Chapter II: Preface: To the American Edition

The work of Balmes on the comparative influence of Protestantism and Catholicity on European civilization, which is now presented to the American public, was written in Spanish, and won for the author among his own countrymen a very high reputation. A French edition was published simultaneously with the Spanish, and the work has since been translated into the Italian and English languages, and been widely circulated as one of the most learned productions of the age, and most admirably suited to the exigencies of our times. When Protestantism could no longer maintain its position in the field of theology, compelling its votaries by its endless variations to espouse open infidelity, or to fall back upon the ancient church, it adopted a new mode of defence, in pointing to its pretended achievements as the liberator of the human mind, the friend of civil and religious freedom, the patron of science and the arts; in a word, the active element in all social ameliorations. This is the cherished idea and boasted argument of those who attempt to uphold Protestantism as a system. They claim for it the merit of having freed the intellect of man from a degrading bondage, given a nobler impulse to enterprise and industry, and sown in every direction the seed of national and individual prosperity. Looking at facts superficially, or through the distorted medium of prejudice, they tell us that the reformers of the 16th century contributed much to the development of science and the arts, of human liberty, and of every thing which is comprised in the word _civilization_. To combat this delusion, so well calculated to ensnare the minds of men in this materialistic and utilitarian age, the author undertook the work, a translation of which is here presented to the public. "What do history and philosophy say on this subject? How has man, either individually or collectively, considered in a religious, social, political, or literary point of view, been benefited by the reform of the 16th century? Did Europe, under the exclusive influence of Catholicity, pursue a prosperous career? Did Catholicity impose a single fetter on the movements of civilization?" Such is the important investigation which the author proposed to himself, and it must be admitted that he has accomplished his task with the most brilliant success? Possessed of a penetrating mind, cultivated by profound study and adorned with the most varied erudition, and guided by a fearless love of truth, he traverses the whole Christian era, comparing the gigantic achievements of Catholicity, in curing the evils of mankind, elevating human nature, and diffusing light and happiness, with the results of which Protestantism may boast; and he proves, with the torch of history and philosophy in his hand, that the latter, far from having exerted any beneficial influence upon society, has retarded the great work of civilization which Catholicity commenced, and which was advancing so prosperously under her auspicious guidance. He does not say that nothing has been done for civilization by _Protestants_; but he asserts and proves that _Protestantism_ has been greatly unfavorable, and even injurious to it.

By thus exposing the short-comings, or rather evils of Protestantism, in a social and political point of view, as Bossuet and others had exhibited them under the theological aspect, Balmes has rendered a most important service to Catholic literature. He has supplied the age with a work, which is peculiarly adapted to its wants, and which must command a general attention in the United States. The Catholic, in perusing its pages, will learn to admire still more the glorious character of the faith which he professes: the Protestant, if sincere, will open his eyes to the incompatibility of his principles with the happiness of mankind: while the scholar in general will find in it a vast amount of information, on the most vital and interesting topics, and presented in a style of eloquence seldom equalled.

"The reader is requested to bear in mind that the author was a native of Spain, and therefore he must not be surprised to find much that relates more particularly to that country. In fact, the fear that Protestantism might be introduced there seems to have been the motive which induced him to undertake the work. He was evidently a man of strong national as well as religious feeling, and he dreaded its introduction both politically and religiously, as he considered that it would be injurious to his country in both points of view. He thought that it would destroy the national unity, as it certainly did in other countries.

"A very interesting part of the work is that where he states the relations of religion and political freedom; shows that Catholicity is by no means adverse to the latter, but, on the contrary, highly favorable to it; and proves by extracts from St. Thomas Aquinas and other great Catholic divines, that they entertained the most enlightened political views. On the other hand, he shows that Protestantism was unfavorable to civil liberty, as is evidenced by the fact, that arbitrary power made great progress in various countries of Europe soon after its appearance. The reason of this was, that the moral control of religion being taken away, physical restraint became the more necessary." The author, on this subject, naturally expresses a preference for monarchy, it being a cherished inheritance from his forefathers; but, it will be noticed that the principles which he lays down as essential to a right administration of civil affairs, regard the substance and not the form of government; are as necessary under a republican as under the monarchical system; and, if duly observed, they cannot fail to ensure the happiness of the people. This portion of the volume will be read with peculiar interest in this country, and ought to command an attentive consideration.

