Chapter XXVIII: Pyrite and Sulphur

BY A. G. WHITE

USES OF PYRITE AND SULPHUR

Pyrite and sulphur are closely related in their most essential uses, and one material can in many cases be substituted for the other. The largest and most important use of these minerals is in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which is an essential material required for a very wide variety of purposes, including the production of acid phosphate for fertilizer, the manufacture of modern high-power explosives, the refining of petroleum, pickling of iron and steel, and for a vast number of chemical industries. The competition between pyrite and sulphur for this purpose has gone through several stages. With the large-scale development of Italian deposits sulphur was largely used for acid manufacture. As the prices of sulphur were increased it became cheaper to use pyrite, which in many localities then displaced sulphur, for this purpose. With the rapid expansion of the American production, and particularly with the tremendous increase in the capacity of sulphuric acid plants for war purposes, sulphur has again been very largely used for the manufacture of acid. The prospects since the close of the war are that, due to the tremendous capacity of the sulphur mines of the United States, sulphur may continue to compete with pyrite in this use.

Probably the second most important use of these materials is in the manufacture of sulphite wood pulp. In Europe pyrite is largely used for this purpose, while in the United States and Canada sulphur is the principal material used. For every ton of sulphite pulp manufactured, under the best practice, about 250 pounds of sulphur is required. In the United States and Canada about 175,000 tons of sulphur is used annually for this purpose, representing about 50 per cent. of the total sulphur consumption of these countries. There are also a number of other important purposes where sulphur is used rather than pyrite, the most important of which are in the manufacture of agricultural sprays and insecticides, and in the hardening of rubber. Sulphur is a primary ingredient of black powder, and considerable quantities are still used for that purpose. While most of the explosives used in modern warfare require the use of sulphuric acid in their manufacture, they do not use sulphur in its elemental form. There are many other minor chemical uses.

=Substitutes for Sulphur and Pyrite.=--Because of the large deposits of sulphur now available, and of the extent and wide distribution of pyrite deposits, and of the cheapness of both these materials, there are no adequate commercial substitutes for them. The increase of by-product acid, from the copper and zinc smelters and possibly the nickel smelters of Sudbury, might be considered as the most important factors in replacing pyrite and sulphur. As a general thing, the factors of cost and transportation are the governing ones rather than any present or probable scarcity of materials.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PYRITE

While pyrite is a very widely distributed mineral, there are relatively few deposits which are of sufficient importance to enter into the world’s commerce. This is generally due to the relatively small value of its sulphur content per ton, usually from 40 to 45 per cent. of recoverable sulphur; which means that it takes almost 2¹⁄₂ tons of pyrite to be equivalent to the ton of sulphur which competes with it for many uses. Consequently pyrite seldom moves far, unless it is so situated as to take advantage of cheap ballast rates where little other freight is available for ships, or unless it carries important copper or gold values, which can be recovered after the sulphur content has been utilized. Many known deposits, such as those in Mexico and the Western United States, remain undeveloped because of their distance from market. In countries such as Russia, France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, Japan, and the Eastern United States production is absorbed by the local market. Spain and Portugal, the most important source of world supply, are favorably located to ship to near-by European countries or to secure cheap ballast rates to the United States, and in addition much of the ore carries several per cent. of copper.

Norway is second in export, with a high-grade pyrite carrying copper values, which is shipped to Sweden or across the Baltic to near-by countries. Canada ships considerable pyrite to the near-by markets of the United States, the Quebec product having copper values, while the product of Ontario takes advantage of boat shipments on the Great Lakes.

