Chapter IV: Diseases and Pests of Fowls

Abscesses.
Abnormal eggs (see Oviduct diseases).
Air under skin (see Emphysema).
Air sac mite (see Mites, air sac).
Anæmia.
Apoplexy.
Aspergillosis.
Atrophy of liver (see Liver diseases).
Bacterial enteritis (see Diarrhea)
Baldness (see Favus).
Biliary repletion (see Jaundice).
Blackhead of turkeys.
Breakdown.
Broken limbs (see Fractures).
Bronchitis.
Brooder pneumonia.
Bumblefoot.
Cancer (see Liver diseases and Ovary diseases).
Canker (see Diphtheria).
Catarrh (see Cold).
Catarrh, contagious (see Roup).
Catarrh of crop.
Catarrh of stomach (see Gastritis).
Chicken pox.
Cholera.
Cloacitis.
Coccidiosis of adult fowls.
Coccidiosis of chickens (see Brooder pneumonia).
Coccidiosis of turkeys (see Blackhead).
Cold.
Congestion of the liver (see Liver diseases).
Congestion of the lungs (see Pneumonia).
Conjunctivitis (see Roup).
Constipation.
Cramp.
Crop-bound.
Crop, soft (see Soft crop).
Crop, Catarrh of.
Depluming mite.
Diarrhea, bacterial.
Diarrhea, mycotic.
Diarrhea, protozoan.
Diarrhea, simple.
Diarrhea, severe.
Diarrhea, white.
Diphtheria.
Diphtheritic roup.
Dislocations (see Fractures).
Dropsy.
Dysentery.
Egg-bound.
Egg-eating.
Emphysema.
Enlargement of heart (see Heart, diseases of).
Enlargement of liver (see Liver diseases).
Enlargement of kidneys (see Kidney diseases).
Enteritis (see Diarrhea).
Entero-hepatitis (see Blackhead).
Epilepsy.
Fatty degeneration.
Favus.
Feather-eating.
Fits (see Epilepsy).
Fleas.
Fowl typhoid.
Fractures.
Frost bite.
Gangrenous Ovary (see Ovary diseases).
Gapes.
Gastritis.
Going light (see Anæmia).
Gout.
Grippe (see Cold).
Heart, diseases of.
Heart, dropsy of.
Heart, enlargement of.
Heart, rupture.
Hypertrophy of the liver (see Liver diseases).
Impaction of the crop (see Crop-bound).
Indigestion.
Influenza (see Cold).
Jaundice.
Kidney diseases.
Leg weakness.
Leukemia (see Cholera).
Lice.
Limber-neck.
Liver diseases.
Lungs, congestion of (see Pneumonia).
Maggots.
Mites, air sac.
Mites, depluming.
Mites, red.
Mites, scaly leg (see Scaly leg).
Molting.
Nodular tæniasis (see Worms).
Ovary diseases.
Oviduct diseases.
Peritonitis.
Pip.
Pneumonia.
Poisoning.
Prolapse of oviduct (see Oviduct diseases).
Puffed skin (see Emphysema).
Pyæmia.
Rheumatism.
Roup.
Scabies (see Mites, depluming).
Scaly leg.
Soft crop.
Sore head (see Chicken pox).
Ticks.
Tuberculosis.
Vertigo (see Apoplexy).
White comb (see Favus).
White diarrhea of chickens.
Worms.

ABSCESSES

_Not a common poultry complaint_

_Symptoms._ The flesh becomes inflamed and swollen and forms a “head” containing pus.

_Cause._ A scratch or a small injury followed by inflammation due to pus-forming organisms.

_Treatment._ Lance the abscess when “ripe” with a clean, sharp knife, cutting low so that the sore may drain readily. Squeeze out the pus; wash with 1% carbolic acid or creolin and dress with creolin and sweet oil (half and half) until healed.

The most common abscess is that which forms on the pad of the foot and develops into bumblefoot.

ANÆMIA, OR GOING LIGHT

_A condition that should incite the poultryman to investigate the
cause_

_Symptoms._ Birds lose weight, or ”go light,” without any apparent reason.

_Cause._ A general lack of thriftiness in the flock may be due to insufficient or poor food, to lack of exercise, or to bad ventilation of houses; lice or mites may be infesting the birds. On the other hand, birds may gradually lose weight as the result of some such disease as tuberculosis (see page 90}, aspergillosis (see page 29), or worms (see page 94).

_Treatment._ Make any changes in feeding or management that may appear desirable. Search at night for mites or lice on the birds; in the daytime examine the straw in nest boxes, the roosts, and the cracks and crevices of the woodwork for parasites. Much time may often be saved in discovering what is wrong with the flock by killing one or more of the affected birds and making a post-mortem examination to discover if a specific disease is the cause.

APOPLEXY

_Not a common trouble_

_Symptoms._ Staggering gait and bewildered appearance; bird generally drops dead suddenly.

_Cause._ Attributed to high feeding or over-laying.

_Treatment._ There is usually no time for treatment, but if the attack is mild, put the bird in a dark place and give no food for a few hours; give a dose of Epsom salts and add green food to diet. Bleeding from under a wing is sometimes tried.

_Post-mortem examination_ shows clotted blood on the brain, the other organs being normal.

The name vertigo is applied to congestion of the brain as distinct from apoplexy due to hemorrhage of the brain. The fowl has fits. It is difficult to distinguish this disease from epilepsy (see page 55). The cause is little understood.

ASPERGILLOSIS

_A disease that exists more commonly than is usually suspected, and is
the cause of the death of large numbers of young chickens_

_Symptoms._ Fowls gradually lose weight, mope, and die without any pronounced ailment except difficulty in breathing. In adults the disease may be mistaken for tuberculosis and in chickens for white diarrhea. Aspergillosis of chickens is dealt with under brooder pneumonia. Post-mortem symptoms are whitish or yellowish growths on the windpipe, that can only be definitely diagnosed under the microscope.

_Cause._ A fungoid growth in the windpipe and bronchial tubes, sometimes extending to the lungs and liver. Fig. 8 shows the spores and filaments of the species of aspergillosis most commonly responsible for this disease. Infection may be due to musty grain or dirty straw.

_Treatment._ No medicines are of any avail. Protection lies in not using musty grain or moldy litter. Burn dead birds.

BLACKHEAD OF TURKEYS

_A very serious disease, making the successful rearing of turkeys
difficult and in some cases impossible_.

