Chapter II

[II-1] _A Lecture on the Study of History_, delivered at Cambridge, June 11, 1895, by Lord Acton, p. 9.

[II-2] W. Sombart (_Der moderne Kapitalismus_, 1916, vol. i, pp. 524-6) gives facts and figures. See also J. Strieder, _Studien zur Geschichte kapitalistischer Organisationsformen_, 1914, kap. i, ii.

[II-3] E. R. Daenell, _Die Blütezeit der Deutschen Hanse_, 1905; Schanz, _Englische Handelspolitik gegen die Ende des Mittelalters_, vol. i; N. S. B. Gras, _The Early English Customs System_, 1918, pp. 452-514.

[II-4] _E.g._, _The Fugger News-Letters, 1568-1605_, ed. V. von Klarwill, trans. P. de Chary, 1924.

[II-5] E. Albèri, _Le Relazione degli Ambasciatori Veneti al Senato_, serie I, vol. iii, 1853, p. 357 (_Relazione di Filippo II Re di Spagna da Michele Soriano nel 1559_): “Questi sono li tesori del re di Spagna, queste le miniere, queste l’Indie che hanno sostentato l’imprese dell’ Imperatore tanti anni.”

[II-6] The best contemporary picture of the trade of Antwerp is that of L. Guicciardini, _Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi_ (1567), of which part is reprinted in a French translation in Tawney and Power, _Tudor Economic Documents_, vol. iii, pp. 149-173. The best modern accounts of Antwerp are given by Pirenne, _Histoire de Belgique_, vol. ii, pp. 399-403, and vol. iii, pp. 259-72; Ehrenberg, _Das Zeitalter der Fugger_, vol. ii, pp. 3-68; and J. A. Goris, _Étude sur les Colonies Marchandes Méridionales à Anvers de 1488 à 1567_ (1925).

[II-7] The Meutings had opened a branch in Antwerp in 1479, the Hochstetters in 1486, the Fuggers in 1508, the Welsers in 1509 (Pirenne, _op. cit._, vol. iii, p. 261).

[II-8] Pirenne, _op. cit._, vol. iii, pp. 273-6.

[II-9] Ehrenberg, _op. cit._, vol. ii, pp. 7-8.

[II-10] A short account of international financial relations in the sixteenth century will be found in my introduction to Thomas Wilson’s _Discourse upon Usury_, 1925, pp. 60-86.

[II-11] Erasmus, _Adagia_; see also _The Complaint of Peace_.

[II-12] For the Fuggers, see Ehrenberg, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 85-186, and for the other German firms mentioned, _ibid._, pp. 187-269.

[II-13] See Goris, _op. cit._, pp. 510-45, where the reply of the Paris theologians is printed in full; and Ehrenberg, _op. cit._, vol. ii, pp. 18, 21. For Bellarmin, see Goris, _op. cit._, pp. 551-2. A curious illustration of the manner in which it was still thought necessary in the later sixteenth century, and in Protestant England, to reconcile economic policy with canonist doctrine, will be found in S.P.D. Eliz., vol. lxxv, no. 54 (printed in Tawney and Power, _Tudor Economic Documents_, vol. iii, pp. 359-70). The writer, who is urging the repeal of the Act of 1552 forbidding all interest whatever, cites Aquinas and Hostiensis to prove that “trewe and unfayned interest” is not to be condemned as usury.

[II-14] Ashley, _Economic History_, 1893, vol. i, pt. ii, pp. 442-3.

[II-15] Bodin, _La Response de Jean Bodin aux Paradoxes de Malestroit touchant l’enchérissement de toutes choses et le moyen d’y remédier_.

[II-16] See Max Neumann, _Geschichte des Wuchers in Deutschland_, 1865, pp. 487 _seqq._

[II-17] Calvin’s views will be found in his _Epistolæ et Responsa_, 1575, pp. 355-7, and in Sermon xxviii in the Opera.

[II-18] Bucer, _De Regno Christi_.