In preparing this edition of the work from the English translation by Messrs. Hanford and Kershaw, care has been taken to revise the whole of it, to compare it with the original French, and to correct the various errors, particularly the mistakes in translation. A biographical notice of the illustrious writer has also been prefixed to the volume, to give the reader an insight into his eminent character, and the valuable services he has rendered to his country and to society at large.

BALTIMORE, November 1, 1850.

NOTICE OF THE AUTHOR.

James Balmes was born at Vich, a small city in Catalonia, in Spain, on the 28th of August, 1810. His parents were poor, but noted for their industry and religion, and they took care to train him from his childhood to habits of rigid piety. Every morning, after the holy sacrifice of mass, his mother prostrate before an altar dedicated to St. Thomas of Aquin, implored this illustrious doctor to obtain for her son the gifts of sanctity and knowledge. Her prayers were not disappointed.

From seven to ten years of age, Balmes applied himself with great ardor to the study of Latin. The two following years were devoted to a course of rhetoric, and three years more were allotted to philosophy; a ninth year was occupied with the prolegomena of theology. Such was the order of studies in the seminary of Vich. While thus laboring to store his mind with knowledge, Balmes preserved an irreproachable line of conduct. Called to the ecclesiastical state, he submitted readily to the strict discipline which this vocation required, and he was seen nowhere but under the parental roof, at the church, in some religious community, or in the episcopal library. At the age of fourteen he was admitted to a benefice, the revenue of which, though small, enabled him to complete his education. In 1826, he went to the University of Cervera, which at that time was the centre of public instruction in that part of Spain. It numbered four colleges, in all of which an enlightened piety prevailed, affording the young Balmes a most favorable opportunity of developing his rare qualities. Here, the frame and habit of his mind were observable to all, in his deep and animated look, in his grave and modest demeanor, and in his method of study. He would read a few pages over a table, his head resting upon his hands; then, wrapt in his mantle, he would spend a long time in reflection. "The true method of study," he used to say, "is to read little, to select good authors, and to think much. If we confined ourselves to a knowledge of what is contained in books, the sciences would never advance a step. We must learn what others have not known. During my meditations in the dark, my thoughts ferment, and my brain burns like a boiling cauldron."

Devoted to the acquisition of knowledge, he cultivated retirement as a means of facilitating the attainment of his object. His thirst for learning was so intense, that it held him under absolute sway, and he found it necessary at a later period to offer a systematic resistance to its exclusive demands. Pursuing his favorite method of study, Balmes remained four years at the University of Cervera, reading no other works than the Sum of St. Thomas, and the commentaries upon it by Bellarmine, Suarez and Cajetan. If he made any exception from this rule, it was in favor of Chateaubriand's _Génie du Christanisme_. "Every thing," said he, "is to be found in St. Thomas; philosophy, religion, politics: his writings are an inexhaustible mine." Having thus strengthened his mind by a due application to philosophical and theological studies, he proceeded to enlarge his sphere of knowledge by reading a greater variety of authors. In taking up a work, he first looked at the table of contents, and when it suggested an idea or fact which seemed to open before him a new path, he read that part of the volume which developed this idea or fact; the rest was overlooked. In this way, he accumulated a rich store of varied erudition. At the age of twenty-two he knew by memory the tabular contents of an extraordinary number of volumes; he had learned the French language; he spoke and wrote Latin better than his native tongue, and had been admitted successively to the degrees of bachelor and licentiate in theology. The virtues of his youth, far from having been weakened by these studies, had acquired greater strength and maturity. As he approached the solemn period of his ordination, he became still more remarkable for the gravity and modesty of his deportment. He prepared himself for his elevation to the priesthood by a retreat of one hundred days. After his promotion to the sacerdotal dignity, which took place in his native city, he returned to the University of Cervera, where he continued his studies, and performed the duties of assistant professor. Here also he began to manifest his political views; but, always with that discretion and moderation for which the Spanish clergy have been with few exceptions distinguished during the last twenty years. At that period Spain was agitated by two conflicting parties, that of Maria Christina and the other of Don Carlos. Balmes avoided all questions which were rather calculated to encourage the spirit of faction than promote the general interest of the country. In 1835 he evinced this circumspection in a remarkable degree, when the doctorate which had been conferred upon him, required him to deliver an address in honor of the reigning monarch. Maria Christina was then the queen regent, and civil war was about to commence in the mountains of Catalonia; but Balmes performed his task without allusion to politics, and without offending the adherents of either party.