_Symptoms._ Young turkeys, or poults, are most commonly attacked; there is loss of weight and loss of appetite; the bird appears listless and stands by itself with drooping wings and tail. Diarrhea is generally one of the symptoms. The comb often turns a dark purple—a symptom that has given rise to the name blackhead. Death generally follows an attack fairly rapidly, but in some cases the disease may take a chronic form, while it is believed that recovery is occasionally effected.

_Post-mortem symptoms._ The cæca (see Fig. 32) are enlarged, are diseased in parts, and are more or less plugged with cheesy matter and pus. The liver is diseased, being sometimes very much enlarged and covered with yellowish necrotic areas, generally depressed in the centre (see Fig. 24_d_). In cases of an acute attack, especially in young birds, one of the cæca only may be affected and the liver may not be invaded. The extent of the necrotic areas and the degree of the enlargement of the infected organs may vary greatly in different cases.

_Cause._ The cause of blackhead has been shown by Drs. Cole and Hadley to be a coccidium. A full account of their work is published in Bulletin 141 of the Rhode Island Experiment Station. Coccidia enter the digestive tract of the healthy turkey by means of food or water infected by the excrement of a sick bird. The organisms pass along the alimentary canal until they reach the cæca, the lining of which they attack, giving rise to the conditions mentioned under post-mortem symptoms. How the infection spreads from the cæca to the liver is not clear.

It has been conclusively proved that fowls, as well as pigeons, sparrows, etc., act as hosts for these parasites. Although adult fowls have a great degree of resistance themselves, they are a means of carrying infection to turkeys.

Eggs may be one of the means of spreading the disease, as they may become contaminated in the oviduct or the cloaca of birds affected with blackhead.

_Treatment._ No remedy or satisfactory method of prevention has been discovered. The difficulty of effecting a cure is obvious when the nature of the disease is considered. Drs. Cole and Hadley summarize measures of prevention as follows:

1. Protect the yards and flocks which may have the good fortune to be uninfected with the blackhead organism by a thorough examination of all new stock, whether turkeys, fowls, geese or other domestic birds.

2. Keep the turkeys on grounds which are as fresh as can be obtained, and above all, keep them isolated from fowls and other domestic birds.

3. Keep every turkey in the flock under close observation in order to separate and at once isolate any bird which gives evidence of the disease. To facilitate such observations it is helpful to leg-band each individual, and to record its weight from time to time. Such a course makes it possible to learn whether any birds are losing weight, and if this is the case, these birds must be regarded with suspicion, and separated from the rest of the flock.

4. If it is known that blackhead is present in any of the poultry, the yard should be kept free from English sparrows, and the poultry houses and grain boxes from rats and mice, which have been shown to carry the causative organism.

5. When it is desired to fatten birds for the market, begin to increase the rations gradually. Never attempt to fatten birds which, in successive weighings, show a loss of weight. Overfeeding does not cause blackhead, but frequently causes the sudden death of birds in which blackhead is present.

6. When birds have died of blackhead, their bodies should be promptly burned or buried in order to prevent the dissemination of the coccidia, either through the ravages of rats or skunks, or consequent to the natural processes of decay.

BREAKDOWN

_Not often seen in the poultry yard_

_Symptoms._ The abdomen becomes enlarged, hangs down at the back, and sometimes touches the ground.

_Cause._ Old layers are generally affected. The cause may be the strain of heavy laying, or may in cases be due to too much internal fat.

_Treatment._ No satisfactory treatment can be recommended and the bird had best be killed. Such birds should not be used for breeding purposes.

BRONCHITIS (CROUP)

_Not very common_

_Symptoms._ Bronchitis may be distinguished by the rattling in the throat of the bird affected and by the rapid breathing and cough. The rattling is due to mucus in the inflamed bronchial tubes. In bad cases, birds mope, refuse to eat, and soon die.

_Cause._ Bronchitis may develop from an ordinary cold, or may be due to sudden changes of temperature, or to exposure to rain, cold, and damp.

_Treatment._ Keep affected bird away from drafts and in a warm place; dose with Epsom salts (see page 9) and give soft food, e. g., bread, bran, and middlings, with milk. Wine of ipecacuanha has been recommended for cases in which breathing is very difficult owing to excessive inflammation.

BROODER PNEUMONIA

_A very serious disease, causing the death of many chickens_

_Symptoms._ Chickens affected stand by themselves with roughened plumage. There is a whitish diarrhea, and this disease can easily be mistaken for white diarrhea. (See page 92.) Post-mortem examination will show yellowish spots on the lungs, on the walls of the air sacs, and on the liver and other organs, due to infection by the aspergillus fungus. (See page 29.)

_Cause._ Infection by a species of the aspergillus fungus, the spores of which are probably inhaled. This fungus is common. The spores may be in the straw used for nests or for litter, or in the food, especially if it is at all moldy.

_Treatment._ There is no cure for an affected chicken, and the poultryman must aim at prevention. Vigorous sanitary measures are imperative. Clean straw or excelsior should be used for nests; eggs for hatching should be disinfected by wiping with 80% alcohol; incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected.

BUMBLEFOOT

_Not serious if treated early_

_Symptoms._ Lameness with swelling on pad of foot.

_Cause._ Injury to sole of foot, developing into an abscess. Heavy birds are more subject than light ones to bumblefoot, especially if made to roost on perches that are too high.

_Treatment._ Paint with iodine. Lance the abscess if it is sufficiently advanced. Lower perches. Birds under treatment should have their feet bandaged, and should be put on deep straw to prevent further injury while the wounds are healing. Not serious if taken in hand promptly.

CATARRH OF THE CROP

_Not a common trouble_

_Symptoms._ Distention of crop with soft pasty matter of a more or less offensive character.

_Cause._ Eating stale, putrifying food or some poisonous matter.

_Treatment._ Empty the bird’s crop by holding the head downwards and gently pressing the contents out through the mouth. Feed sparingly on soft food.

CHICKEN POX OR SORE HEAD

_An infectious disease that causes considerable loss among chickens
and young birds in warm climates_

_Symptoms._ Small, scabby, wart-like growths and eruptions on the head, especially on the comb and the wattles and around the eyes—in bad cases extending to the lids and even the mouth. Chickens and young birds are most commonly attacked by this disease, which spreads rapidly.

_Cause._ The specific organism has not been definitely determined. Chicken pox may be started by the introduction of an infected bird, and mosquitoes and other insects are suspected of being agents in its spread.

