebec Asbestos & Chrome Co. The last-named company purchased one of the concentrators built by the Mutual Chemical Co., and has furnished a considerable output both of crude ore and concentrates. Canadian firms have also produced considerable ore.

With the close of the war and the drop in the price of chromite, the Canadian mines have been largely abandoned. It is possible, however, that some American firms that mine ore for use in their own plants may continue work on a small scale.

When the _United States_ was the world’s principal chromite-producing country, the output came from the eastern United States and principally from Maryland. The Wood chrome mine and neighboring deposits in Baltimore and Harford counties furnished most of the production. Smaller amounts were mined in North Carolina and Pennsylvania.

The principal chromite deposits of the United States, and those that have furnished nearly all the ore produced in recent years, are in California and Oregon. Recently deposits of some extent have been found in Montana, but these have not reached the producing stage. The chromite deposits of California are for the most part grouped into four principal districts, the Klamath Mountains region of northwestern California and southwestern Oregon; the Coast Range of west central California; the Sierra Nevada range throughout a considerable part of its length; and the San Luis Obispo district of southwestern California.

The chrome ores of California and Oregon form lenses or irregular bodies in serpentine and related rocks. Many of the ore bodies are found in comparatively fresh peridotite and dunite, and the intimate relation between the chromite and the associated pyroxene or olivine is well shown. In places, also, chromite masses are found in the mantle of residual material derived from the alteration of serpentine and other rocks. Most of the chrome ores of the Pacific Coast are of low-grade, few running more than 45 per cent. chromic oxide. Concentrating plants have been built to beneficiate the ore from bodies large enough to warrant such expenditure. At some plants the grade of ore was thus raised to more than 52 per cent. Locally small bodies of high-grade ore have been found.

The chromite mines of the eastern United States were first worked about 1827 and continued to be operated for about forty years. The California deposits began to be developed about 1870, but never furnished a large output until the war raised the price of chromite to unprecedented figures and ore could be produced at a profit in spite of high costs and high freight rates to consuming centers. The chromite mines of the United States have always been worked and controlled by American capital. In California the ore has been mined mainly by private individuals working small scattered deposits. A few large firms, such as the California Chrome Co., the Adams & Maltby Co., L. H. Butcher Co., and the Union Chrome Co., worked on a larger scale during the war period.

Deposits of chromite have been known in Alaska for a number of years, but not until the war brought high prices was it possible to mine them at a profit. The deposits of present importance are near the southwestern end of the Kenai Peninsula. About 1,000 tons of ore containing 46 to 49 per cent. chromic oxide was mined in 1917.

=South America, Central America and Cuba.=--As far as is known, only one chromite-bearing district of importance occurs in South America, this being in the State of Bahia, in _Brazil_. One deposit has been worked at this locality by E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia, and the discovery of several neighboring deposits is reported. The first shipments of ore were made in February, 1918, and by July 1, 1918, 12,620 tons had been sent to the United States. The deposits are said to be owned by Newman & Co., a firm of American exporters in Bahia. They are leased to E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia.

South America, outside of Brazil, has no known chromite deposits of importance. In _Colombia_, chrome ore is reported to exist near Antioquia and chromiferous pig iron is said to have been produced by the blast furnace near Medellin. In _Venezuela_, chrome ore is said to occur on Coro Peninsula.

Important chromite deposits lie along the north coast of _Cuba_ in the provinces of Camaguey and Oriente. A small deposit is found in the northwestern part of the Province of Matanzas. The most important deposits in Cuba are those at the Caledonia mine, south of the Bay of Nipe and northeast of the Bethlehem Steel Co.’s Mayari iron mines. These deposits are estimated to contain about 40,000 tons of ore in sight. They are owned and worked by the Bethlehem Steel Co., which began exploitation in the spring of 1918. Shipments during 1918 amounted to 8,820 tons. Next in importance to the deposits at the Caledonia mine are those along the coast, northeast of Baracoa, known as the Cayoguan and Potosi deposits, where about 35,000 tons of ore is estimated to be in sight. The deposits are on the north edge of a rugged mountain range forming the eastern end of Cuba. The Cayoguan claims are owned by Brady interests, American, and the Potosi claims by the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., of Philadelphia.

