Chapter XXX

ON THE DIFFERENT INFLUENCE OF PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY ON THE
PUBLIC CONSCIENCE.

Catholicity considered as a creed--As an institution--Ideas, in order to be efficacious, must be realized in an institution--What Protestantism has done to destroy Christian morality--What it has done to preserve it--What is the real power of preaching among Protestants--Of the sacrament of penance with relation to the public conscience--Of the degree to which the Catholic religion raises morality--Of unity in the soul--Unity simplifies--Of the great number of moralists within the bosom of the Catholic Church--Of the peculiar force of ideas--Distinction between ideas with respect to their peculiar force--Whether the human race is a faithful depositary of the truth--How the truth has been preserved among the Jews--The native power of Schools--Institutions are required, not only to teach, but also to apply doctrines--Of the press with relation to the preservation of ideas--Of intuition--Of discourses, 165

CHAPTER XXXI.
OF GENTLENESS OF MANNERS IN GENERAL.

Wherein gentleness of manners consists--Difference between gentle and effeminate manners--Influence of the Catholic Church in softening manners--Pagan and Christian societies--Slavery--Paternal authority--Public games--Reflections on Spanish bull-fights, 172

CHAPTER XXXII.
OF THE AMELIORATION OF MANNERS BY THE ACTION OF THE CHURCH.

Elements adapted to perpetuate harshness of manners in the bosom of modern society--Conduct of the Church in this respect--Remarkable canons and facts--St. Ambrose and the Emperor Theodosius--The Truce of God--Very remarkable regulations of the ecclesiastical authority on this subject, 175

CHAPTER XXXIII.
OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC BENEFICENCE IN EUROPE.

Difference between Protestantism and Catholicity with respect to public beneficence--Paradox of Montesquieu--Remarkable canons of the Church--Injury done by Protestantism to the development of public beneficence--The value of philanthropy, 184

CHAPTER XXXIV.
OF TOLERANCE IN MATTERS OF RELIGION.

The question of intolerance has been examined with bad faith--What tolerance is--Tolerance of opinions--Of error--Tolerance in the individual--With religious men--With unbelievers--Two kinds of religious men--Two kinds of unbelievers--Tolerance in society--What is its origin?--Source of the tolerance which prevails in society at present, 189

CHAPTER XXXV.
OF THE RIGHT OF COERCION IN GENERAL.

Intolerance is a general fact in history--Dialogues with the partisans of universal tolerance--Does there exist a right of punishing doctrines?--Researches into the origin of that right--Disastrous influence of Protestantism and infidelity in this matter--Of the importance which Catholicity attaches to the sin of heresy--Inconsistency of certain timid Voltairians--Another reflection on the right of punishing doctrines--Résumé, 196

CHAPTER XXXVI.
OF THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.

Institutions and legislation founded on intolerance--Causes of the rigor displayed in the early times of the Inquisition--Three epochs in the history of the Inquisition in Spain: against the Jews and Moors; against the Protestants; against the unbelievers--Severities of the Inquisition--Causes of those severities--Conduct of the Popes in that matter--Mildness of the Roman Inquisition--The intolerance of Luther with respect to the Jews--The Moors and Moriscoes, 203

CHAPTER XXXVII.
SECOND PERIOD OF THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.

New Inquisition attributed to Philip II.--Opinion of M. Lacordaire--Prejudice against Philip II.--Observations on the work called _Inquisition Dévoilée_--Rapid _coup d'œil_ at the second epoch of the Inquisition--Trial of Carranza--Observation on this trial, and on the personal qualities of the illustrious accused--Why there is so much partiality against Philip II.--Reflections on the policy of that monarch--Singular anecdote of a preacher who was compelled to retract--Reflections on the influence of the spirit of the age, 210

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THEMSELVES.

Conduct of Protestantism with respect to religious institutions--Whether these institutions have been of importance in history--Sophism on the subject of the real origin of religious institutions--Their correct definition--Of association among the early faithful--The faithful dispersed in the deserts--Relations between the Papacy and religious institutions--Of an essential want of the human heart--Of Christian pensiveness--Of the need of associations for the practice of perfection--Of vows--A vow is the most perfect act of liberty--True notion of liberty, 219

CHAPTER XXXIX.
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORY--THE EARLY SOLITARIES.