=Spain and Portugal.=--The deposits of Spain and Portugal are the largest and most important in the world, furnishing approximately two-thirds of the world supply. The district is essentially a unit, and the principal deposits occur in a zone extending from Rio Tinto, Spain, to San Domingo, Portugal. The combined annual production of iron and copper pyrites for the two countries is normally almost 4 million metric tons, 90 per cent. of which is furnished by Spain and 10 per cent. by Portugal. About two-thirds of the total output carries copper values, which may be recovered before the pyrite is roasted for its sulphur value or after. When copper is to be recovered at the mine the ore is leached by spreading it out in beds exposed to the weather and frequently stirring it and wetting it down. The copper goes into solution and is precipitated on scrap iron, forming cement copper. The process takes about 3 years and the pyrite residue is shipped as washed ore. The ore is compact and finely crystalline and carries from 48 to 51 per cent. sulphur. Conservative estimates of ore reserves for the district give it from 300 to 400 million tons, or enough to last for one hundred years at the present rate of production. Consequently this district is destined to long remain the chief pyrite-producing center of the world.

The Rio Tinto Co. is the principal producer, contributing about one-third of the total output of the whole district (Spain-Portugal). It is owned by British and French capital. Mining is largely by open-pit methods, and the company employs 25,000 men. The ore carries about 2 per cent. copper, making this company the largest European producer of that metal. The reserves are estimated as 250 to 300 million tons, representing the major part of the whole district. The Rio Tinto Co. furnishes about 60 per cent. of the 1,000,000 tons of Spanish pyrite normally imported by the United States.

The second principal producer is the Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Mines (British), with about one-eighth of the total production. British capital is predominant in the district as a whole, with the balance French and Spanish. Huelva, Spain, is the principal point of export, located from 30 to 40 miles from the mines. Under normal conditions the pyrite moves at cheap ballast rates, and has been sold at from $6 to $7 per long ton (12 to 16 cents per unit of sulphur), delivered in United States ports. Normally this Spain-Portugal district exported one-quarter of its output to the United States, one-eighth to England, one-eighth to Holland, one-eighth to Germany, and most of the balance to France and Belgium.

=Norway and Sweden.=--Norway produces from 400 to 500 thousand tons of pyrite per year (about 8 per cent. of the world’s total), and her output is steadily increasing. The ore usually carries from 1 to 3 per cent. copper and from 42 to 49 per cent. sulphur; and is free from arsenic. Seven-eighths of the output is exported to Sweden, Germany, England and Russia. When Sweden’s import of sulphur (about 40,000 tons) was cut off during the war, she changed the equipment of her cellulose plants to burn pyrite instead of sulphur and took about one-half of the Norwegian output, since her own production of pyrite (about 30,000 tons) was of minor importance.

The Norwegian deposits are widely distributed from south of Bergen to the extreme northern end of the peninsula. The ore is generally massive cupriferous pyrite, occurring in flat lenses in chlorite schists in areas of regional metamorphism. About 250,000 tons comes from the Trondhjem district, where the Lokken mines of the Orkla Mine Co. are the largest producers.

The northern district is second in importance, with about 150,000 tons annual production, chiefly from the Sulitjelma mine at the Swedish frontier, near the Polar Circle. In the eastern district the Fodal Copper & Sulphur Co. has a production of from 75,000 to 100,000 tons. Norway has sufficient known reserves to last for thirty years at the present rate of production and probably for much longer. The largest reserves are in the Trondhjem district. Sweden is also reported to have large reserves, although there has been little development so far.

The commercial control of the mines is principally English and Norwegian. It was reported that mines with large reserves near Narvik were owned by German interests, but were purchased by Swedish interests during the war.

=France.=--For many years France has produced about 300,000 tons of pyrite per annum, or about 5 per cent. of the world output. The principal deposits are at Sain-Bel, near Lyons, in the Department of Rhône. The product is high in sulphur. The known reserves are probably from ten to twelve million tons. The output is used for home consumption, and in the past was supplemented by the import of Spanish pyrite, and Sicilian and United States sulphur.

=Italy.=--In addition to her large sulphur production Italy has produced a considerable quantity of pyrite, which has been used locally in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Pyrite production was about 300,000 tons before the war and increased to 400,000 tons in 1916, so that Italy produces about 6 per cent. of the world output. The pyrite contains about 45 per cent. of sulphur and a small part of it carries copper values. The principal production comes from a district near Florence, although a number of smaller mines are widely scattered.