In the Province of Camaguey the deposits are found northeast of the town of Camaguey. They consist chiefly of masses of ore in residual clay and float on the surface. The underlying rock is serpentine. The Camaguey deposits are owned in part by Lehigh University and in part by Cubans. The estimated reserves are 20,000 tons.

Exploitation of the chromite deposits of Cuba began in the fall of 1917 and continued during the spring and summer of 1918. Only the Caledonia mine has produced ore. The chromite deposits are all associated with areas of serpentine.

Chromiferous iron ores that are destined to play an important part in the American iron and steel industry are found at Mayari, Camaguey, and Moa, along the northeastern coast of Cuba. The reserves are measured in hundreds of millions of tons. Only the Mayari deposits are mined at present.

Chromite deposits were developed in the interior of _Guatemala_ in 1917 and shipments started in the autumn. The deposits were owned and operated by the International Railways of Central America, an American company, and are situated in the hills 100 miles inland from Puerto Barrios. The ore is in serpentine. It is very pure and is especially desirable for chemical purposes. The average chromic oxide content of the shipments during 1918 was 58 per cent., thus making this the highest grade ore that came to the American market. The ore was used by the Grasselli Chemical Co. Because of the distance from the railroad, these ores are very expensive to mine, and it was only on account of the high prices paid for chromite during the war that they were developed.

POSITION OF LEADING COMMERCIAL NATIONS

The country that leads in the manufacture of chromium products, such as ferrochrome and chrome chemicals, is the United States. In normal times the United States consumes more than one-third of the annual consumption of chromite by the world. In 1913 the chromite used by manufacturers of ferrochrome and chrome chemicals in the United States amounted to 65,000 tons. Owing to the war, the consumption increased markedly until 1917, when it was nearly 130,000 tons. The normal consumption of chromite in England is about 25,000 tons and in France approximately 35,000 tons. These amounts have not greatly increased in recent years. Germany is an important producer of chromium products, normally consuming 30,000 tons of chromite annually. Russia and the former Austrian Empire used perhaps 5,000 tons each annually. Norway and Sweden use small amounts. Russia’s consumption has been mainly in the manufacture of chromium chemicals, and that of the former Austrian Empire was principally for refractory purposes. In Norway and Sweden small amounts of ferrochrome are produced.

=United States.=--The United States, although the world’s largest consumer of chromite, is not an important producer of this mineral in normal times. During the 30 years preceding the war, the annual production never exceeded 4,000 long tons of crude ore, and during the last 15 years preceding the war the largest annual production was 598 long tons, in 1909. The production in 1913 was less than 1 per cent. of the domestic requirements.

The chromite supply of the United States has, therefore, come largely from foreign sources, and these sources have been mainly Asia Minor, Rhodesia, and New Caledonia. Before 1905 Turkey in Asia was the principal source of supply. Since then, however, Rhodesia and New Caledonia have largely replaced Turkey in the American chrome market.

Although numerous deposits of chromite occur in the western United States and locally in the eastern states, these deposits are usually small and scattered or of low grade. On account of their physical character, small size, scattered occurrence, or distance from consuming centers, domestic chromite could not be furnished to consumers in the required grade or for the price that chromite from rich foreign deposits could be furnished. For this reason the American chromite deposits remained undeveloped and no ore was mined except small quantities which were consumed for refractory purposes in neighboring metallurgical works.

When in 1914, at the beginning of the war, the price of chromite increased, production was immediately stimulated, this being shown by the rapid increase in output from 591 long tons of crude ore in 1914 to about 82,350 long tons of crude ore in 1918, equivalent to about 66,554 tons of ore on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide. Even this largely increased domestic output, however, filled only little more than one-half of the American requirements, the total amount of chrome ore consumed in 1918 being about 104,000 long tons on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide. Had the market for chromite kept up, however, the domestic mines would have supplied a much larger proportion of the requirements in 1919. The consumption of chromite in the United States in 1913 amounted to 65,000 tons of ore containing 50 per cent. chromic oxide. From this it rose to about 127,000 tons in 1917, which represents the maximum annual consumption thus far.

The following table shows the production and imports of chromite on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide, from 1913 to 1918, as well as the total quantity available for consumption for these years. No chromite is exported from the United States.