[II-19] _Third Decade_, 1st and 2nd Sermons, in _The Decades of Henry Bullinger_ (Parker Society), vol. iii, 1850.

[II-20] Luther, _Kleiner Sermon vom Wucher_ (1519) in _Werke_ (Weimar ed.), vol. vi, pp. 1-8; _Grosser Sermon vom Wucher_ (1520), in _ibid._, pp. 33-60; _Von Kaufshandlung und Wucher_ (1524), in _ibid._, vol. xv, pp. 279-322; _An die Pfarrherrn wider den Wucher zu predigen, Vermahnung_ (1540), in _ibid._, vol. li, pp. 325-424.

[II-21] “_Hie müsste man wahrlich auch den Fuckern und der geistlichen Gesellschaft einen Zaum ins Maul legen_” (quoted by Ehrenberg, _op. cit._, vol. 1, p. 117 n.)

[II-22] See pp. 114-15.

[II-23] Luther, _Wider die räuberischen und mörderischen Rotten der Bauern_ (1525), in _Werke_, vol. xviii, pp. 357-61.

[II-24] Latimer, _Sermons_; Ponet, _An Exhortation, or rather a Warning, to the Lords and Commons_; Crowley, _The Way to Wealth_, and _Epigrams_ (in _Select Works of Robert Crowley_, ed. J. M. Cowper, E.E.T.S., 1872); Lever, _Sermons_, 1550 (English Reprints, ed. E. Arber, 1895); Becon, _The Jewel of Joy_, 1553; Sandys, 2nd, 10th, 11th, and 12th of _Sermons_ (Parker Society, 1841); Jewel, _Works_, pt. iv, pp. 1293-8 (Parker Society, 1850). Citations from less well-known writers and preachers will be found in J. O. W. Haweis, _Sketches of the Reformation_, 1844.

[II-25] Gairdner, _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII_, vol. xvi, no. 357.

[II-26] Bossuet, _Traité de l’Usure_. For an account of his views, see Favre, _Le prêt a intérêt dans l’ancienne France_.

[II-27] _Brief Survey of the Growth of Usury in England with the Mischiefs attending it_, 1673.

[II-28] For an account of these changes see K. Lamprecht, _Zum Verständnis der wirthschaftlichen und sozialen Wandlungen in Deutschland vom 14. zum 16. Jahrhundert_, in the _Zeitschrift für Sozial- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_, Bd. i, 1893, pp. 191 _seqq._

[II-29] Lamprecht, _op. cit._, and J. S. Schapiro, _Social Reform and the Reformation_, 1909, pp. 40-73.

[II-30] Schapiro, _op. cit._, pp. 20-39, and Strieder, _op. cit._ (see note 2), pp. 156-212.

[II-31] For the so-called Reformation of the Emperor Sigismund see Chap. I, note 24, and for the Peasants’ Articles, _ibid._, note 108.

[II-32] For Geiler von Kaiserberg and Hipler see Schapiro, _op. cit._, pp. 30, 126-31. For Hutten see H. Wiskemann, _Dartstellung der in Deutschland zur Zeit der Reformation herrschenden Nationalökonomischen Ansichten_, 1861, pp. 13-24.

[II-33] Quoted W. Raleigh, _The English Voyages of the Sixteenth Century_, 1910, p. 28.

[II-34] Troeltsch, _Protestantism and Progress_, 1912, pp. 44-52.

[II-35] Schapiro, _op. cit._, p. 137.

[II-36] See citations in Wiskemann, _op. cit._, pp. 47-8, and, for a discussion of Luther’s social theory, Troeltsch, _Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirchen_, 1912, pp. 549-93.

[II-37] Luther, _An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation_ (1520), in _Werke_, vol. vi, pp. 381 _seqq._

[II-38] Schapiro, _op. cit._, p. 139.

[II-39] Luther, _Ermahnung zum Frieden auf die zwölf Artikel der Bauerschaft in Schwaben_ (1525), in _Werke_, vol. xviii, p. 327.