_Treatment._ Prompt treatment may be very successful. Isolate affected birds. Apply tincture of iodine, first scraping off the scabs. Creolin 2%, or other disinfectants, may be used instead of iodine. Dirty coops are a contributing cause, and cleanliness of chicken runs and houses is important. Disinfect soil (see page 13) and woodwork (see page 12) regularly and with extra care when the first cases are noticed. When roupy lesions develop, as is sometimes the case, treat as for roup. (See page 83.)

CHOLERA

_A serious and epidemic form of diarrhea for which no remedy is known_

_Symptoms._ Fowls die suddenly with apparently little reason. There are symptoms of diarrhea and examination shows that the feces are a bright yellow or green instead of the normal color. Before death, fowls have fever and may be seen moping and showing evidences of distress. For post-mortem symptoms see page 112.

_Cause._ A contagious disease, due to bacteria, that, owing to infection of soil and drinking water by birds suffering from the disease, spreads rapidly through a flock. It is often introduced by the purchase of an infected bird that appears at the time of purchase to be well.

_Treatment._ Prevention by strict sanitary measures is what must be aimed at. It is believed that no cure is known for genuine cases of cholera. Isolate all new birds brought into the flock, especially when cases of cholera are reported in the neighborhood. The bodies of birds that have died of this disease are best burnt without delay. The germ of cholera appears to be both persistent and easily spread, and too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of preventing its introduction, failing that, of quickly stamping it out. The sacrifice of a few birds to prevent the spread of the disease will be well repaid, for it has been necessary on occasions to kill a whole flock. In some cases it has been found best to move unaffected birds to new quarters.

Fowl typhoid, or leukemia, is a disease of the blood that may be mistaken for cholera. The poultryman must treat it in the same way.

CLOACITIS OR VENT-GLEET

_Not a common disease_

_Symptoms._ Frequent small discharges of excrement and unsuccessful efforts to discharge when the cloaca (Fig. 32) is empty, the mucous membrane of which becomes hot and inflamed. These symptoms are soon followed by an offensive discharge.

_Cause._ A specific disease transmitted from hen to hen by the agency of the cock.

_Treatment._ Immediately isolate affected hens; syringe out cloaca twice daily with 2% creolin; give mild purgative and put on soft food. Males likely to be affected should be examined, and diseased birds killed.

_Caution._ The hands should be carefully cleansed and disinfected, as a serious inflammation will result if the eyes are rubbed with infected hands. This is a troublesome and risky disease to treat.

COCCIDIOSIS OF ADULT FOWLS

_The germ of this disease does not usually affect adult fowls
seriously, but causes severe losses among chickens and turkeys_

_Symptoms._ The external symptoms are not very pronounced; there is loss of weight and in some cases diarrhea. The disease may last for a long time and birds may even recover. A post-mortem examination shows the walls of the cæca thickened and filled with a pasty mass, while characteristic whitish or yellowish spots (see Fig. 24, _d_) are found in the liver.

_Cause._ This disease is due to the same germ (a coccidium) that causes blackhead in turkeys. Adult fowls occasionally develop this disease, but appear to be able, as a rule, to act as a host for the germs without being themselves affected, although heavy losses occur among turkeys or chickens that get the germ from them.

_Treatment._ Copperas in the drinking water (three grains to a quart) has been recommended, together with the occasional use of calomel in one-grain doses, or one or two teaspoonfuls of castor oil. Thorough disinfection (see page 10) of houses and runs, etc., where affected fowls have been, is important. Burn the bodies of birds that die of the disease.

COLD (SIMPLE CATARRH)

_Dangerous, because it may be confused with the early stages of roup_

_Symptoms._ Discharge from the nostrils and the eyes, with occasional fits of sneezing; loss of appetite, and moping.

_Cause._ Cold and damp. Colds most frequently occur in wet weather and among poorly housed and poorly fed stock.

_Treatment._ Warm housing and protection from cold and wet. Give quinine—one grain to an adult fowl. Many believe in dosing fowls suffering from colds with red pepper given in the food. When there are signs of stuffiness, the eyes and the nostrils should be washed out once or twice daily. Carbolic acid 2%, or boric acid, about 3%, dissolved in water, is recommended for this purpose. Witch hazel has been found very effective.

_Caution._ There is a risk of mistaking the early stages of roup for a simple cold. Further, birds are more likely to contract roup when suffering from a cold, and should, on this account, be isolated and regularly examined.

_Influenza._ The term influenza, or grippe, is generally applied to a severe cold that has no symptoms of roup.

CONSTIPATION

_Not common and seldom serious_

_Symptoms._ The bird suffering is dull and listless. Its efforts to evacuate are painful and unsuccessful.

_Cause._ Internal blocking of the cloaca or the intestines, or, occasionally, of the vent by dirt accumulated on the outside. Want of exercise and lack of green food are held to be contributing causes.

_Treatment._ If constipation is due to dirt on the outside, cleanse vent by swabbing with warm water. When stoppage is inside and can be felt through the vent syringe with sweet oil. In other cases, give a purgative such as castor oil or Epsom salts. If worms are suspected as the cause, give santonin (see page 9), followed by a teaspoonful of castor oil.

CRAMP

_Must not be confused with more serious complaints_

_Symptoms._ Difficulty in standing and lameness, due to inflammation of muscles and joints.

_Cause._ Damp and cold.

_Treatment._ Put legs of bird in warm water; rub joints with embrocation and put in dry quarters.

NOTE—In cases of rheumatism, tick fever, and tuberculosis, birds may show the same difficulty in standing that they do in cramp.

CROP-BOUND (IMPACTION OF CROP)

_Not serious, as a rule_

_Symptoms._ The crop is hard and swollen.

_Cause._ The blocking of the passage from the crop to the gizzard by a bit of stick or a stone, with the result that the food cannot pass out of the crop.

_Treatment._ Pour sweet oil down fowl’s throat; work the crop with the fingers, endeavoring to remove the obstructing object. If unsuccessful, cut open the crop and remove the contents, making sure that the opening into the gizzard is clear. Sew up the cut made, stitching separately first the inner skin and then the outer.

DIARRHEA OR ENTERITIS

_May take a serious and epidemic form_

Diarrhea is a common complaint among fowls, and in some cases takes a severe and epidemic form. The latter form may be due to various causes, and it will be best, perhaps, to deal with diarrhea under the following heads:

1. Mild diarrhea.
2. Epidemic and severe diarrhea.
3. Dysentery. (See page 52.)
4. Cholera. (See page 39.)
5. White diarrhea of chickens. (See page 92.)

_Mild Diarrhea_.

_Symptoms._ Looseness of bowels and staining of feathers around the anus with excreta.