TABLE 26.--PRODUCTION AND IMPORTS OF CHROMITE, UNITED STATES, 1913-1918

----+-----------+-----------+---------------
| | |Total available
|Production | Imports |for consumption
|(long tons)|(long tons)| (long tons)
----+-----------+-----------+---------------
1913| 230 | 65,180 | 65,410
1914| 530 | 74,578 | 75,108
1915| 2,756 | 73,762 | 76,318
1916| 39,509 | 110,849 | 150,358
1917| 36,729 | 64,978 | 101,707
1918| 66,554 | 92,678 | 159,232
----+-----------+-----------+---------------

The prices paid for domestic chromite in the United States in recent years ranged from an average of $11.19 per ton in 1913 to an average of about $24.00 per ton in 1917.

When the need of increased shipping was felt in the latter part of 1917, steps were taken to reduce the imports of chromite from distant countries, such as Turkey, New Caledonia, and Rhodesia, to increase the imports from nearby sources such as Brazil, Cuba, and Canada, and to urge the maximum production from domestic mines. As a result, the imports of chromite from Brazil were 17,854 long tons of crude ore and from Cuba 8,821 long tons of crude ore in 1918. The only previous production in Cuba was 34 long tons in 1916 and 17 long tons in 1917. Brazil had no production before 1918. The imports from Canada amounted to 20,949 long tons of crude ore in 1918, as compared to 19,021 long tons of crude ore in 1917, and 12,220 long tons of crude ore in 1916. In order to reduce the importation of chromite from countries far overseas, various restrictions were put into effect by the War Trade Board in the early part of 1918.

The development of domestic chromite supplies means the depletion of limited resources, high cost of production, use of lower-grade ores, and lowered efficiency in consumption. With the free access of high-grade foreign ores, the market for domestic ores, therefore, disappears; and the domestic chromite-mining industry can not survive to any large extent. If world conservation of raw materials or the best use of the world’s resources is of chief importance, the domestic chromite-mining industry should be allowed to decline, and cheaper and higher-grade foreign ores should be allowed to replace domestic chromite. Experience during the past few years has shown that the chromite deposits of the United States, supplemented by imports from Canada, Brazil, and Cuba, can largely supply the domestic requirements for a limited period.

The United States controls only a small part of the chromite reserves of the world. American firms own the principal Cuban deposits and control the Brazilian deposits through leases. The United States is, therefore, dependent to a large extent upon the good will of France and England for a continuous supply of chrome ore, these two countries jointly being largely in control of the chromite reserves of Rhodesia and New Caledonia. Turkey controls most, if not all, of the chromite deposits of Asia Minor, but because of their enclosed situation on the Mediterranean, these deposits could not be relied upon as a source of supply in time of need. The same is true of the deposits of the Ural region in Russia.

The chief chromite-consuming firms in the United States are the Electrometallurgical Co., probably the largest producer of ferrochrome in the world; the Mutual Chemical Co., and the National Electrolytic Co., large producers of chromium chemicals, and the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., American Refractories Co., and various steel-making plants, users of chromite for refractory purposes.

=Great Britain.=--Before the war Great Britain consumed annually about 25,000 tons of chromite, most of it being used by Blackwell & Sons, Ltd., for the manufacture of ferrochrome. The ferrochrome made in England, however, is not sufficient to supply the needs of the British steel industry, and much is imported from France.

Except for unimportant occurrences in the Shetland Islands there are no chromite deposits in the British Isles, and Great Britain is therefore dependent entirely upon overseas sources of supply. British colonies, on the other hand, are rich in chromite deposits, and as long as British ships have freedom of movement on the ocean, they will have access to the more important chromite deposits of the world.

Owing to their richness and large size, the most important of all the British-controlled deposits are those of Rhodesia. Only one of many deposits in this area is being operated, and the reserves in untouched ore bodies are undoubtedly large, comparable perhaps with those of New Caledonia.

The production of the Rhodesian chrome mines has in recent years averaged in the neighborhood of 60,000 tons annually or about 35 per cent. of the world’s production, and doubtless the output could be very greatly increased if other known deposits were developed. However, even the present production is more than twice the actual chromite requirements of Great Britain. These requirements, however, do not represent the needs for metallic chromium or chromium compounds, and if France should cease to supply Great Britain with ferrochrome, a much larger amount of the raw material, chromite, would be necessary for the English steel industry.