[II-40] _Von Kaufshandlung und Wucher_, in _ibid._, vol. xv, p. 295.

[II-41] _An den christlichen Adel_, in _ibid._, vol. vi, p. 466 (quoted by R. H. Murray, _Erasmus and Luther_, 1920, p. 239).

[II-42] _Von Kaufshandlung und Wucher_, in _ibid._, vol. xv, pp. 293-4, 312.

[II-43] _Concerning Christian Liberty_, in Wace and Buchheim, _Luther’s Primary Works_, 1896, pp. 256-7.

[II-44] _Grosser Sermon vom Wucher_, in _Werke_, vol. vi, p. 49.

[II-45] See note 73 on Chapter I.

[II-46] Printed in Neumann, _Geschichte des Wuchers in Deutschland_, Beilage F, pp. 618-19.

[II-47] _Concerning Christian Liberty_, in Wace and Buchheim, _op. cit._, pp. 258-9.

[II-48] _Von Kaufshandlung und Wucher_, in _Werke_, vol. xv, p. 302.

[II-49] Zwingli, _Von der göttlichen und menschlichen Gerechtigkeit, oder von dem göttlichen Gesetze und den bürgerlichen Gesetzen_, printed in R. Christoffel, _H. Zwingli, Leben und ausgewählte Schriften_, 1857, pt. ii, pp. 313 _seqq._ See also Wiskemann, _op. cit._, pp. 71-4.

[II-50] “Quid si igitur ex negociatione plus lucri percipi possit quam ex fundi cuiusvis proventu? Unde vero mercatoris lucrum? Ex ipsius inquies, diligentia et industria” (quoted by Troeltsch, _Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirche_, p. 707).

[II-51] Bucer, _De Regno Christi_.

[II-52] Roger Fenton, _A Treatise of Usurie_, 1612, p. 61.

[II-53] Calvin, _Institutes of the Christian Religion_, trans. by J. Allen, 1838, vol. ii, p. 147 (bk. iii, ch. xxiii, par. 7).

[II-54] _Ibid._, vol. ii, pp. 128-9 (bk. iii, ch. xxi, par. 7).

[II-55] Gerrard Winstanley, _A New-Yeer’s Gift for the Parliament and Armie_, 1650 (Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E. 587 (6), p. 42).

[II-56] _The Works of William Laud, D.D._, ed. Wm. Scott, vol. vi, pt. i, 1857, p. 213.

[II-57] _De Subventione Pauperum._

[II-58] “Quod ad maiores natu spectat, a nobis quotannis repetitur inspectio cuiusque familiæ. Distribuimus inter nos urbis regiones, ut ordine singulas decurias executere liceat. Adest ministro comes unus ex senioribus. Illic novi incolæ examinantur. Qui semel recepti sunt, omittuntur; nisi quod requiritur sitne domus pacata et recte composita, num lites cum vicinis, num qua ebrietas, num pigri sint et ignari ad conciones frequentendas” (quoted by Wiskemann, _op. cit._, p. 80 n.). For his condemnation of indiscriminate almsgiving, see _ibid._, p. 79 n.

[II-59] _De non habendo Pauperum Delectu_ (1523), and _De Erogatione Eleemosynarum_ (1524). See K. R. Hagenbach, _Johann Oekolampad und Oswald Myconius, die Reformatoren Basels_, 1859, p. 46.

[II-60] Carl Pestallozzi, _Heinrich Bullinger, Leben und ausgewählte Schriften_, 1858, pp. 50-1, 122-5, 340-2.

[II-61] Wiskemann, _op. cit._, pp. 70-4.

[II-62] Quoted by Preserved Smith, _The Age of the Reformation_, 1921, p. 174.

[II-63] Calvin, _Inst._, bk. iv, ch. xii, par. 1.

[II-64] Printed in Paul Henry, _Das Leben Johann Calvins_, vol. ii, 1838, _Appx._, pp. 26-41.