After two years of study at Cervera, where he applied himself to theology and law, our author returned to Vich, where he determined to spend four years more in retirement, for the purpose of maturing his character and knowledge. In this solitude, he devoted himself to history, poetry and politics, but principally to mathematics, of which he obtained a professorship in 1837. During all these literary labors, Balmes was actuated by a lively faith, and a sincere, unassuming piety. Religious meditation, intermingled with scientific reflections, was the constant occupation of his mind; he did not neglect, however, the exterior practices of devotion. Besides the celebration of the holy sacrifice, he frequently visited the blessed sacrament, and paid his homage to the B. Virgin in some solitary chapel. The _Following of Christ_, the _Sum_ of the angelic doctor, and the Holy Scriptures, were always in his hands, and he took pleasure in reading the ascetic writers of his own country. In this way did he prepare himself, until the age of thirty, to become one of the most solid and gifted minds of our time, and to act the important part to which he was called by Divine Providence.

The first literary effort of Balmes before the public, was a prize essay which he wrote on clerical celibacy. This was soon followed by another production of his pen, entitled "Observations on the Property of the Clergy, in a social, political, and commercial point of view," which was elicited by the clamoring of the revolutionary army under Espartero for the spoliation of the clergy. The learning, philosophy and eloquence of the writer in this work, excited the wonder and admiration of the most distinguished statesmen in the country. Some months after, he published his "Political Considerations on the Condition of Spain," in which he had the courage to defend the rights of both parties in the country, and to suggest means of a conciliatory nature for restoring public order and tranquillity.

Amidst these political efforts, Balmes did not lay aside his peculiar functions as a minister of God. The edification of the faithful, the religious instruction of youth, and the defence of the faith against the assaults of heresy and rationalism, were constant objects of his attention. During the same year, 1840, he translated and published the "Maxims of St. Francis of Sales for every day in the year;" he also composed a species of catechism for the instruction of young persons, which was very extensively circulated. At the same time he undertook the preparation of the present work, in order to counteract the pernicious influence exerted among his countrymen by Guizot's lectures on European civilization, and to neutralize the facilities offered under the regime of Espartero for the success of a Protestant Propagandism in Spain. The occasion and object of this work rendered it expedient that it should be published simultaneously in Spanish and in French, and with this view our author visited France, and afterwards, to extend his observations, passed into England.

On his return to Barcelona, towards the close of 1842, Balmes became a collaborator in the editing of the _Civilizacion_, a monthly periodical of great merit, devoted to literary reviews, and to solid instruction on the current topics of the day. His connection with this work lasted only eighteen months. He then commenced a review of his own, entitled the _Sociedad_, a philosophical, political, and religious journal, which acquired a great reputation during the one year of its existence. Driven soon after into retirement by the disturbances of the times, Balmes composed another philosophical work, _El Criterio_, which is a course of logic adapted to every capacity.