Character of religious institutions in a historical point of view--The Roman empire--The barbarians--The early Christians--Condition of the Church when Christianity ascended the throne of the Cæsars--Life of the fathers of the desert--Influence of the solitaries on philosophy and manners--The heroism of penance saves morality--The most corrupting climate chosen for the triumph of the most austere virtues, 229

CHAPTER XL.
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE EAST.

Influence of monasteries in the East--Why civilization triumphed in the West and perished in the East--Influence of the Eastern monasteries on Arabian civilization, 234

CHAPTER XLI.
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF THE WEST.

Peculiar character of religious institutions in the West--St. Benedict--Struggle of the monks against the decline of things--Origin of monastic property--The possessions of the monks serve to create respect for property--Population becomes spread over the country--Science and letters in cloisters Gratian--arouses the study of law, 238

CHAPTER XLII.
OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE MIDDLE AGES IN
THE WEST--THE MILITARY ORDERS.

Character of the military orders--Opinion of the Crusades--The foundation of the military orders is a continuation of the Crusades, 242

CHAPTER XLIII.
CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT--EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

Transformation of the monastic spirit in the thirteenth century--Religious institutions arise every where--Character of European opposed to that of other civilizations--Mixture of various elements in the spirit of the thirteenth century--Semi-barbarous society--Christianity and barbarism--A delusion common in the study of history--Condition of Europe at the beginning of the thirteenth century--Wars become more popular--Why the intellectual movement began in Spain sooner than in the rest of Europe--Ebullition of evil during the course of the twelfth century--Tanchème--Eon--The Manichees--Vaudois--Religious movement at the beginning of the thirteenth century--The mendicant and preaching orders--The character of these orders--Their influence--Their relations with the Papacy, 244

CHAPTER XLIV.
RELIGIOUS ORDERS FOR THE REDEMPTION OF CAPTIVES.

Multitude of Christians reduced to slavery--Religious orders for the redemption of captives were necessary--The Order of the Trinity and that of Mercy--St. Peter Armengol, 256

CHAPTER XLV.
UNIVERSAL ADVANCE OF CIVILIZATION IMPEDED BY PROTESTANTISM.

Effects of Protestantism on the progress of civilization in the world, beginning with the sixteenth century--What enabled civilization, during the middle ages, to triumph over barbarism--Picture of Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century--The civilizing missions of the 16th century interrupted by the schism of Luther--Why the action of the Church on barbarous nations has lost power during three centuries--Whether the Christianity of our days is less adapted to propagate the faith than that of the early ages of the Church--Christian missions in the early times of the Church--What the real mission of Luther has been, 260

CHAPTER XLVI.
THE JESUITS.

Their importance in the history of European civilization--Causes of the hatred which has been excited against them--Character of the Jesuits--Contradiction of M. Guizot on this subject--Whether it be true, as M. Guizot says, that the Jesuits have destroyed nations in Spain--Facts and dates--Unjust accusations against the Company of Jesus, 268

CHAPTER XLVII.
THE FUTURE OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS--THEIR PRESENT NECESSITY.

Present state of religious institutions--Picture of society--Inability of industry and commerce to satisfy the heart of man--Condition of minds with respect to religion--Religious institutions will be necessary to save existing society--Nothing fixed in that society--Means are wanting for social organization--The march of European nations has been perverted--Physical means of restraining the masses--Moral means are required--Religious institutions reconcilable with the advancement of modern times, 274

CHAPTER XLVIII.
RELIGION AND LIBERTY.

Rousseau--The Protestants Divine law--Origin of power--False interpretation of the divine law--St. John Chrysostom--On paternal authority--Relations between paternal authority and civil power, 281

CHAPTER XLIX.
THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY, ACCORDING TO CATHOLIC THEOLOGIANS.

Doctrines of theologians on the origin of society--The character of Catholic theologians compared to that of modern writers--St. Thomas--Bellarmin--Suarez--St. Alphonsus de Liguori--Father Concina--Billuart--The _Compendium_ of Salamanca, 288

CHAPTER L.
OF DIVINE LAW, ACCORDING TO CATHOLIC DOCTORS.

On the divine law--Divine origin of civil power--In what manner God communicates this power--Rousseau--On pacts--The right of life and death--The right of war--Power must necessarily emanate from God--Puffendorf--Hobbes, 298

CHAPTER LI.
THE TRANSMISSION OF POWER, ACCORDING TO CATHOLIC DOCTORS.