[II-65] R. Christoffel, _Zwingli, or the Rise of the Reformation in Switzerland_, trans. by John Cochran, 1858, pp. 159-60.

[II-66] Printed in Paul Henry, _op. cit._, vol. ii, Appx., pp. 23-5.

[II-67] E. Choisy, _L’Etat Chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore de Bèze_, 1902, p. 145. I should like to make acknowledgments to this excellent book for most of the matter contained in the following paragraphs.

[II-68] Paul Henry, _op. cit._, pp. 70-5. Other examples are given by Preserved Smith, _op. cit._, pp. 170-4, and by F. W. Kampschulte, _Johann Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf_, 1869. Statistical estimates of the bloodthirstiness of Calvin’s régime vary; Smith (p. 171) states that in Geneva, a town of 16,000 inhabitants, 58 persons were executed and 76 banished in the years 1542-6.

[II-69] Knox, quoted by Preserved Smith, _op. cit._, p. 174.

[II-70] Calvin, _Inst._, bk. iii, ch. vii, par. 5.

[II-71] Choisy, _op. cit._, pp. 442-3.

[II-72] _Ibid._, pp. 35-37.

[II-73] _Ibid._, pp. 189, 117-19.

[II-74] _Ibid._, pp. 35, 165-7.

[II-75] _Ibid._, pp. 119-21.

[II-76] _Ibid._, pp. 189-94.

[II-77] Paul Henry, _op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 70 n.

[II-78] See the description of the Church given in Calvin, _Inst._, bk. iv, ch. i, par. 4: “Quia nunc de ecclesia visibili disserere propositum est, discamus vel matris elogio, quam utilis sit nobis eius cognitio, immo necessaria, quando non alius est in vitam ingressus nisi nos ipsa concipiat in utero, nisi pariat, nisi nos alat suis uberibus, denique sub custodia et gubernatione sua nos tueatur, donec excuti carne mortali, similes erimus angelis. Neque enim patitur nostra infirmitas a schola nos dimitti, donec toto vitæ cursu discipuli fuerimus. Adde quod extra eius gremium nulla est speranda peccatorum remissio nec ulla salus.”

[II-79] John Quick, _Synodicon in Gallia Reformata: Or the Acts, Decisions, Decrees and Canons of those famous National Councils of the Reformed Churches in France_, 1692, vol. i, p. 99.

[II-80] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 9 (pirates and fraudulent tradesmen), pp. 25, 34, 38, 79, 140, 149 (interest and usury), p. 70 (false merchandize and selling of stretched cloth), p. 99 (reasonable profits), pp. 162, 204 (investment of money for the benefit of the poor), pp. 194, 213 (lotteries).

[II-81] _The Buke of Discipline_, in _Works of John Knox_, ed. D. Laing, vol. ii, 1848, p. 227.

[II-82] Scottish History Soc., _St. Andrews Kirk Session Register_, ed. D. H. Fleming, 1889-90, vol. i, p. 309; vol. ii, p. 822.

[II-83] W. B. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_, 1890, vol. i, p. 11. The words are Governor Bradford’s.

[II-84] _Winthrop’s Journal “History of New England,” 1630-49_, ed. J. K. Hosmer, 1908, vol. i, pp. 134, 325; vol. ii, p. 20.

[II-85] Weeden, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 125, 58.

[II-86] Winthrop, _op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 20.

[II-87] J. A. Doyle, _The English in America_, vol. ii, 1887, p. 57; the price of cattle “must not be judged by urgent necessity, but by reasonable profit.”

[II-88] Roger Williams, _The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution_, 1644, chap. lv.

[II-89] Winthrop, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 315-18. A similar set of rules as to the conduct of the Christian in trade are given by Bunyan in _The Life and Death of Mr. Badman_, 1905 ed., pp. 118-22.

[II-90] I owe this phrase to the excellent book of J. T. Adams, _The Founding of New England_.