From the national uprising that overthrew the government of Espartero, there arose a general feeling of patriotic independence, which called for the cessation of civil strife, and the harmonizing of the two parties that divided the nation. Many of the adherents of Maria Christina, who were the nobility and the bourgeoisie, recognized the excesses of the revolutionary faction which they had called to their aid, while the Carlists were not all in favor of absolute monarchy, and numbered an imposing majority among the lower classes. All these men of wise and moderate views longed to see a remedy applied to the wounds of their afflicted country; and with one accord they turned their eyes upon Balmes, as the only individual capable of conducting this important affair. He had already, in his _Political Considerations_, indicated the principal idea of his policy for putting an end to the national evils; it was a matrimonial alliance between the Queen and the son of Don Carlos. Under these circumstances he commenced in February, 1844, a new journal, entitled _Pensamiento de la Nacion_, the object of which was to denounce the revolutionary spirit as the enemy of all just and peaceful government, and to inspire the Spanish people with a proper reverence for the religious, social and political inheritance received from their ancestors, and with a due respect for the reasonable ameliorations of the age. In this spirit the different questions of the day were discussed with energy and calmness, and especially the project of an alliance between the Queen and the son of Don Carlos, which Balmes considered of the utmost importance. This measure, such as he proposed it, was, to use the language of his biographer, "the reconciliation of the past and the future, of authority and liberty, of monarchy and representative government." Such was the patriotism, dignity and force, with which our author conducted his hebdomadal, that it won the esteem of a large portion of the most distinguished men among the Carlists, while it also acquired favor among an immense number in the opposite party. To support its views, a daily journal, the _Conciliador_, was started by a body of young but fervid and brilliant writers, and nothing it would seem was wanting to insure a triumph for the friends of Spain. Prudence, energy, moderation, reason and eloquence, with a majority of the people on their side, deserved and should have commanded success; but they could not prevail against diplomatic influence and court intrigue. Balmes learned with equal surprise and affliction, in the retirement of his native mountains, that the government had resolved to offer the Queen in marriage to the infant Don Francisco, and the infanta to the Duke of Montpensier. This was a severe stroke to the sincere and ardent patriotism of Balmes. He might have resisted this policy with the power and eloquence of his pen, but he preferred a silent resignation to the heat of political strife, and the _Pensamiento de la Nacion_, although a lucrative publication, was discontinued on the 31st of December, 1846.

During that same year, our author collected into one volume his various essays on politics, as well for his own vindication as for the diffusion of sound instruction on the condition of Spain. The following year he completed his "Elementary course of Philosophy." But his physical strength was not equal to these arduous labors. To re-establish in some degree his declining health, he travelled in Spain and France, and remained several weeks in Paris. The intellectual and moral corruption which was gnawing at the very vitals of the French nation, and threatened all Europe with its infection, filled him with increased anxiety. He predicted the dissolution of society, and a return to barbarism, unless things would take some unexpected turn through the special interposition of Providence. This last hope was the only resource left, in his opinion, for the salvation of society and civilization, and he exulted when he beheld Pius IX opening a new career for Italy, and consecrating the aspirations and movements of all who advocated legitimate reform and rational liberty. The political ameliorations, however, of the sovereign Pontiff appeared to the opponents of liberalism in Spain, at variance with the great opposition which Balmes had always exhibited to the revolutionary spirit. Hence, it became necessary for him to pay the just tribute of his admiration to the illustrious individual who sat in the chair of Peter, and to proclaim the eminent virtues of the prince and the pontiff. This he did with surpassing eloquence, in a brochure entitled _Pius IX_, the brilliant style of which is only equalled by its wisdom of thought. In this work, he sketches with graphic pen, the acts of the papal policy, showing that the holy see is the best guide of men in the path of liberty and progress, that Pius IX shows a profound knowledge of the evils that afflict society, and possesses all the energy and firmness necessary to apply their proper remedy. Balmes was full of hope for the future, in contemplating the course of the great head of the church, and he cherished this hope to the last moment of his life. His essay on the policy of Pius IX was the last production of his pen. His career in literature was brief, but brilliant and effective. Eight years only had elapsed since his appearance as a writer, and he had labored with eminent success in every department of knowledge. The learned divine, the profound philosopher, the enlightened publicist, he has stamped upon his age the impress of his genius, and bequeathed to posterity a rich legacy in his immortal works. In the moral as well as in the intellectual point of view, his merit may be summed up in those words of _Wisdom_: "Being made perfect in a short space, he fulfilled a long time." chap. iv.

This distinguished ecclesiastic, the boast of the Spanish clergy and the Catalan people, died at Vich, his native city, on the 9th of July, 1848, in the same spirit of lively faith and fervent piety which had always marked his life. His funeral took place on the 11th, with all the pomp that could be furnished by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The municipality decreed that one of the public places should be named after him.