_Cause._ Indigestion caused by food which may be too laxative; e. g., excess of bran, or, by food which may be partly decomposed or may contain an intestinal irritant. Cold may also be a cause.

_Treatment._ Give Epsom salts, or castor oil. (See page 9.) Change diet if food is suspected. Often no treatment is necessary, but it is not wise to neglect cases that are apparently mild diarrhea, for fear they may turn out to be an epidemic and contagious form.

_Diarrhea, Severe and Epidemic_

_Symptoms._ Excessive looseness of bowels, ruffling of feathers, depression, loss of appetite. A number of birds in the flock are attacked and death results.

_Cause._ There are a variety of causes. Scientific investigation has led to the discovery of specific organisms responsible for various forms of diarrhea. It would be well for poultry rearers to study the results of such work, but, for the purposes of this book, it will be sufficient to state that the causal organism may be bacterial, mycotic, or protozoan. The owner of poultry will not usually be able himself to determine what type of diarrhea the fowls are suffering from, but as a rule the treatment will have to be the same. Advice will have to be sought from an expert when dangerous epidemics are feared.

_Treatment._ The most energetic measures of disinfection must be undertaken. (See page 10.)

1. Isolate sick fowls.

2. Disinfect soil of run thoroughly.

3. Clean and disinfect coops.

4. In bad cases, remove the rest of the flock from the infested run.

5. Give sick fowls Epsom salts, or castor oil; feed fowls on soft food.

6. If the diarrhea is not checked, give 6 to 12 drops of chlorodyne.

DIPHTHERIA OR DIPHTHERITIC ROUP

_A dangerous disease, and infected birds should be killed at once_

_Symptoms._ A cold, accompanied by whitish and yellowish patches on the back of the throat and in the mouth. These patches apparently form a false membrane and cannot be torn off without causing bleeding. The disease is sometimes known as canker.

_Cause._ This disease is often clearly a later stage of roup. It is difficult to say where one ends and the other begins. It has been claimed that the organism is the same as that which causes diphtheria in human beings, but the weight of evidence is against this conclusion.

_Treatment._ Diphtheria is extremely infectious. It is best to kill the first cases at once. If the bird is of particular value, it may be isolated and the patches on the throat swabbed with 50% hydrogen peroxide or 5% creolin, with a small bit of cotton wool wound around a stick. If great care is exercised, 20% carbolic acid or 20% creolin may be painted on the patches, but neither should be allowed to touch the normal skin. Burn the swabs. Treat accompanying roupy symptoms as recommended under roup.

The term canker is also applied to certain spots or growths that occur on the throat. These are not in any way associated with diphtheritic roup, or any dangerous, contagious disease, and are due to injury or to an unhealthy condition of the mucous membrane.

DROPSY

_Not a common disease_

_Symptoms._ Distention of abdomen.

_Cause._ Collection of liquid in abdominal cavity.

_Treatment._ Treatment is seldom successful. It is best and most merciful to kill the afflicted bird. If it is desired to make an effort to save the bird, carefully puncture the lower portion of the abdomen with a trocar and squeeze out the liquid. Give invalid diet.

DYSENTERY

_Serious if in epidemic form_

_Symptoms._ Severe diarrhea with blood in the discharges.

_Cause._ Bacterial or other specific infection of the intestines. Occasionally the eating of some poisonous or irritating substance will give rise to blood in the excrement.

_Treatment._ Isolate bird, and give six to eight drops of chlorodyne on a small piece of bread. Thorough disinfection (see page 10) of water, soil and house is necessary to prevent this disease spreading.

EGG-BOUND

_An uncommon complaint_

_Symptoms._ The hen goes on and off the nest straining to lay. Generally the egg may be felt through the vent. After straining for some time, she may succeed in laying the egg, and treatment should not be undertaken until it is evident that the fowl needs assistance.

_Cause._ Very young hens are more liable to this complaint, which arises from eggs of an abnormal size, from lack of muscular power, or from some other disorder of the oviduct.

_Treatment._ It will be most merciful to kill fowls in much distress, as treatment is tedious and painful to the fowl. It has been recommended to hold the fowl’s vent over steam from boiling water and then to pass an oiled finger up the vent. In bad cases, pierce the egg and withdraw the contents, then break the shell and remove all the pieces. Great care must be taken to leave no particle of the broken shell behind.

EGG-EATING

_A bad habit that may be controlled_

_Symptoms._ If remains of eggs are seen in nests or runs, the poultryman should become suspicious and make observations to prove whether any of his flock are eating eggs.

_Cause._ Broken eggs or soft-shelled eggs left about the yard may be the cause of hens acquiring this bad habit.

_Treatment._ All signs of broken eggs should always be immediately removed. The culprit, when detected, should be removed to a different pen and nest. Dark nests have been recommended. A trap nest will prevent a hen from getting at her egg.

EMPHYSEMA (AIR UNDER SKIN)

_Not a common disease of chickens_

_Symptoms._ In this disease of chickens the skin becomes puffed out in one or more places, generally on the neck. In rare cases the puffing spreads over nearly the whole of the body.

_Cause._ This disease is evidently caused by some obstruction of the air passages that forces the air to escape under the skin.

_Treatment._ Let out the air by puncturing the skin. Give soft and nourishing food. It will probably be wiser not to use birds that recover from this complaint for breeding stock.

EPILEPSY

_An unusual complaint_

_Symptoms._ The bird staggers about and has a fit. It may recover.

_Cause._ It is difficult to discover a cause; intestinal worms are suspected in some cases.

_Treatment._ If it is suspected that intestinal worms are responsible, try the treatment recommended for worms. (See page 95.)

FATTY DEGENERATION

_Not contagious, but pointing to error in diet_

_Symptoms._ More or less sudden deaths of birds in good condition. Post-mortem examination shows an enlarged liver and masses of fat attached to the intestines.

_Cause._ Something wrong with the diet; too much heat-giving food and want of exercise.

_Treatment_. Post-mortem proof of fatty degeneration in the flock should lead the poultry owner to change the diet, reducing the amount of heat-giving food, and giving more exercise. Some authors draw attention to a fatty degeneration in which the liver is shrunken and shows fat globules under the microscope.

FAVUS (WHITE COMB)

_Disfiguring, but easily controlled if treated early_

_Symptoms._ Whitish scabs or crusts on the comb, the head and down the neck.

_Cause._ Due to a fungus that spreads, if not treated, and that probably starts where there is an abrasion of the skin.

_Treatment._ Treat in early stages of the disease by dressing with sulphur ointment. (See page 9.) Isolate bird. If the case has been neglected and allowed to develop, the crusts must first be moistened with oil and the surface scraped off with a blunt instrument. Then apply tincture of iodine or nitrate of silver.

