Chapter IV

[IV-1] Tucker, _A Brief Essay on the Advantages and Disadvantages which respectively attend France and Great Britain with regard to Trade_, 1750, p. 33. The best account of Tucker, most of whose works are scarce, is given by W. E. Clark, _Josiah Tucker, Economist_ (_Studies in History, Economics and Public Law_, Columbia University, vol. xix, 1903-5).

[IV-2] _Reliquiæ Baxterianæ: or Mr. Richard Baxter’s Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and Times_, 1696, p. 5.

[IV-3] Bunyan, _The Pilgrim’s Progress_.

[IV-4] _The Life of the Duke of Newcastle_, by Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle (Everyman ed., 1915, p. 153).

[IV-5] Baxter, _op. cit._, p. 31.

[IV-6] Bunyan, _Pilgrim’s Progress_.

[IV-7] Baxter, _op. cit._, p. 89.

[IV-8] Thomas Fuller, _The Holy and Profane States_, 1884 ed., p. 122.

[IV-9] Quoted S. Seyer, _Memoirs of Bristol_, vol. ii, 1823, p. 314.

[IV-10] R. G. Usher, _The Reconstruction of the English Church_, vol. i, 1910, pp. 249-50.

[IV-11] Baxter, _op. cit._, p. 30.

[IV-12] _An orderly and plaine Narration of the Beginnings and Causes of this Warre_, 1644, p. 4 (Brit. Mus., Thomason Tracts, E. 54 [3]). I owe this reference to the kindness of Father Paschal Larkin.

[IV-13] Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion_, bk. vi, par. 271.

[IV-14] Parker, _Discourse of Ecclesiastical Politie_, 1670, Preface, p. xxxix.

[IV-15] _The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, written by himself_, 1827 ed., vol. iii, p. 101.

[IV-16] D. C. A. Agnew, _Protestant Exiles from France_, 1886, vol. i, pp. 20-1. In 1640 the Root and Branch Petition included, among the evils due to the Bishops, “the discouragement and destruction of all good subjects, of whom are multitudes, both clothiers, merchants and others, who, being deprived of their ministers, and overburthened with these pressures, have departed the kingdom to Holland and other parts, and have drawn with them a great manufacture of cloth and trading out of the land into other places where they reside, whereby wool, the great staple of the kingdom, is become of small value, and vends not, trading is decayed, many poor people want work, seamen lose employment, and the whole land is much impoverished” (S. R. Gardiner, _Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1628-60_ [1889], p. 73). For instances of the comparatively liberal treatment of alien immigrants under Elizabeth, see Tawney and Power, _Tudor Economic Documents_, vol. i, section vi, nos. 3, 4, 11 (2), 15, and Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Modern Times_, 1921, pt. i, pp. 79-84.

[IV-17] _Toryism and Trade can never agree_, 1713, p. 12. The tract is wrongly ascribed to Davenant by H. Levy, _Economic Liberalism_, 1913, p. 12.

[IV-18] See, _e.g._, G. Martin, _La Grande Industrie sous le règne de Louis XIV_, 1899, chap. xvii, where the reports of several intendants are quoted; and Levasseur, _Histoire du commerce de la France_, 1911, vol. i, p. 421.

[IV-19] _A Letter from a Gentleman in the City to a Gentleman in the Country about the Odiousness of Persecution_, 1677, p. 29.

[IV-20] Sir Wm. Temple, _Observations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands_, chap. v, vi.

[IV-21] _The True Interest and Political Maxims of the Republick of Holland and West-Friesland_, 1702, pt. i, chap. xiv.

[IV-22] Petty, _Political Arithmetic_, 1690, pp. 25-6.