Besides the chromite deposits of South Africa, chromite deposits of importance are found in other British colonies, notably in British India and Canada. Amounts of chromite varying from 2,000 tons to 10,000 tons have been produced annually in British India for many years, coming mainly from Baluchistan, in the northwestern part, but a small production has come also from Mysore, in the southern part. In early years, India furnished a more important part of the world’s supply of chromite than at present. Transportation is a serious difficulty in the mining of these deposits and when New Caledonian and Rhodesian ores became developed, the Indian ores dropped in importance.

The Canadian deposits, while of considerable extent, and having ready accessibility to eastern American markets, have not been extensively or continuously mined, on account of their low-grade character. By concentration, a medium high-grade product can be obtained, but concentration methods are expensive and bring the cost of the material up to such an extent that it can not compete with other ores now on the market. Thus, the cost of producing both Indian and Canadian ores is such that under normal conditions it is difficult to find a market for them, but in case of necessity, a considerable tonnage can be supplied from these sources.

Other British colonies in which deposits of chromite exist are New South Wales, Tasmania, and New Zealand. As far as known, the deposits in these countries are small and only those of the first have furnished a small production.

Besides controlling chromite deposits in many parts of the world through her colonial possessions, Great Britain controls deposits through British firms with foreign possessions. Thus, the Chrome Co., Ltd., of mixed British and French interests, controls not only the Rhodesian chromite output but also owns and controls most of the important New Caledonian mines.

Great Britain has in the past received most of her supplies of chromite from Rhodesia, New Caledonia, and Turkey. Although more than enough chromite is produced in Rhodesia to supply the British needs, England has allowed most of the Rhodesian ore to be exported to other countries and has imported foreign ore for part of her own needs. Probably the largest part of the Rhodesian output before the war went to the United States. Much of the ore consumed in England has come from Turkey, where English firms have been interested in chromite mining for many years. Most of the Indian output probably has been used in Great Britain, but a part has gone to France.

=France.=--A few deposits of chromite are known in France, but they are of no importance commercially. France, therefore, like England, is entirely dependent upon overseas sources for her chromite supply. Unlike England, however, France has only one colony, New Caledonia, containing important chromite deposits; but luckily this colony contains enough to make it one of the world’s principal sources of chromite.

Although the Chrome Co., Ltd., which controls the principal New Caledonian chromite deposits and is the largest shipper, represents both English and French capital, France through political means can control the output of chromite from the island. While in the past probably the major part of the chromite used in France has come from this source, France has also used Rhodesian and Turkish ores and probably Russian ores to a considerable extent, and much New Caledonian ore has gone to Germany, the United States and Great Britain.

The principal French firms manufacturing ferrochrome are the Société Electrometallurgique Française, at La Praz; Société La New Metallurgie, at Giffre; Société Anonyme Electrometallurgique, at Albertville; Keller, Leleux et Cie, at Livet; Société Electrometallurgique de Saint Beron, at Saint Beron; Ch. Betrolus, at Bellegarde; and Rochette Frères, at Epierre.

=Germany.=--Except for unimportant low-grade deposits in Silesia, Germany has no chromite supplies within her borders. As a user of chromite Germany ranks in importance with France, most of the ore consumed being used in the manufacture of ferrochrome, the principal manufacturers of which have been the Krupp works. Chrome chemicals are also made in abundance, however. None of Germany’s former colonies is known to have chromite deposits except Togoland, and the Togoland deposits are undeveloped and are believed to be unimportant.

In the past, Germany has received chromite from New Caledonia, Rhodesia, Turkey, Greece, and probably Russia. Because of the long rail haul from Russia and the poor state of development of the industry in Turkey, the ores from these two countries were, in the years immediately preceding the war, being largely replaced by ores from overseas. The four large chromite-consuming countries have, therefore, all been looking mainly to New Caledonia and Rhodesia for their sources of supply.

During the war, when overseas chromite was not available, Germany was enabled by her relations with Turkey to obtain chromite from Asia Minor, and probably from chromite mines in Serbia, Hungary, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Thus in time of need, when the usual overseas sources of supply were cut off, Germany, through her relations with neighboring countries, was able to obtain by land sufficient chromite to supply her ordnance requirements. Had the war continued Germany would doubtless have developed the chromite resources of the Urals, and those, together with the deposits of Asia Minor, even in their present state of development, could have kept Germany supplied indefinitely.