=Russia.=--Russia has large pyrite deposits located in a belt parallel to the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains. The Kyshtim and Sissert districts furnish the principal output. Reports indicate a good grade of pyrite with high sulphur content. The production has been in the neighborhood of 150,000 tons, or about 2 per cent. of the world total. Production had been steadily increasing up to the time of Russia’s economic collapse, but has been limited, due to the remote location of the deposits from the chief centres of consumption at Petrograd, Moscow, and Odessa. It is to be expected that Russia, after she regains her balance, will continue to import pyrite to a considerable extent, as she has done in the past.

=Germany, Austria and Hungary.=--The pre-war German production was from 200,000 to 250,000 tons of pyrite per annum, or about 4 per cent. of the world output. About two-thirds of the output comes from deposits near Meggen. The pyrite is estimated to run about 43 per cent. sulphur. It is reported that the pyrite output was largely increased during the war, as Germany had been importing from 800,000 to 1,000,000 tons of pyrite. She continued to import some Norwegian pyrite, which is especially desirable because of its recoverable copper content. Germany secures a considerable amount of sulphuric acid as a by-product from zinc smelters, which helped to make up the deficiency in her sulphur resources.

Hungary normally produces about 100,000 tons of pyrite per annum, chiefly from the deposits of Schemnitz.

=Cyprus.=--An important deposit of cupriferous pyrite is under development in an old copper-mining region on the northwest coast of Cyprus. Several million tons of ore are reported, containing a high sulphur content and high copper values. It is being developed on a large scale by the Cyprus Mines Corporation, representing United States capital, and may be expected to become an important factor in pyrite export.

=The United States.=--The pre-war production of the United States was about 350,000 long tons, or 6 per cent. of the world’s production, compared to an import of about 1,000,000 tons. About 40 per cent. of the total was produced in Virginia and largely sold for use in acid-phosphate plants from Maryland to Georgia; about 25 per cent. was produced in California and used for local acid manufacture in the vicinity of San Francisco; about 15 per cent. was produced in New York State; and the balance was scattered, coming as a by-product from coal mines in Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana, and from the zinc-mining region of southern Wisconsin. During the war, production was increased by about 50 per cent., but with no discoveries which promise to greatly increase the permanent production of the country. On the whole the deposits are not of very high quality, averaging about 40 per cent. sulphur content. Very large reserves of pyrrhotite are located in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, but have not been very extensively utilized. Large reserves of pyrite exist in Colorado, Arizona, Utah and other western states, but are too far from the acid plants located in the East and South to compete. On the whole, the scanty development of pyrite in the United States is due to the competition of high-grade Spanish pyrite coming in to the Atlantic ports at cheap ballast rates; to the import of Canadian pyrite either to near-by points in New England or to the Great Lakes ports; to the large production of cheap sulphur from Louisiana and Texas, which has monopolized the sulphite pulp trade; and to the recovery of by-product acid from copper and zinc smelters. The great increase in the production of sulphur during and since the war is very likely still further to curtail the market for pyrite. The production of pyrite has been in the hands of American companies, several of the larger operations being controlled by concerns either in the acid or fertilizer business.

=Canada.=--The production of pyrite in Canada has increased rapidly, particularly during the war, to about 300,000 tons. This is due to an increased export to the United States, principally to sulphuric-acid plants. The principal producing areas in Canada are: (1) The district in Quebec, not far north of the Vermont border, where there are two operating mines and a number of promising prospects. There are large ore reserves and the ore carries considerable copper. The principal mines are controlled by American capital. (2) The Goudreau district, located some 40 miles north of Sault Ste. Marie, has large ore reserves, but of rather low grade. Thus far an American company is the principal producer. (3) The North Pine district near Graham, Ontario, and a considerable distance west of Port Arthur, has been a large producer of good-grade pyrite. The principal producer was a subsidiary company of the General Chemical Co.

There is a large reserve of pyrrhotite, estimated at about 50,000,000 tons, much of which will average over 25 per cent. sulphur, in connection with the Sudbury nickel deposits. At present it is not commercially important. There are considerable deposits of pyrites in various parts of British Columbia, but these are unimportant commercially because of their distance from any available market. The larger part of the Canadian product is controlled by American interests, chiefly the American Chemical Co., whose headquarters are in New York City. A large part of the Canadian output is imported to the United States through Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo; and by rail through Vermont, Boston and to New York City.