[IV-23] _The Present Interest of England stated, by a Lover of his King and Country_, 1671. I am indebted to Mr. A. P. Wadsworth for calling my attention to the passage quoted in the text. The same point is put more specifically by Lawrence Braddon: “The superstition of their religion obligeth France to keep (at least) fifty Holy days more than we are obliged to keep; and every such day wherein no work is done is one hundred and twenty thousand pounds loss to the deluded people” (_Abstract of the Draft of a Bill for relieving, reforming and employing the Poor_, 1717). See also Defoe, in his _Enquiry into Occasional Conformity_, 1702, pp. 18-19: “We wonder, gentlemen, you will accept our money on your deficient funds, our stocks to help carry on your wars, our loans and credits to your victualling office and navy office. If you would go on to distinguish us, get a law made we shall buy no lands, that we may not be freeholders; and see if you could find money to buy us out. Transplant us into towns and bodies, and let us trade by our selves; let us card, spin, knit, weave and work with and for one another, and see how you’ll maintain your own poor without us. Let us fraight our ships apart, keep our money out of your Bank, accept none of our bills, and separate your selves as absolutely from us in civil matters, as we do from you in religious, and see how you can go on without us.”

[IV-24] Swift, _Examiner_.

[IV-25] Bolingbroke, _Letter to Sir Wm. Windham_, 1753, p. 21.

[IV-26] _Reliquiæ Baxterianæ_ (see note 2), p. 94. He goes on: “The generality of the Master Workmen [i.e., employers] lived but a little better than their journeymen (from hand to mouth), but only that they laboured not altogether so hard.”

[IV-27] Voltaire, _Lettres Philosophiques_, no. x, and Montesquieu, _Esprit des Lois_, xix, 27, and xx, 22. See also the remarks to the same effect in D’Argenson, _Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la France_, 1765.

[IV-28] _Brief Survey of the Growth of Usury in England_, 1673.

[IV-29] Marston, _Eastward Ho!_, act I, sc. i.

[IV-30] Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion_, bk. i, par. 163.

[IV-31] Petty, _Political Arithmetic_, 1690, p. 23.

[IV-32] Max Weber, _Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus_, first published in the _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik Statistik_, vols. xx, xxi, and since reprinted in vol. i of his _Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie_, 1920; Troeltsch, _Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirchen and Protestantism and Progress_, 1912; Schulze-Gaevernitz, _Britischer Imperialismus und Englischer Freihandel_, 1906; Cunningham, _Christianity and Economic Science_, 1914, chap. v.

Weber’s essay gave rise to much discussion in Germany. Its main thesis--that Calvinism, and in particular English Puritanism, from which nearly all his illustrations are drawn, played a part of preponderant importance in creating moral and political conditions favorable to the growth of capitalist enterprise--appears to be accepted by Troeltsch, _Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirchen_, pp. 704 _seqq._ It is submitted to a critical analysis by Brentano (_Die Anfänge des modernen Kapitalismus_, 1916, pp. 117-57), who dissents from many of Weber’s conclusions. Weber’s essay is certainly one of the most fruitful examinations of the relations between religion and social theory which has appeared, and I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to it, in particular with reference to its discussion of the economic application given by some Puritan writers to the idea expressed by the word “calling.” At the same time, there are several points on which Weber’s arguments appear to me to be one-sided and overstrained, and on which Brentano’s criticisms of it seem to me to be sound.

Thus (i), as was perhaps inevitable in an essay dealing with economic and social thought, as distinct from changes in economic and social organization, Weber seems to me to explain by reference to moral and intellectual influences developments which have their principal explanation in another region altogether. There was plenty of the “capitalist spirit” in fifteenth-century Venice and Florence, or in south Germany and Flanders, for the simple reason that these areas were the greatest commercial and financial centers of the age, though all were, at least nominally, Catholic. The development of capitalism in Holland and England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was due, not to the fact that they were Protestant powers, but to large economic movements, in particular the Discoveries and the results which flowed from them. Of course material and psychological changes went together, and of course the second reacted on the first. But it seems a little artificial to talk as though capitalist enterprise could not appear till religious changes had produced a capitalist spirit. It would be equally true, and equally one-sided, to say that the religious changes were purely the result of economic movements.