Balmes was little below the middle height, and of weak and slender frame. But the appearance of feeble health which he exhibited, was combatted by the animation of his looks. His forehead and lips bore the impress of energy, which was to be seen also in his eyes, black, deep-set, and of unusual brightness. The expression of his countenance was a mixture of vivacity, openness, melancholy and strength of mind. A careful observer of all his sacerdotal duties, he found in the practices of piety, the vigor which he displayed in his intellectual labors. The distribution of his time was extremely methodical, and his pleasures consisted only in the society of his friends. To the prospect of temporal honors and the favor of the great, he was insensible; neither did he seek after ecclesiastical dignities or literary distinctions. His aim was the diffusion of truth, not the acquisition of a great reputation. These qualities, however, with his eminent talents, varied erudition, and invaluable writings, have won for him a universal fame.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
THE NAME AND NATURE OF PROTESTANTISM, _Page_ 25

CHAPTER II.
THE CAUSES OF PROTESTANTISM.

What ought to be attributed to the genius of its founders--Different causes assigned for it--Errors on this subject--Opinions of Guizot--Of Bossuet--True cause of Protestantism to be found in the social condition of European nations, 28

CHAPTER III.
EXTRAORDINARY PHENOMENON IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.

Divinity of the Catholic Church proved by its relations with the human mind--Remarkable acknowledgment of M. Guizot--Consequences of that acknowledgment, 38

CHAPTER IV.
PROTESTANTISM AND THE HUMAN MIND.

Protestantism contains a principle of dissolution--It tends naturally to destroy all faith--Dangerous direction given to the human mind--Description of the human mind, 42

CHAPTER V.
INSTINCT OF FAITH IN THE SCIENCES.

Instinct of faith--This instinct extends to all the sciences--Newton, Descartes--Observations on the history of philosophy--Proselytism--Present condition of the human mind, 46

CHAPTER VI.
DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS WANTS OF NATIONS--MATHEMATICS--MORAL SCIENCES.

Important error committed by Protestantism, with regard to the religious government of the human mind, 50

CHAPTER VII.
INDIFFERENCE AND FANATICISM.

Two opposite evils, fruits of Protestantism--Origin of fanaticism--The Church has prepared the history of the human mind--Private interpretation of the Bible--Passage from O'Callaghan--Description of the Bible, 53

CHAPTER VIII.
FANATICISM--ITS DEFINITION--FANATICISM IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.

Connexion between fanaticism and religious feeling--Impossibility of destroying it--Means of diminishing it--The Church has used these means, and with what result?--Observations on the pretended Catholic fanatics--Description of the religious excitement of the founders of orders in the Church, 57

CHAPTER IX.
INCREDULITY AND RELIGIOUS INDIFFERENCE IN EUROPE THE FRUITS
OF PROTESTANTISM.

Lamentable symptoms of these from the beginning of Protestantism--Remarkable religious crisis in the latter part of the seventeenth century--Bossuet and Leibnitz--The Jansenists--Their influence--Dictionary of Bayle--The epoch when that work appeared--State of opinions among the Protestants, 60

CHAPTER X.
CAUSES OF THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE OF PROTESTANTISM.

Important question with regard to the continuance of Protestantism--Religious indifference with respect to man collectively and individually--European societies with relation to Mahometanism and idolatry--How Catholicity and Protestantism are capable of defending the truth--Intimate connexion between Christianity and European civilization, 64

CHAPTER XI.
THE POSITIVE DOCTRINES OF PROTESTANTISM ARE REPUGNANT TO THE INSTINCT
OF CIVILIZATION.

Doctrines of Protestantism divided into positive and negative--Singular phenomenon: one of the principal dogmas of the founders of Protestantism repugnant to European civilization--Eminent service which Catholicity has done to civilization by defending free will--Nature of error--Nature of truth, 68

CHAPTER XII.
EFFECTS WHICH THE INTRODUCTION OF PROTESTANTISM INTO SPAIN WOULD HAVE
PRODUCED.