_Direct_ or _indirect_ communication of civil power--The distinction between the two opinions important in some respects; in others, not so--Why Catholic theologians have so zealously maintained the doctrine of mediate communication, 305

CHAPTER LII.
ON THE FREEDOM OF LANGUAGE UNDER THE SPANISH MONARCHY.

Influence of doctrines on society--Flattery lavished on power--Danger of this flattery--Liberty of speech on this point in Spain during the last three centuries--Mariana--Saavedra--In the absence of religion and morality, the most rigorous political doctrines are incapable of saving society--Why the conservative schools of our days are powerless--Seneca--Cicero--Hobbes--Bellarmin, 311

CHAPTER LIII.
OF THE FACULTIES OF THE CIVIL POWER.

Of the faculties of civil power--Calumnies of the enemies of the Church--Definition of _law_ according to St. Thomas--General reason and general will--The venerable Palafox--Hobbes--Grotius--The doctrines of certain Protestants favorable to despotism--Justification of the Catholic Church, 317

CHAPTER LIV.
ON RESISTANCE TO THE CIVIL POWER.

Of resistance to the civil power--Parallel between Protestantism and Catholicity on this point--Unfounded apprehensions of certain minds--Attitude of revolutions in this age--The principle inculcated by Catholicity on the obligation of obeying the lawful authorities--Preliminary questions--Difference between the two powers--Conduct of Catholicity and Protestantism with regard to the separation of the two powers--The independence of the spiritual power a guarantee of liberty to the people--Extremes which meet--The doctrine of St. Thomas on obedience, 324

CHAPTER LV.
ON RESISTANCE TO DE FACTO GOVERNMENTS.

Governments existing merely _de facto_--Right of resistance to these governments--Napoleon and the Spanish nation--Fallacy of the doctrine establishing the obligation of obedience to mere _de facto_ governments--Investigation of certain difficulties--Accomplished facts--How we are to understand the respect due to accomplished facts, 330

CHAPTER LVI.
HOW IT IS ALLOWED TO RESIST THE CIVIL POWER.

On resistance to lawful authority--The doctrines of the Council of Constance on the assassination of a king--A reflection on the inviolability of kings--Extreme cases--Doctrine of St. Thomas of Aquin, Cardinal Bellarmin, Suarez, and other theologians--The Abbé de Lamennais' errors--He is wrong in imagining that his doctrine, condemned by the Pope, is the same as St. Thomas of Aquin's--A parallel between the doctrines of St. Thomas and those of the Abbé de Lamennais--A word on the temporal power of the Popes--Ancient doctrines on resistance to power--Language of the Counsellors of Barcelona--The doctrine of certain theologians on the case of the Sovereign Pontiff's falling into heresy in his private capacity--Why the Church has been calumniously accused of being sometimes favorable to despotism, and sometimes to anarchy, 336

CHAPTER LVII.
ON POLITICAL SOCIETY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

The Church and political forms--Protestantism and liberty--Language of M. Guizot--The state of the question better defined--Europe at the end of the fifteenth century--Social aristocracy, and democracy, 343

CHAPTER LVIII.
ON MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

The idea entertained of monarchy at this period--The application of this idea--Difference between monarchy and despotism--The nature of monarchy at the commencement of the sixteenth century--Its relations with the Church, 346

CHAPTER LIX.
ON ARISTOCRACY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

The nobility and the clergy--The differences between these two aristocracies--The nobility and monarchy--Differences between them--An intermediate class between the throne and the people--The causes of the fall of the nobility, 348

CHAPTER LX.
ON DEMOCRACY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

The opinion entertained of democracy--The prevailing doctrines of that epoch--The doctrines of Aristotle neutralised by the teaching of Christianity--On castes--A passage from M. Guizot on castes--Influence of the celibacy of the clergy in preventing an hereditary succession--The consequences resulting from a married clergy--Catholicity and the people--Development of the industrial classes in Europe--The Hanseatic Confederation--_Establishment of the trades-corporations of Paris_--Industrial movement in Italy and Spain--Calvinism and the democratic element--Protestantism and the democrats of the sixteenth century, 350

CHAPTER LXI.
VALUE OF DIFFERENT POLITICAL FORMS--CHARACTER OF MONARCHY IN EUROPE.

