Chapter IX: Preparing Food (3)

Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry making--especially puff pastry--three things should be observed: (1) have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3) handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put into the oven. Have the oven very hot.

PUFF PASTE.

1 lb. flour.
1 lb. butter.
Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough.

If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard. Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times. If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a cover for chicken pie.

PLAIN PASTRY.

2 cups flour.
1 cup butter or lard.

Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place for at least 1/2 hour before baking.

PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC.

1 pint flour.
1/2 tsp. soda.
1 tsp. cream tartar
Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.
1 egg.
1/2 tsp. salt.
1 tsp. cream tartar.
1/4 cup butter or dripping.
1 cup milk.

Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.

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MISCELLANEOUS.

SHEPHERD'S PIE.

Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1 cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.

BEEF STEW.

Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about 1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry. When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2 small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely and cook just 10 minutes.

STUFFED TOMATOES.

Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley, and serve.

STEWED KIDNEYS.

Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer 1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is prepared.

CREAMED EGGS.

Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for about 3 minutes, then serve.

BUTTERED TOAST.

Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.

CROUTONS (FOR SOUP).

Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into 1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.

FRENCH TOAST.

1 egg.
1 cup milk.
1 ssp. salt.
4 to 6 slices of stale bread.

Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.

SANDWICHES.

Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)

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A FEW GENERAL HINTS.

HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS.

Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub between the hands.

TO CLEAN CURRANTS.

Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover closely, and they are ready for use at any time.

SERVING FOOD.

Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets, carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.

Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to vary the decoration.

CANNING AND PRESERVING.

Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking. Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency, screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10 minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils. Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit, or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not be done until the fruit has become cold.

PRESERVING.

Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.

JELLIES.

Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar. Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a spoon.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.

Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats. Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled) is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over exertion of any kind.

See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.

All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more difficult to clean.

DISH WASHING.

Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.

One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut, use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish towels, dish cloth and dish pan.

Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits of turpentine.

VENTILATION AND SANITATION.

As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1. See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry. Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4. Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be neglected.

One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.

If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.

When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the night.

Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very cold weather.

LAUNDRY WORK.

As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found. The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such water is known as "hard."

Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why "hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely upon soap for cleansing.

Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised. Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot water.

_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap. Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.

Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water. Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used. Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2 tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.

The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water. Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered. Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene before water and soap touch them.

Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears. Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight stain.

Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer. When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.

Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes. This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed. The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because the temperature is so quickly lowered.

The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and disinfectant.

WASHING OF WOOLLENS.

All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be used to make the water very soft.

Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, for the teeth become knotted and hard.

COLORED COTTONS.

Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware. The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place. Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.

Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease, lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.

All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.

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CARING FOR INVALIDS.

One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but injurious.

One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient. Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire. Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.

One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing. Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly, albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together), and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence, any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.

People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals, and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for invalids.

BEVERAGES.

_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be added while boiling if desired.

_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to taste; serve when cold.

_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon juice and sugar.

_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or cold as required.

_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade.

MEAT EXTRACTIVES.

_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through, then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry toast.

_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to 160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press, strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.

_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour, stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point. Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer; allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)

_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60 grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel placed in hot water.

_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain, and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg. Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared with the egg.

_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain, season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken off with a spoon.

_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. Then boil the water.

_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste, and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.

_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk. Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A pinch of salt may be added if desired.

_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2 teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk of the egg makes it more palatable.

_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind, and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used for this soup.)

_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds; take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)

_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink, add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot or cold.

_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point, and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.

_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4 inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the chicken when cooking.)

_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be added if the flavor is liked.)

_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See recipes in preceding chapters.)

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A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.

"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits, which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.

"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anæmia and chlorosis, which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)

An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite, increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.