=Cuba.=--An important pyrite property is being developed about twenty miles from Cienfuegos, Province of Santa Clara, Cuba. It is reported as containing several million tons of good-grade ore, which will average at least 40 per cent. sulphur and may contain a recoverable copper content. The property is being developed by United States capital, interests connected with the Davison Chemical Corporation, of Baltimore, Md., who are one of the largest producers of sulphuric acid on the Atlantic Coast. This property promises to be an important near-by source of pyrite for the United States.

=Mexico.=--Important pyrite deposits are known to exist in Mexico, but they are of no present commercial importance because of inaccessibility and high freight rates, and unsettled political conditions. A large deposit is reported about 30 miles inland in the State of Guerrero, containing several million tons of high-grade pyrite of approximately 48 per cent. sulphur content and free from arsenic.

There is no prospect that Mexico will be of any immediate importance in the world pyrite situation.

=Japan.=--Japan has a small pyrite production of from 75,000 to 100,000 tons per year, or about 1¹⁄₂ per cent. of the world output. Much of it carries copper values. The production comes from several scattered localities. The state has reserved the ownership of the original mineral rights, and the operators to whom they have been leased appear to be entirely Japanese. Japan consumes her pyrite for local purposes, and exports most of her sulphur.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SULPHUR

=Italy and Sicily.=--Italy had practically a monopoly of the world’s sulphur supply until 1904, when large-scale production began in the United States. The importance of sulphur as a world mineral began with the use of gunpowder in the fourteenth century. Considerable export trade was early developed and has been of increasing importance since 1830. Ninety per cent. of the Italian production has come from the Island of Sicily.

The sulphur-bearing district of Sicily is a central belt running across the island, extending about 100 miles east and west and 50 miles north and south. The richer deposits are scattered as irregular lenses or basin-like bodies, in this extensive area. The deposits of commercial value are of sedimentary type, occurring as stratified beds or sheets in limestone, associated with gypsum and bituminous marl. There are generally three or four sulphur-bearing layers, separated by a few feet of barren rock. The average thickness of the sulphur beds is from 10 to 15 feet, although in a few places they run as high as several hundred feet. The sulphur occurs as incrustations, pockets, or thin bands intimately associated with the limestone. The average sulphur content of the ore mined is from 20 to 25 per cent., with a range from 8 to 50 per cent.; and in a few places it reaches up to 90 per cent. Estimates as to the reserves of ore vary greatly, but seem to indicate that there is from 40 to 60 million tons of ore still unmined, which will average about 23 per cent. of sulphur content.

Mining has been mostly by hand and the ore brought out on the backs of men. A few mines had modern hoisting machinery and trams. The shortage of labor during the war has increased the introduction of modern appliances in some of the newer mines. With increasing depth the cost of mining has increased to the point where American sulphur can compete in European markets.

The methods of extracting the sulphur from the ore have also been extremely crude and wasteful, but in the last few years better types of ovens have been installed, giving a much higher recovery through improved distillation and the use of superheated steam for melting the sulphur.