Value of political forms--Catholicity and liberty--Monarchy was essential--Character of European monarchy--Difference between Europe and Asia--Quotation from Count de Maistre--An institution for the limiting of power--Political liberty not indebted to Protestantism--Influence of Councils--The aristocracy of talent encouraged by the Church, 356

CHAPTER LXII.
HOW MONARCHY WAS STRENGTHENED IN EUROPE.

Monarchy in the sixteenth century is strengthened in Europe--Its preponderance over free institutions--Why the word _liberty_ is a scandal to some people--Protestantism contributed to the destruction of popular institutions, 361

CHAPTER LXIII.
TWO SORTS OF DEMOCRACY.

Two sorts of democracy--Their parallel march in the history of Europe--Their characters--Their causes and effects--Why absolutism became necessary in Europe--Historical facts--France--England--Sweden--Denmark--Germany, 364

CHAPTER LXIV.
CONTEST BETWEEN THE THREE SOCIAL ELEMENTS.

Contest between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy--How monarchy came to prevail--Fatal effects of the weakening of the political influence of the clergy--Advantages which might have arisen from this influence to popular institutions--Relations of the clergy with all powers and classes of society, 370

CHAPTER LXV.
POLITICAL DOCTRINES BEFORE THE APPEARANCE OF PROTESTANTISM.

Parallel between the political doctrines of the eighteenth century, those of modern publicists, and those which prevailed in Europe before the appearance of Protestantism--Protestantism has prevented the homogeneity of European civilization--Historical proofs, 374

CHAPTER LXVI.
OF POLITICAL DOCTRINES IN SPAIN.

Catholicity and politics in Spain--Real state of the question--Five causes contributed to the overthrow of popular institutions in Spain--Difference between ancient and modern liberty--The _Communeros_ of Castille--The policy of her kings--Ferdinand the Catholic and Ximenes--Charles V.--Philip II., 377

CHAPTER LXVII.
POLITICAL LIBERTY AND RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE.

Political liberty and religious intolerance--Europe was developed under the exclusive influence of Catholicity--Picture of Europe from the eleventh to the fourteenth century--Condition of the social problem at the end of the fifteenth century--Temporal power of the Popes--Its character, origin, and effects, 382

CHAPTER LXVIII.
UNITY IN FAITH RECONCILED WITH POLITICAL LIBERTY.

It is false that unity of faith is opposed to political liberty--Impiety is allied with liberty or despotism, according to circumstances--Modern revolutions--Difference between the revolution of the United States and that of France--Pernicious effects of the French revolution--Liberty impossible without morality--Remarkable passage from St. Augustin on forms of government, 388

CHAPTER LXIX.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.

Catholicity in its relations with intellectual development--What is the influence of the principle of submission to authority--What are the effects of this principle with respect to all the sciences--Parallel between ancients and moderns--God--Man--Society--Nature, 392

CHAPTER LXX.
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT.

Historical investigation of the influence of Catholicity on the development of the human mind--Refutation of one of M. Guizot's opinions--John Erigena--Roscelin and Abelard--St. Anselm, 398

CHAPTER LXXI.
RELIGION AND THE HUMAN INTELLECT IN EUROPE.

Religion and the human intellect in Europe--Difference between the intellectual development of the nations of antiquity and those of Europeans--Causes that have accelerated this development in Europe--Origin of the spirit of subtilty--Service which the Church rendered to the human mind by her opposition to the subtilties of the innovators--Parallel between Roscelin and St. Anselm--Reflections on St. Bernard--St. Thomas of Aquin--Advantage of his dictatorship in the schools--Advent of St. Thomas in the middle ages of immense advantage to me human mind, 404

CHAPTER LXXII.
PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND FROM THE ELEVENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT
TIME.

Progress of the human mind from the eleventh century to our own times--Different phases--Protestantism and Catholicity in their relations to learning, to criticism, to the learned languages, to the foundation of universities, to the progress of literature and the arts, to mysticism, to high philosophy, to metaphysics, to ethics, to religious philosophy, and to the philosophy of history, 412

CHAPTER LXXIII.
SUMMARY OF THE WORK--DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR.

Summary of the work--The author submits it to the judgment of the Roman Church, 419

NOTES