FEATHER-EATING

_Not a very common habit_

_Symptoms._ The presence of bare patches and injured plumage on birds should lead the poultryman to watch for feather-eaters.

_Cause._ Irritation from insects, some defect in diet, or natural cussedness.

_Treatment._ Isolate the offender, and, if persistent and of no special value, kill, for fear the bad example may be followed by others. If several fowls develop this vice, try hanging up a bone for them to peck at and thus distract their attention.

FLEAS

_An occasional parasite of poultry_

_Symptoms._ Fleas are found on the fowls or in the straw of their nests.

_Description._ The flea that attacks fowls is known as the hen flea (_Pulex gallinæ_). It is dark colored and has sharp mouth parts. Doubtless it causes the fowl it attacks much irritation in addition to loss of blood.

_Treatment._ Keep poultry houses in a clean, sanitary condition. Dust the infested fowls with an insect powder or dip them in creolin, about 1%. Burn infested straw.

FRACTURES

Broken bones of legs or wings can be mended by placing the bones back in their proper positions and binding with light splints. The splints may be removed in about four weeks. It will be found that shanks are easily set, but that broken wings give far more trouble.

If a fowl dislocates its leg or its wing, the joint should be gently pushed back into place.

FROST BITE

_A strain on the bird’s system_

_Symptoms._ Combs and wattles are most liable to frost bite, particularly in breeds in which these parts are large.

_Cause._ Exposure to very low temperatures, especially if birds are suddenly turned out from warm quarters; dipping comb and wattles in water when the temperature is low.

_Treatment._ Prevent by keeping birds as warm as possible during winter, and do not allow them to go out early in the mornings in very cold weather. Drinking water should be provided in a vessel from which birds can drink without wetting their wattles. In a case of frost bite, thaw the affected parts by gently rubbing with vaseline and afterwards treat with a mixture of two grains of salicylic acid to one ounce of vaseline or lard.

GAPES

_Serious in badly infested yards_

_Symptoms._ Frequent gaping and coughing; young chicks attacked, as a rule. Notice if any worms are coughed up by the chicken; if none can be found, but the gaping continues, put a stripped feather down the windpipe, as recommended under treatment, and see if any gape worms can be pulled up.

_Cause._ Small worms, red in color when engorged, which attach themselves to the mucous membrane of the windpipe. Affected birds cough up worms or ova, which infect the yard and sometimes the water supply. Earthworms taken from infested yards have been found to contain portions of gape worms, and may be one means of infecting poultry.

_Treatment._ Isolate attacked poultry and disinfect coops and yards. The worms may be extracted from the windpipe of a gaping chicken with a feather stripped nearly to the end, and moistened, but not dripping, with oil of turpentine. Hold the mouth open, push the feather down the windpipe, and give it a sudden twist, which will dislodge the worms and allow of their being drawn up. Fumigation by holding the bird’s head over an irritant vapor, such as that of carbolic acid poured into boiling water, is risky, but sometimes successful. If not cautiously done, much suffering may be inflicted on the bird.

_Post-mortem._ Cut open the windpipe and look for the worms, which may be easily recognized by Fig. 12. Male and female specimens will be found attached to one another.

GASTRITIS (CATARRH OF THE STOMACH)

_Not a common complaint_

_Symptoms._ This disease cannot be readily diagnosed while the fowl is living; it is generally associated with catarrh of the crop. (See page 37.) The symptoms are similar. Post-mortem examination will show the lining of the stomach in an inflamed condition.

_Cause._ The inflammation of the lining of the stomach is generally due to eating decomposing food or other poisonous matter.

_Treatment._ Empty the crop as recommended under Catarrh of the crop. Give one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil and feed on soft and easily digested food with milk or barley water. Be sure that poultry are not allowed to run under trees that have been sprayed with arsenical poisons.

GOUT

_Not a common ailment_

_Symptoms._ The bird sometimes loses weight, and as the disease develops shows stiffness and an indisposition to stand. In some cases small nodules containing crystals of urate of soda occur on the underside of the toes.

_Cause._ Failure of the kidneys to perform their normal functions and consequent accumulation of urates in the bird’s system in excessive quantities. Gout may be due to too concentrated feeding.

_Treatment._ Medicines and treatment are of little avail. Endeavor to prevent by feeding a mixed diet.

_Post-mortem._ In one form of this disease, known as visceral gout, the liver and other abdominal organs are covered over with a powder-like deposit of the crystals of urate of soda.

HEART DISEASES

_Not common, and cannot be treated_

The heart is an organ that is subject to several serious diseases, but these cannot be detected with any certainty while the bird is living, and treatment cannot be recommended as likely to be successful. Post-mortem examination may show the following symptoms:

1. The heart sac full of serous liquid, in the case of pericarditis, or dropsy of the heart sac.

2. A reddening of the membrane lining the heart, in the case of inflammation (endocarditis).

3. An enlarged heart, in the case of enlargement of the heart.

4. Hemorrhage, in the case of rupture of the heart and of the blood vessels.

INDIGESTION

_Disorder of the intestinal tract, that is not very serious_

_Symptoms._ The bird mopes and shows signs of a capricious appetite. Either diarrhea or, less commonly, constipation, may be a symptom.

_Cause._ Disorders of the digestive tract, due to error in dieting—for example, overfeeding, or too little green food and not enough exercise.

_Treatment._ Alter the feeding, see that the water is clean, and give a dose of Epsom salts. (See page 9.)

JAUNDICE

_Not a common disease_

_Symptoms._ A yellow comb may indicate jaundice, but there are no definite external symptoms. Post-mortem examination shows distention of the gall bladder, due to an excessive secretion of bile.

_Cause._ Said to be due to continued congestion of the liver, arising possibly from too much heat-giving food.

_Treatment._ If the disease is suspected, give one grain of calomel as a purgative and feed on more green food.

KIDNEY DISEASES

_With the exception of gout, kidney diseases cannot be detected by external symptoms_

Gout (see page 63) is the commonest disease of the kidneys. In addition, there are some disorders of the kidneys (e. g., enlargement) that may be noticed on post-mortem examination. Little is known about these diseases; there are no symptoms that can be recognized before death, and no treatment can be recommended.

LEG WEAKNESS

_Constitutional weakness, to which the heavier breeds are more subject than are the lighter ones_

_Symptoms._ Fowls walk in an unsteady manner, without showing any specific cause for lameness. Young birds are more likely to be affected in this manner, particularly those of the heavier breeds.