The sulphur industry of Sicily furnishes a notable example of an attempted commercial control which developed into a governmental control of the industry. The recent history of the industry falls into three periods. The first extends from 1875 to 1895 and is characterized by a rapid increase in production, from 200,000 to 400,000 tons a year, with a corresponding decrease in selling price from $25 a ton to as low as $12 a ton. It was a period of overproduction, due to the ease with which shallow mining could be carried on and to the abundant supply of cheap labor available. These conditions resulted in the development of a great number of small mines, whose competition reduced prices. The second period, from 1896 to 1906, begins with the formation of the Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Co., financed by English capital, which entered into a five-year agreement with the principal producers, which was later extended for an additional five years. It was primarily a marketing organization, formed by the union of Italian and English interests to control production, stabilize the industry, and maintain prices. It eventually controlled from 75 to 85 per cent. of the industry. All sulphur was purchased at about $16 per ton f.o.b. ship and the selling price remained practically stable during the ten-year period, at an average of $18 to $19 per ton. In spite of efforts to restrict production, the annual output reached 550,000 tons during most of this period. At the same time the higher prices maintained for sulphur had stimulated the use of pyrite as a substitute. In order to maintain prices under these conditions the excess production had to be purchased and stored, so that in 1906 a stock of over 500,000 tons of sulphur had been accumulated in Sicily. Toward the end of this period large-scale production began in the United States (1904). In 1903 the United States produced less than 10,000 tons of sulphur and was Italy’s best customer, buying over 170,000 tons in that year. Within three years the United States was producing more than enough to supply its own needs and was accumulating a large reserve stock. The sudden loss of the American market and the threat of competition in other markets brought on a crisis in the Sicilian industry, which was intensified by the large number (30,000) of people employed in the industry. At the termination of the agreement with the Anglo-Sicilian company (July 31, 1906) steps were taken by the Italian government to control the situation. The third period, from 1906 to the present, is one of government intervention and control of the industry. All the producers were compelled to join a company called the “Consorzia Obbligatoria per l’Industria Solfiefera Siciliana,” organized under a law passed in the Italian Parliament. The organization was managed by a commission appointed by the government, and had complete control over exports and prices. All sulphur had to be sold at fixed price to this organization. A minimum interest was guaranteed on the capital invested; local freight rates on sulphur for export were reduced; sulphur stocks accumulated by the Anglo-Sicilian company were taken over; and a campaign of price-cutting was started in the American market, which resulted in a decrease of several dollars a ton in the selling price of sulphur. A market agreement was soon reached and prices recovered. A number of the smaller mines closed down and a law was passed controlling and restricting the granting of new concessions. Production declined to 350,000 tons in 1913. At the opening of the war the principal United States producer was preparing to enter into more active competition with Italian sulphur, particularly in the French markets. As a result of the war, Italian production dropped to only 180,000 tons in 1917, largely due to labor shortage; about half of the surplus stocks were used up, leaving only 160,000 tons on hand at the end of 1917; and prices increased so that refined sulphur sold at about $80 per ton and inferior grades at $55 per ton, f.o.b. Sicilian ports. The increasing cost of producing sulphur, due to deeper mining and increased labor costs, will make it difficult to compete in the European markets with the greatly expanded production of the cheaper American article.

Sulphur has been produced in several districts in the Italian peninsula, particularly Romagna, Marches, Campania and Calabria. The yield from these districts has been decreasing in recent years and has generally been only from 25,000 to 30,000 tons. The sulphur content of the ores ranges from 20 to 30 per cent. The deposits are of limited extent and are being mined at greater depths. The production has been largely used for local agricultural purposes, in preparations for use against vine diseases.

=The United States.=--Until 1904, the production of sulphur in the United States was considerably less than 10,000 tons per year and the bulk of our requirements had to be met by import from Sicily. From 1904 to 1914 the United States produced enough for its own use and at the end of this period was supplying Canada, had begun to actively enter the French and German market, and in addition had accumulated a reserve stock, in the hands of the producers, of approximately one million long tons. Figures recently made public in connection with litigation over patent rights show that half of this stock was accumulated in a single year, 1912, when production reached 790,000 long tons, of which only 300,000 tons was marketed and the balance of 490,000 tons went into storage. The United States production has exceeded that of Italy since 1912, although the sales have been less, because sulphur was being withdrawn from stocks in Italy while stocks in the United States were being increased. The net effect of the war was a four-fold increase in the amount of sulphur sold in the United States, without any reduction in stocks; while in Italy production fell off 50 per cent. and stocks on hand were reduced by the same percentage.

From 98 to 99 per cent. of the United States production has come from the Gulf Coast region of the states of Louisiana and Texas. A number of other localities in West Texas, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Nevada have surface deposits, usually of limited extent, which have been worked on a small scale, but have declined in importance with the development of the better-grade and more accessible deposits of the Gulf Coastal region.