Present state of religious ideas in Europe--Victories of religion--State of science and literature--Condition of modern society--Conjectures on the future influence of Catholicity--Is it probable that Protestantism will be introduced into Spain?--England--Her connexion with Spain--Pitt--Nature of religious ideas in Spain--Situation of Spain--How she may be regenerated, 70

CHAPTER XIII.
PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY IN THEIR RELATION TO SOCIAL
PROGRESS--PRELIMINARY COUP D'ŒIL.

Commencement of the parallel--Liberty--Vague meaning of the word--European civilization chiefly due to Catholicity--East and West--Conjectures on the destinies of Catholicity amid the catastrophies that may threaten in Europe--Observations on philosophical studies--Fatalism of a certain modern historical school, 79

CHAPTER XIV.
DID THERE EXIST, AT THE TIME WHEN CHRISTIANITY APPEARED, ANOTHER
PRINCIPLE OF REGENERATION?

Condition, religious, social, and scientific, of the world at the appearance of Christianity--Roman law--The influence of Christian ideas thereon--Evils of the political organization of the empire--System adopted by Christianity; her first care was to change ideas--Christianity and Paganism with regard to the teaching of moral doctrines--Protestant preaching, 84

CHAPTER XV.
DIFFICULTIES WHICH CHRISTIANITY HAD TO OVERCOME IN THE WORK OF SOCIAL
REGENERATION--SLAVERY--COULD IT HAVE BEEN DESTROYED MORE SPEEDILY THAN
IT WAS BY CHRISTIANITY?

The Church was not only a great and productive school, but she was also a regenerating association--What she had to do--Difficulties which she had to overcome--Slavery--By whom was it abolished?--Opinion of M. Guizot--Immense number of the slaves--Caution necessary in the abolition of slavery--Was immediate abolition possible?--Refutation of the opinion of M. Guizot, 90

CHAPTER XVI.
IDEAS AND MANNERS OF ANTIQUITY RESPECTING SLAVERY--THE CHURCH BEGINS
BY IMPROVING THE CONDITION OF SLAVES.

The Catholic Church not only employs her doctrines, her maxims, and her spirit of charity, but also makes use of practical means in the abolition of slavery--Point of view in which this historical fact ought to be considered--False ideas of the ancients on the subject--Homer, Plato, Aristotle--Christianity began forthwith to combat these errors--Christian doctrines on the connexion between master and slave--The Church employs herself in improving the condition of slaves, 94

CHAPTER XVII.
MEANS USED BY THE CHURCH TO ENFRANCHISE SLAVES.

1st. She zealously defends the liberty of the enfranchised--Manumission in the churches--Effects of this practice--2d. Redemption of captives--Zeal of the Church in practising and extending the redemption of captives--Prejudices of the Romans on this point--The zeal of the Church for this object contributes, in an extraordinary degree, to the abolition of slavery--The Church protects the liberty of the free, 102

CHAPTER XVIII.
CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT.

3d. System of the Church with regard to slaves belonging to Jews--Motives which actuated the Church in the enfranchisement of her own slaves--Her indulgence to them--Her generosity towards the freed--The slaves of the Church considered as consecrated to God--Salutary effects of this way of viewing them--4th. Liberty is granted to those who wish to embrace the monastic state--Effects of this practice--Conduct of the Church with regard to the ordination of slaves--Abuses introduced in this respect checked--Discipline of the Spanish Church on this point, 106

CHAPTER XIX.
DOCTRINES OF ST. AUGUSTIN AND ST. THOMAS OF AQUIN ON THE SUBJECT OF
SLAVERY--RECAPITULATION.

Doctrine of St. Augustin on this subject--Importance of this doctrine with respect to the abolition of slavery--Refutation of M. Guizot--Doctrine of St. Thomas on the same subject--Marriage of slaves--Regulation of canon law on that subject--Résumé of the means employed by the Church in the abolition of slavery--Refutation of M. Guizot--The abolition of slavery exclusively due to Catholicity--Protestantism had no share therein, 111

CHAPTER XX.
CONTRAST BETWEEN THE TWO KINDS OF CIVILIZATION.