It is probable that German control became important in the mines of Asia Minor during the war. By relatively small improvements in transportation facilities, such as building branch railroad lines to the principal deposits, the chromite mines of Asia Minor might be rejuvenated to such an extent as to enable the ores to compete with Rhodesian and New Caledonian ore and to place them again among the world’s large producers. The deposits are large and the reserves rank in importance with those of Rhodesia and New Caledonia.

=Russia.=--Russia is independent as far as her requirements of chromite are concerned. Out of her production of about 20,000 tons annually, the domestic industry consumes less than one-fourth and the rest is available for export to nations less favored with chromite resources.

Most of the chromite used in Russia goes into the manufacture of chrome chemicals. The Russian bichromate works at Elabouga, east of Kazan, established in 1892, have consumed about 2,000 tons of ore annually.

SUMMARY

The political and commercial control of the principal chromite deposits of the world is summarized in the following table:

TABLE 27.--POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF CHROMITE DEPOSITS

Political Predominant
Country control commercial control

New Caledonia French French-British
Rhodesia British British
Asia Minor Turkish Turkish
Ural Mountains, Russia Russian Russian-British
Greece Grecian Uncertain
Serbia Serbian Uncertain
India British Probably British
Canada British United States-Canadian
United States United States United States
Brazil Brazilian United States
Cuba Cuban United States
Japan Japanese Japanese
Austria-Hungary Austrian Uncertain
Guatemala Guatemalan United States

Great Britain and France produce in their colonial possessions chromite enough for their own needs and for export, but the United States, the world’s largest consumer, must depend, except in time of extreme emergency, upon imports, mainly from New Caledonia and Rhodesia.

Various countries have from time to time played important rôles in supplying the world’s demand for chromite. One country after another has been displaced, as cheaper or better grades of chromite came into the market. At times these changes were caused by the finding of larger bodies of higher-grade ores than had previously been mined, and at other times they were caused by cheaply transported ores replacing ores inconveniently situated with reference to centers of consumption.

Thus, at the beginning of the nineteenth century and up to about 1830, the Ural Mountain region of Russia supplied the major part of the world’s requirements for chromite, which were small. About 1830, important discoveries of chromite were made in the eastern United States, particularly in Maryland, and the United States soon displaced Russia as the leading producer of chromite. After this, for many years, the United States continued to lead in chromite production until about 1870, when the domestic deposits gradually approached exhaustion and important deposits discovered in European Turkey and Asia Minor began to be extensively developed.

Asia Minor was the principal chromite-producing country from about 1870 until about the beginning of the twentieth century. The deposits continued to be worked fairly steadily on account of their richness and large size, although they were inconveniently situated with reference to transportation. Only certain deposits, such as those in the Macri and Alexandretta regions, were so near to the coast that the ore could be carried on muleback or by camel to the shipping ports. From the larger deposits, such as Daghardi, the ore had to be transported by animals to railroad stations, often a distance of many miles, and then by rail to the coast. Because of these difficulties, Turkish ore was largely replaced by ore from the important New Caledonian and Rhodesian deposits as soon as those were developed.

In New Caledonia labor is cheap and the deposits are all near the coast. By means of sailing vessels and tramp steamers which charge low rates and often require such heavy materials as chromite for ballast, this ore can be delivered to points of consumption at a relatively small cost. The Rhodesian chromite deposits are not as accessible from the coast, but they are large and rich and the rail freight rates to the shipping port are exceptionally low. For this reason, Rhodesian ore has been able to successfully compete in the market with New Caledonian ore, and these two sources have, therefore, in recent years, jointly supplied most of the requirements of the principal nations for chromite.

During the war, because of abnormal conditions arising from the shortage of shipping facilities, there was considerable uncertainty as to whether it would be possible to supply American consumers of chromite with imported ores. Under the stimulus of much higher prices, the production of chromite in the United States increased from 255 long tons of crude chromite in 1913, to about 82,350 tons in 1918, mainly from California, Washington and Oregon. This production was larger than the annual production of crude ore from any single source (except 82,910 tons from New Caledonia in 1906) since the chromite-mining industry began. This production, of course, could not be continued without a rapid depletion of American chromite reserves, and does not represent a normal development.