The occurrence of sulphur in the Gulf Coast region is in connection with a peculiar formation known as “Saline Domes” or “Mounds.” Over twenty of these domes have been located, scattered in an area 200 miles long, extending through western Louisiana and eastern Texas, and generally within 50 miles of the Gulf of Mexico. Commercial deposits of petroleum, sulphur, and salt have been developed in connection with these domes, but so far not more than one of the minerals has been developed to commercial degree in a single dome. Sulphur was discovered when drilling was being carried on for oil. So far, three domes have been developed for sulphur, namely that owned by the Union Sulphur Co. at Sulphur, La. (1903), that owned by the Freeport Sulphur Co. at Freeport, Texas (1912), and that of the Texas-Gulf Sulphur Co. near Matagordo, Texas (1919). Two other domes are under exploration and a number of others may possibly contain sulphur.

The sulphur occurs at a depth of 300 to 1,200 feet and is associated with limestone and underlain by gypsum. The surface area of the producing domes varies from 200 to 1,500 acres. Exploration is done by drilling at a cost of $200,000 to $300,000, and the cost of a complete plant is several million dollars. The sulphur cannot be mined by shafts, due to the quicksands and the poisonous gases encountered. The deposit at Sulphur, Louisiana, remained unworked for almost 40 years after its discovery before a satisfactory process was developed to mine it. This is known as the “Frasch Process” and consists of the sinking of wells to the sulphur deposit, each well being lined with a 10 to 12 in. pipe. Smaller pipes are placed inside, so that superheated water can be brought in contact with the sulphur ore, which is melted and forced to the surface by compressed air. The sulphur on cooling is ready for market and is over 99 per cent. pure. Each of the three plants in operation is equipped with a boiler capacity of over 20,000 h.p. for superheating the water, and requires about a million and a quarter barrels of fuel oil per year. The origin of these domes is believed to be due to deep-seated igneous intrusions, resulting in the alteration of gypsum and the crystallization of salt and sulphur, which has caused an upbowing of the strata. Because of the nature of the formation and the irregularity of the deposits it is impossible to accurately estimate the reserves of sulphur.

With the addition of two new plants since 1912, the United States now has a sulphur-producing capacity of about 1¹⁄₄ million tons per year, or four times the normal sales before the war. If an outlet is to be found for this excess sulphur, it must compete with pyrite in the domestic market or with Sicilian sulphur in the European markets. In the latter part of 1919 prices of $14 to $15 per ton f.o.b. mines were quoted, which indicated that an effort was being made to secure part of the acid trade which formerly used pyrite.

There is no element of political control in the United States sulphur industry, beyond the temporary measures taken during the war in licensing export and allocation of consumption. The commercial control is entirely in the hands of American companies. The Union Sulphur Co. has been endeavoring to prevent the use of the improved “Frasch Process” by the other companies which are competing with it. If the claim of infringement of patent rights should be sustained, it would give the Union company control of the situation similar to that which it had before the development of the two newer companies, and might result in the restriction of output and maintenance of prices.

=Japan.=--Japan takes third rank in the production of sulphur, although it is of minor importance, compared to either the United States or Italy. The production of sulphur in Japan has slowly increased from 15,000 long tons in 1900 to 60,000 tons in 1913, or about 7 per cent. of the world output. The domestic consumption is very small and about 90 per cent. of the output was exported, chiefly to Australia, the west coast of the United States and Canada, and to China and India. During the war the output increased to a maximum of about 100,000 tons, but in 1918 production was considerably curtailed by the great advance in freight rates to Australia, which had been purchasing about one-half of the Japanese output.

The sulphur occurs in surface deposits of limited extent and seldom reaches 100 feet in thickness. The deposits are generally of the solfataric type and occur in the numerous areas of volcanic activity. The majority of the productive areas are nearly circular in outline, and indicate that they were formed by deposition in crater lakes. In some cases they are stratified and overlain by fine brown clayey or tufaceous material derived partly from the surrounding rocks and partly from the sulphur itself. Other deposits of minor importance may have been produced by impregnation. The ore mined runs from 50 to 60 per cent. sulphur. Deposits below 40 per cent. sulphur are seldom worked.