_Cause._ Too rapid growth, the bird outgrowing the strength of its legs.

_Treatment._ Reduce the quantity of fat-producing foods. Care in the selection of breeding stock is important.

LICE

_Invariably present in small numbers, and likely to become a serious pest, if not persistently controlled_

_Symptoms._ Unthrifty look of fowl and signs of irritation; desertion of nest by setting hens; and, of course, the detection of lice on the fowl: this may be done by quickly turning over the feathers on the body and looking for the lice.

_Cause._ Introduction of an infested fowl; neglect to dust fowls regularly to keep down lice, and to clean out fowl houses and change the straw of nest boxes. At the season that lice are likely to be most prevalent the poultryman should take precautionary measures.

_Description of lice._ Lice are small insects ranging in size from 1∕25 to 1∕8 of an inch. They breed rapidly, laying their eggs on the feathers. They are not blood-sucking insects, but cause much irritation to the birds they infest.

Several species are found on fowls. Fig. 14 shows three of the common species.

_Treatment._ Dust fowls with fresh insect powder (pyrethrum). Smear sulphur ointment on head and under wings, especially in the case of chickens. Infested fowls may be dipped in 2% creolin. Dust setting hens with a lice powder before putting them on their nests. Infested straw should be burnt, and boxes, nests, fixtures, etc., should be thoroughly sprayed with 2% creolin.

LIMBER-NECK

_An occasional complaint_

_Symptoms._ The muscles of the fowl’s neck become so relaxed that they cannot support the head.

_Cause._ Limber-neck, due to partial or entire paralysis of the muscles of the neck, is believed to be associated with acute indigestion or worms.

_Treatment._ A strong purgative may be the means of effecting a cure by cleaning out any intestinal poisons and thus correcting the cause. If the treatment recommended does not effect a cure in a few days, kill the bird.

LIVER DISEASES

The liver is affected by several diseases, and the poultryman, who finds a spotted liver on post-mortem examination, will be much aided in determining the cause, if he takes into consideration the symptoms noticed before the fowl died, as well as the changes in the other internal organs. The importance of the post-mortem examination is in distinguishing whether the death of the fowl is due to a contagious disease.

The causes of diseased livers may be conveniently divided into two classes:

1. Diseased livers due to indigestion, e. g., enlargement.

2. Diseased livers due to a specific disease, e. g., tuberculosis.

_Diseases Due to Indigestion_

In this class may be included degeneration, inflammation, congestion, enlargement, and atrophy of the liver. There are more or less distinct differences in these diseases, but the only possible methods of treatment known at present are very much the same.

_Symptoms._ There are no definite external symptoms. The poultryman’s suspicions should, however, be aroused if fowls apparently in good health die suddenly. A post-mortem examination will reveal a liver of abnormal size, or somewhat shrunken, and of unhealthy texture.

_Cause._ The cause is generally something wrong in the feeding. Fowls may be eating too large a proportion of heat-producing foods and not enough green food. If an enlarged liver is associated with an excessive layer of fat covering the internal organs, it points to too large quantities of carbohydrates.

_Treatment._ Correct errors in feeding. Give more green food and let the fowls scratch for some of their grain. If errors in feeding and general management are not obvious, make experimental changes.

_Diseased Livers Due to Specific Diseases_

Tuberculosis, coccidiosis, gout and other specific diseases are responsible for spotted or diseased livers. (Fig. 24.) The section on diagnosis by post-mortem examination gives further information on these subjects and shows how the principal diseases may be distinguished.

The term cancer is sometimes applied to cases in which there are tumors on the liver.

MAGGOTS

_Occasionally found in flesh wounds of poultry_

_Symptoms._ A flesh wound that instead of healing develops into a sore with a slight running. On examination, maggots will be found.

_Cause._ Several species of flies are always ready to lay their eggs in any available wound or sore; therefore wounds must be watched in the case of poultry, as with all other animals of the farmyard. The eggs laid by these flies hatch and develop into small footless grubs commonly known as maggots.

_Treatment._ Wash the wound with 1 to 2% creolin; remove as many of the maggots as possible with a pair of tweezers or a feather. If the maggots are deep-seated, stuff the wound with a cotton wad saturated with strong creolin or 10% carbolic acid. Examine next day and remove dead maggots. Treat again in a similar manner if the maggots are not all killed. Fish oil, or iodoform made into a paste with vaseline, will prevent the flies depositing their eggs, if smeared on the surface of the wound.

MITES (AIR-SAC)

_Not a common parasite_

_Symptoms._ There are no definite external symptoms. If the bird is very badly affected, there may be evidences of suffocation. This may end fatally. A post-mortem examination will show the mites in the air passages and bronchi as small yellowish and whitish particles, which on careful observation may be seen to move.

_Cause._ A small mite (_Sarcoptes lævis_) which infests the air sacs and bronchi. These mites, when present in large numbers, obstruct the air passages and cause suffocation. A secretion from the mucous membrane affected, results from the presence of the mites and increases the obstruction of the air passages.

_Treatment._ The fumigation method tried for gapes has been recommended, but there is little reason to expect success.

MITES, DEPLUMING (SCABIES)

_Symptoms._ Bare patches on the bird’s body due to the loss of feathers. The rump and the breast are most frequently attacked.

_Cause._ A small mite (_Sarcoptes lævis_) found on the bird’s body near the base of the fallen feathers.

_Treatment._ Isolate affected birds; rub bare patches and neighboring portion of body with sulphur ointment (see page 9) or dip body of fowl in a solution of about 2% creolin.

MITES (RED MITE)

_A serious pest_

_Symptoms._ Unthriftiness of birds.

_Cause._ A small whitish mite, which appears red when filled with blood. These mites suck the bird’s blood at night and hide during the day in the sockets of the perches and in the crevices of the woodwork.

_Treatment._ Examine the fowl house at night. Dust hens with an insect powder; thoroughly spray houses and perches with 5% creolin or other disinfectant, and squirt kerosene oil or turpentine into cracks and crevices. A specially constructed mite-proof perch, or one that can be easily removed, should be used.

MOLTING

Molting is not a disease, but may prove trying to poultry not in the best condition to stand the strain of the process. Hens overtaxed with forced laying and cocks running with too large a number of hens are most likely to suffer. Molting occurs in healthy adult birds every twelve months. The process, which is a natural one, should be allowed to take its natural course unless the fowls appear weak and depressed during the period. In such cases specially nourishing and stimulating food should be given. Anyhow, it would be well to pay particular attention to the feeding of birds during the molting season.