Picture of modern civilization--Civilizations not Christian--Civilization is composed of three elements: the individual, the family, and the society--The perfectness of these three elements depends on the perfectness of doctrines, 115

CHAPTER XXI.
OF THE INDIVIDUAL--OF THE FEELING OF INDIVIDUALITY OUT OF
CHRISTIANITY.

Distinction between the individual and the citizen--Of the individuality of barbarians according to M. Guizot--Whether in antiquity individuality belonged exclusively to the barbarians--Twofold principle of the feeling of personal independence--This feeling infinitely modified--Picture of barbarian life--True character of individuality among the barbarians--Avowal of M. Guizot--The feeling of individuality, according to the definition of M. Guizot, belongs in a certain way to all the ancient nations, 118

CHAPTER XXII.
HOW THE INDIVIDUAL BECAME ABSORBED BY THE ANCIENT SOCIETY.

Respect for _man_ unknown to the ancients--What has been seen in modern revolutions--Tyranny of public power over private interests--Explanation of a twofold phenomenon, which presents itself to us in antiquity and in modern societies not Christian--Opinion of Aristotle--Remarkable characteristic of modern democracy, 126

CHAPTER XXIII.
OF THE PROGRESS OF INDIVIDUALITY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.

The feeling of true independence was possessed by the faithful of the primitive Church--Error of M. Guizot on this point: 1st, dignity of conscience sustained by the Christian society; 2d, feeling of duty; language of St. Cyprian; 3d, development of the interior life; 4th, defence of free will by the Catholic Church--Conclusion, 131

CHAPTER XXIV.
OF THE FAMILY--MONOGAMY--MARRIAGE-TIE INDISSOLUBLE.

Woman ennobled by Catholicity alone--Practical means employed by the Church to raise woman--Christian doctrine on the dignity of woman--Monogamy--Different conduct of Catholicity and Protestantism on this point--Firmness of Rome with respect to marriage--Effects of that firmness--Doctrine of Luther--Indissolubility of marriage--Of divorce among Protestants--Effects of Catholic doctrine with regard to this sacrament, 135

CHAPTER XXV.
THE PASSION OF LOVE.

Pretended rigor of Catholicity with respect to unhappy marriages--Two systems of governing the passions--Protestant system--Catholic system--Examples--Passion of gambling--Explosion of the passions in time of public troubles--Of the passion of love--Its inconstancy--Marriage alone is not a sufficient control--What is wanted to make it a control--Of the unity and fixity of Catholic doctrine--Conclusion, 140

CHAPTER XXVI.
OF VIRGINITY IN ITS SOCIAL ASPECT.

Of the ennoblement of woman by virginity--Conduct of Protestantism on this point--Close analysis of the heart of woman--Of virginity with respect to population--England--Serious thoughts required for the mind of woman--Salutary influence of monastic customs--General method of appreciation, 146

CHAPTER XXVII.
OF CHIVALRY, AND THE MANNERS OF THE BARBARIANS IN THEIR INFLUENCE ON
THE CONDITION OF WOMAN.

The life of feudal lords according to M. Guizot--The passions and faith in chivalry--Chivalry did not ennoble woman, it supposed her to be ennobled--Of the respect of the Germans for woman--Analysis of a passage of Tacitus--Reflections on that historian--It is difficult thoroughly to understand the manners of the Germans--Action of Catholicity--Important distinction between Christianity and Catholicity--That the Germans of themselves were incapable of giving dignity to woman, 150

CHAPTER XXVIII.
OF THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE IN GENERAL.

What the public conscience is--Influence of the feelings on the public conscience in general--Education contributes to form the conscience--State of the public conscience in modern times--What has been able to form the public conscience in Europe--Successive contests maintained by Christian morality, 157

CHAPTER XXIX.
OF THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE ACCORDING TO
MONTESQUIEU--HONOR--VIRTUE.

Institution of censors according to Montesquieu--Two kinds of prejudice in the author of the _Esprit des Lois_--He assigns honor as the principle of monarchies, and virtue as that of republics--Explanation of the feeling of honor--What is required to strengthen this feeling--The censorial power replaced by the religious--Examples--Contrasts, 161