Approximately two-thirds of the production has come from the southwestern section of the Island of Hokkaido. Four mines average about 10,000 tons production each per year, and the remainder of the production comes from 10 to 12 smaller operations, ranging from the vicinity of Mount Daiton, in Taiwan (Formosa), to the Kurile Islands.

There is no accurate estimate of ore reserves available. One of the most important mines was estimated as containing several million tons of 50 per cent. ore. The reserves are probably sufficient to maintain present production for many years. The lack of shipping facilities has handicapped production, and there seems little likelihood that the relative importance of Japan in the sulphur industry will increase to any great extent.

The sulphur mines are all operated by Japanese. The state reserves the right of original ownership of all minerals, except a few placer deposits. Right of working is granted to Japanese companies or individuals according to priority of application. The mining law, however, acknowledges the rights of any corporation organized by aliens under Japanese law.

=Great Britain.=--Great Britain has an estimated annual by-product recovery of from 30,000 to 40,000 tons of elemental sulphur. The process of recovery is known as the Chance-Claus process, and is applied in connection with the Le Blanc soda process. It is based upon the decomposition of calcium sulphate in vat waste by means of carbon dioxide, and the recovery of sulphur from the sulphuretted hydrogen gas thus generated.

=Other Countries.=--The production of sulphur outside of the United States, Italy and Japan is of minor importance.

Northern _Chile_ has a small production of sulphur from the volcanoes of Tacora and Chupiquina. The reserves are estimated as quite large, but the high elevation (14,000 to 20,000 ft.) and poor transportation have restricted production to local uses in the vineyard districts of Chile. The production as reported had gradually increased to about 6,000 tons in 1913 and is reported to have doubled since then.

_Spain_ produces about 10,000 tons of sulphur annually, from low-grade deposits located in the neighborhood of Almeria. The larger figures often reported are in terms of low-grade ore mined.

_Austria_ is credited with a production of from 10 to 15 thousand tons of crude sulphur ore, probably representing only 2 or 3 thousand tons of actual sulphur.

The largest sulphur mine in _Mexico_ is located at Cerritos, 25 miles south of Guadalcazar, San Luis Potosi. Fifteen years ago it was purchased by an American company, the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co. It was later leased to German interests. The small output of a few thousand tons was shipped to Germany before the war. There are a number of deposits in San Luis Potosi in addition to the one at Cerritos.

It has been reported several times that a British company was about to operate the sulphur deposits of the Mexican volcano, Popocatepetl, near Mexico City. Statements regarding the deposits in the volcano are conflicting, but investigations indicate that their magnitude has been much exaggerated. Many other deposits occur in connection with local volcanic areas, but so far are of little economic value because of inaccessibility.

There are a number of deposits of sulphur in the Aleutian Islands (_Alaska_), probably containing considerable sulphur, but partially covered by glaciers and difficult of access. It is doubtful whether they could be developed in the face of the competition of the cheap sulphur from the coastal plain district of the United States.

CHANGES IN PRACTICE

No very far-reaching changes in practice are likely to occur in the near future. The exhaustion of the surface sulphur deposits in Italy and the necessity for deep mining is making necessary improvement and installation of more modern methods there. Improved methods in the refining of sulphur are also being installed whereby the losses under the old _calcarone_ method will be largely eliminated. The consumption of sulphur for sulphite wood pulp can be considerably reduced by the general utilization of the improved practice which is already used by the best plants. In localities where pyrite is available this material may be used in the pulp industry to replace sulphur. In case competition develops between the three large sulphur companies in the United States, and the price of sulphur is considerably reduced, it may result in the use of this material to a larger extent in the sulphuric-acid industry. The sulphur burners can be installed much more quickly and cheaply than the furnaces required to roast pyrite, and after once being installed the amount of labor and care required in their operation is less. The increased recovery of sulphuric acid as a by-product from copper and zinc smelters will probably represent an increasing factor in competition with acid made either from pyrite or sulphur. The further increase of this source in the United States is handicapped by the location of many of the copper smelters in the west, at long distances from the market for sulphuric acid, which is largely in the eastern and southern states. New processes are being experimented with, for the production of elementary sulphur from these sulphur fumes. If these are successful on a large scale, material from this source may supply any future markets located in the west, and might compete with the Japanese sulphur which has formerly been imported in our Pacific Coast States.