OVARY DISEASES

Hens suffer from various diseases of the ovary, which may become shriveled and useless or gangrenous. Tumorous growths, sometimes called cancers, are also found. As diseased conditions of this organ can be detected only by post-mortem examination, and as no remedies are known, the subject need not be dealt with more fully.

OVIDUCT, DISEASES OF

Abnormal eggs must be regarded as due to functional disorders of the oviduct. One cause of soft eggs is lack of shell-forming material; therefore a liberal supply of powdered oyster shells, or lime in some other form, should always be accessible to laying hens. Other abnormal eggs occur, such as those with double yolks, without any yolk, with blood clots, etc. No treatment can be suggested beyond feeding a varied diet and avoiding too stimulating or over-heating foods.

Prolapse of the oviduct may occur. The protruding portion should be oiled or vaselined and gently pressed back.

PERITONITIS

_Not common and not contagious_

_Symptoms._ Loss of appetite, fever and evidence of discomfort and pain in the stomach, especially if the abdomen is pressed with the hand. Post-mortem examination shows inflamed appearance of membrane of the abdominal cavity.

_a._ Undeveloped ovules in ovary.

_b._ Partly developed ovule showing stigma. Here the follicle wall breaks and allows the ovule yolk to leave the ovary preparatory to laying.

_c._ An empty follicle in which the stigma and the yolk passed out.

_d._ Opening of oviduct.

_e._ Portion of oviduct distended, allowing yolk to pass down.

_f._ Walls of oviduct which secrete albumen forming the white of the egg.

_g._ Membranous lining added.

_h._ Portion of oviduct that secretes shell-forming substance.

_i._ Cloaca.]

_Cause._ Serious inflammation of the wall of the abdominal cavity.

_Treatment._ Put the bird in a quiet place. Aconite (see page 9), to reduce the temperature, and opium, or one drop of laudanum, to relieve pain, have been recommended, but as a rule it is best to kill the bird.

PIP

_Generally the effect of some other disorder_

_Symptoms._ A hardened scale formed at tip of tongue.

_Cause._ Generally due to cold or other disorder affecting the breathing of the bird.

_Treatment._ Do not try to tear off the growth on the tongue by force, but moisten with vaseline or glycerin until it becomes loose. Give soft food.

PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF LUNGS

_Generally fatal_

_Symptoms._ Extreme depression and great difficulty in breathing. Difficult to distinguish in the living bird from a very bad cold. Post-mortem examination shows the affected lung filled with an exudate. The lung sinks if put in water.

_Cause._ Following on a cold, the lung becomes congested with blood and a dark, viscous matter. Pneumonia may be considered a further, and generally final, stage of congestion.

_Treatment._ A cure is seldom effected, but in the case of a valuable bird the following treatment may be tried Keep the bird in a dry, warm place; paint the skin above the lungs with tincture of iodine; give aconite. Feed on soft food and give a stimulant.

POISONING

_Symptoms._ As a rule the poisons that fowls eat are mineral. The most pronounced symptom is evidence of pain. In cases of arsenical poison there is diarrhea. A poison containing a copper compound acts partly as an emetic, causing the fowl to make an effort to vomit. In cases of mineral poisons, post-mortem examinations show inflammation of the stomach and the digestive tract.

_Sources of poison._ Poultry are likely to get poisoned from the following sources:

_Fertilizers_ (e. g., nitrate of soda) used on fields in which fowls scratch for food. Such cases are rare.

_Insecticides and fungicides_ (e. g., Paris green [arsenic], lead arsenate, Bordeaux mixture) applied to plants under which fowls run. If sprays are mixed in correct proportions and used in normal quantities, there is little danger to poultry feeding on the grass below sprayed trees. Great care should, however, be taken in disposing of the sediment and the residue after spraying operations are completed.

_Rat poisons_ (e. g., phosphorus, strychnine, baryta). These poisons are particularly dangerous when mixed with cornmeal or other bait attractive to fowls. The best way to set rat poison is to put it in a piece of piping of such a diameter and length that fowls cannot reach it.

_Salt._ Food mixed with salt for other domestic animals may be accidentally given to fowls. Chickens are the most likely to be poisoned by excess of salt.

_Treatment._ If fowls have eaten poisonous substances, the fact is not usually discovered until after death or until it is too late to administer an antidote. Most of the poisons fowls are likely to eat act as irritants of the digestive tract. Milk and white of egg should be given. It is advisable to give a stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful of brandy.

PYÆMIA

_Not contagious, and not common_

_Symptoms._ This disease cannot be diagnosed except by post-mortem examination and microscopic identification of pus-forming organisms in the infected areas (whitish spots) of liver, spleen, etc.

_Cause._ Pus-forming organisms believed to enter the blood through a wound in the skin.

_Treatment._ As there are no external symptoms, treatment is not possible.

RHEUMATISM

_Not a common trouble_

_Symptoms._ Lameness and stiffness of joints.

_Cause._ May be due in some cases to too stimulating food and to dampness.

_Treatment._ Put affected bird in dry quarters and vary food, adding more greens. Rub joints with embrocation, or turpentine and oil.

ROUP (CONTAGIOUS CATARRH)

_One of the most serious contagious diseases_

_Symptoms._ The bird first has symptoms of an ordinary cold, such as running at the nostrils and sneezing. Definite evidence of roup is the _offensive odor_ detected on opening the bird’s mouth. The exudate is also offensive. The disease may attack the eyes, which then become inflamed and swollen; a tumor, containing offensive, yellowish, cheesy matter, sometimes develops. The course of the disease may extend over several weeks or months and there may be cases of chronic roup. Some cases end fatally in a comparatively short time. The form of the disease, in which yellowish patches develop on the throat, is dealt with under diphtheria or diphtheritic roup.

_Cause._ Cases of roup occur when birds are subjected to draft and damp, but the cause must be infection with disease germs. It is believed that the almost constant presence of the germs is due to lack of regular disinfection and to birds in the flock believed to have recovered from a previous attack of the disease, but that, in reality, are suffering from chronic roup, and are able, whenever suitable conditions arise for an outbreak of this disease, to infect the rest of the flock through the drinking water and the soil.

_Treatment._ The seriousness of this disease makes it imperative for the poultry rearer to isolate immediately any birds showing any suspicious symptoms. If treatment of the infected bird is taken in hand early, and carried out faithfully, a cure can be effected, but it is often wiser to kill and burn infected stock. In treating birds, the mouth and nostrils should be washed out with 5% carbolic acid, or with 50% hydrogen peroxide, or with 2% permanganate of potash. It is important to clean out the passage of the nostrils, and this may be done by:

1. Pressing against the roof of the bird’s mouth from inside and squeezing the nostrils from above downwards.

2. Syringing out the nostrils.

3. Dipping the fowl’s head for a few seconds in a solution of the disinfectant. Great care should be exercised in this method of treatment, which is only recommended when permanganate of potash is used.

It is well to keep birds isolated for some time after apparent recovery. When the eye is affected (see Fig. 20), the tumor should be carefully lanced and the cheesy matter removed, after which the cavity should be rinsed out with one of the disinfectants recommended above; such treatment may have to be repeated time after time.

As an after effect of a cold or of roup, conjunctivitis or sore eyes may develop. A discharge comes from the eyes and the eyelids become stuck together. Bathe the eyes with hydrogen peroxide mixed with an equal quantity of water.

If this condition follows an attack of roup, there is danger that the fowl has not entirely recovered, and may be a source of infection to the rest of the flock.

SCALY LEG

_An unsightly affection that, although contagious, does not spread rapidly_

_Symptoms._ A rough and scaly growth on the legs of the bird.

_Cause._ A small mite (Fig. 22), known as _Sarcoptes mutans_, burrows in the skin and gives rise to the unsightly growth (Fig. 21) that gives this disease its name.

_Treatment._ Soften the scaly growth by washing and soaking the legs with warm water and soap. Scrub the affected portion of the legs with a brush and then treat as follows: Dip the legs in kerosene oil, holding them there for not longer than a few seconds. If the kerosene oil is mixed with sweet oil, or if the legs are wet first with water, there will be no risk of the kerosene proving harsh, as sometimes happens. Sulphur ointment (see page 9) may be used instead of the kerosene oil treatment.

SOFT CROP

_Not a serious complaint_

_Symptoms._ Distended crop, soft to the feel.

_Cause._ Over-eating; or food turning sour in the crop.

_Treatment._ Hold bird downwards and squeeze contents of crop through mouth, taking care not to suffocate the patient. Repeat treatment if necessary. Put on low diet for some time, feeding slowly and sparingly.

TICKS

_A pest found in the Southern States and tropical countries_

_Symptoms._ The fowl has fever, appears depressed, and stands in a cramped position.

_Cause._ The fowl tick (_Argas minatus_), which hides during the day in cracks and crevices, sucks the fowl’s blood at night and introduces a fever-producing parasite.

_Remedies._ Examine sick birds during the day, and visit the roosts at night, for proof of the presence of ticks; carefully search under perches, in nests, and in corners of woodwork, etc. Spray woodwork with 5% creolin; squirt kerosene oil, or turpentine, into cracks and crevices.

TUBERCULOSIS

_A very serious poultry disease_

_Symptoms._ This disease may be present in a poultry yard for some time without being detected. Suspicion should be aroused if birds gradually lose weight and die. If a bird that has gradually been getting thinner, goes lame, or loses the use of a wing, without apparent injury, the evidence that tuberculosis is present is strong, but positive proof of its presence can be obtained only by post-mortem and microscopic examination. This disease generally attacks adult birds.

_Cause._ The specific organism causing this disease, known as the _Bacillus tuberculosis_ (Fig. 5), infects the liver (Fig. 24), the spleen (Fig. 24), and other organs, least frequently the lungs. The disease may be introduced into a flock by the purchase of an infected bird, and may be spread by uninfected birds picking up the excrement of diseased birds with their food.

_Treatment._ There is no known cure. The insidious manner in which this disease advances through a poultry yard makes it a very serious malady. Birds suffering from it should be killed and burnt. Thorough disinfection of coops, etc., should be made. Strict attention to sanitation will help in preventing and controlling this disease. If many birds in a flock are believed to have tuberculosis, it would be well to destroy the whole flock and start again, preferably on fresh ground.

WHITE DIARRHEA OF CHICKENS

_A very serious disease, causing the death of large numbers_

_Symptoms._ Chickens are generally attacked when 10 to 15 days old. They appear listless, their feathers become rough, and they stand about with drooping wings. A white diarrhea is soon noticed. Chicken after chicken shows similar symptoms and dies, resulting in much loss and discouragement to the poultry rearer.

_Cause._ Various causes, such as improper or stale food, may upset the chicken’s digestive organs and give rise to a whitish diarrhea, but the term “white diarrhea” is best restricted to a contagious form of diarrhea due to minute parasites in the intestinal tracts of chickens. A coccidium and a bacillus have been proved by different investigators to cause very similar forms of white diarrhea. A distinct form of white diarrhea, known as brooder pneumonia, is described on page 35.

_Treatment._ This disease is a very difficult one to control. Incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected. Special care should be taken in the feeding during the first few weeks. Chickens should not be overfed. The feeding of dry bran is recommended, as it tends to keep the bowels in a healthy, active condition. In the form of white diarrhea due to a bacillus, suspicion rests on the hen and the egg as sources of infection. When the disease becomes serious, and general sanitation and proper care of chickens do not control it, the advisability of obtaining the eggs for hatching from a poultry farm free of white diarrhea should be considered.

WORMS

_Intestinal parasites that occasionally become serious_

_Symptoms._ General debility; worms or segments of worms; seen in the droppings. If there is doubt as to whether a flock is suffering from worms, give a suspected bird a strong purgative and keep it up so that the feces may be examined for worms. If doubt still exists, the suspected bird should be killed and a post-mortem examination made. Cut the intestines open lengthways (see Fig. 34) with a small pair of scissors and wash them out with water so as to detect the smaller worms, and the tapeworms attached to the lining of the intestines.

_Cause._ Two classes of worms are commonly parasitic on fowls—round worms (see Fig. 27) and tapeworms. There are generally a few specimens of worms in the intestines of fowls; but only when the numbers are large do worms affect the health of the fowl.

_Treatment._ Every bird suspected of having worms may be tested with a purgative as suggested above. Or, if it is established that several birds in a flock are suffering from worms, all in poor condition, without any cause being apparent, should be dosed with santonin—three to five grains in the morning before any food has been picked up. After about two hours give a purgative of two teaspoonfuls of castor oil and soon after let the fowl have its morning food. As important as dosing the fowls, is disinfecting the feed troughs, the water vessels, and the soil of the runs in order to prevent re-infection.

_Nodular tæniasis._ Small nodules on the intestines, resembling the nodules in tuberculosis, are sometimes caused by tapeworms. The name “nodular tæniasis” has been given to this disease.