POLITICAL CONTROL OF SULPHUR AND PYRITE

The political control of the important sulphur deposits of the world primarily corresponds to the countries in which they are located. In the case of the United States, the deposits are controlled by private companies. As a strictly war measure, control was exercised over the allocation and distribution of the output. In Italy the government had assumed control of the output and marketing of sulphur. This was largely brought about by the competition of American sulphur and the consequent depression of the Italian industry. In 1906 what was known as the Consorzia Obbligatoria was organized under a law passed by the Italian Parliament, which provided that this company should be administered by a royal commissioner appointed by the Italian government. Under this law producers were obliged to sell their output to this company, which had control of prices and exports. In 1910 restrictions on the granting of new concessions were made. The arguments recently presented for the continuance of government control were the increasing foreign competition, the large war increase in United States production, the minor increase of Japanese production and the possibilities of developments in northern Africa. The intent of this governmental control of the industry is to combine and regulate the efforts of individual producers in order to effectively meet future competition.

COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF SULPHUR AND PYRITE

Before 1906 the Italian deposits were largely controlled by the Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Co., representing English capital, but since that time, when the Italian government undertook to control the industry, the commercial control has been primarily Italian.

In the United States the commercial control of sulphur output is in the hands of three companies, one of which started producing just about the time of the outbreak of the European war and another whose production was just beginning in 1919. So far as is known, there is no combination among these three interests. The Union Sulphur Co., which was the first and principal producer, controls certain patents covering the “Frasch Process.” During the war period an agreement was entered into by which alleged infringement of patents was not pushed. Since the close of the war it remains to be seen to what extent the patent rights involved may affect the production of the other two companies, the Freeport and the Texas Gulf, which in general use a similar process.

The production of sulphur in Japan is commercially controlled by Japanese interests.

An American company, the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co., owns a sulphur deposit in Mexico, which was leased, before the war, to German interests. Several other deposits in Mexico and South America were reported as controlled by German interests, but thus far the production from all these sources has been relatively of minor importance and there is no immediate prospect of any great change.

The significant factor of commercial control in the pyrite situation is the large investment of British capital in the Spanish deposits and to a less extent the investment of French capital. United States capital controls the principal pyrite developments in Canada, Cuba, Mexico and Cyprus. English, French and Swedish capital is invested in Norway.

POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL POWERS

The _United States_ is the most favorably situated of any nation in its supply of sulphur. In the years preceding the European war it produced about one-half the world’s supply. Since that time its production has increased several fold and it is now the dominating factor in the world situation.

The relative position of _Italy_, which was formerly of equal importance with the United States, is declining. Her cost of production is increasing, and American sulphur will enter into keen competition with the European markets. The resources of _Japan_ are comparatively small and the larger part of her production has been exported. The post-war conditions will probably curtail the markets for Japanese sulphur, and there is no likelihood of any increase in Japan’s position. England, France and Germany must primarily rely upon other countries for their supply of both pyrite and sulphur. _England_ secures a part of her sulphur supply from a by-product source known as the Chance-Claus process, which produces from 30 to 40 thousand tons annually. In addition she secures large amounts of pyrite from Spain. _France_ produces some local pyrite, but imports large quantities of this material from Spain; and before the outbreak of the war was securing increasing amounts of sulphur from the United States. _Germany_ and _Austria_ have some resources in pyrite and probably had considerable stocks of sulphur at the opening of the war. It has been stated that in order to secure her needs of these materials Germany was forced to use expensive processes, to reduce the sulphur content of gypsum, to expand her pyrite production, and to increase the output of smelter acid. Under normal conditions she will probably have to return to imports of pyrite from Norway and Sweden, or sulphur from the United States and Italy.