(ii) Weber ignores, or at least touches too lightly on, intellectual movements, which were favorable to the growth of business enterprise and to an individualist attitude towards economic relations, but which had little to do with religion. The political thought of the Renaissance was one; as Brentano points out, Machiavelli was at least as powerful a solvent of traditional ethical restraints as Calvin. The speculations of business men and economists on money, prices and the foreign exchanges were a second. Both contributed to the temper of single-minded concentration on pecuniary gain, which Weber understands by the capitalist spirit.

(iii) He appears greatly to over-simplify Calvinism itself. In the first place, he apparently ascribes to the English Puritans of the seventeenth century the conception of social ethics held by Calvin and his immediate followers. In the second place, he speaks as though all English Puritans in the seventeenth century held much the same view of social duties and expediency. Both suggestions are misleading. On the one hand, the Calvinists of the sixteenth century (including English Puritans) were believers in a rigorous discipline, and the individualism ascribed not unjustly to the Puritan movement in its later phases would have horrified them. The really significant question is that of the causes of the change from the one standpoint to the other, a question which Weber appears to ignore. On the other hand, there were within seventeenth-century Puritanism a variety of elements, which held widely different views as to social policy. As Cromwell discovered, there was no formula which would gather Puritan aristocrats and Levellers, landowners and Diggers, merchants and artisans, buff-coat and his general, into the fold of a single social theory. The issue between divergent doctrines was fought out within the Puritan movement itself. Some won; others lost.

Both “the capitalist spirit” and “Protestant ethics,” therefore, were a good deal more complex than Weber seems to imply. What is true and valuable in his essay is his insistence that the commercial classes in seventeenth-century England were the standard-bearers of a particular conception of social expediency, which was markedly different from that of the more conservative elements in society--the peasants, the craftsmen, and many landed gentry--and that that conception found expression in religion, in politics, and, not least, in social and economic conduct and policy.

[IV-33] Cunningham, _The Moral Witness of the Church on the Investment of Money and the Use of Wealth_, 1909, p. 25.

[IV-34] Knox, _The Buke of Discipline_, in _Works_, ed. D. Laing, vol. ii, 1848, pp. 183 _seqq._; Thos. Cartwright, _A Directory of Church Government_ (printed in D. Neal, _History of the Puritans_, 1822, vol. v, Appx. iv); W. Travers, _A Full and Plain Declaration of Ecclesiastical Discipline_, 1574; J. Udall, _A Demonstration of the Trueth of that Discipline which Christe hath prescribed in his Worde for the Government of his Church_, 1589; Bancroft, _Dangerous Positions and Proceedings published and practised within this Iland of Brytaine under Pretence of Reformation and for the Presbyteriall Discipline_, 1593 (part reprinted in R. G. Usher, _The Presbyterian Movement in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, as illustrated by the Minute Book of the Dedham Classis_, 1905).

[IV-35] Cartwright, _op. cit._

[IV-36] Usher, _op. cit._, p. 1.

[IV-37] _Ibid._, pp. 14-15, for Bancroft’s account of the procedure.

[IV-38] Quoted from Baillie’s _Letters_ by W. A. Shaw, _A History of the English Church during the Civil Wars and under the Commonwealth_, 1900, vol. i, p. 128.

[IV-39] Shaw, _op. cit._, vol. ii, chap. iii (_The Presbyterian System, 1646-60_). For the practical working of Presbyterian discipline, see Chetham Society, vols. xx, xxii, xxiv, _Minutes of the Manchester Classis_, and vols. xxxvi, xli, _Minutes of the Bury Classis_.

[IV-40] See Chap. III, p. 142.

[IV-41] _Puritan Manifestoes_, p. 120, quoted by H. G. Wood, _The Influence of the Reformation on Ideas concerning Wealth and Property_, in _Property, its Rights and Duties_, 1913, p. 142. Mr. Wood’s essay contains an excellent discussion of the whole subject, and I should like here to acknowledge my obligations to it. For the views of Knewstub, Smith, and Baro, see the quotations from them printed by Haweis, _Sketches of the Reformation_, 1844, pp. 237-40, 243-6. It should be noted that Baro, while condemning those who, “sitting idle at home, make merchandise only of their money, by giving it out in this sort to needy persons ... without having any regard of his commodity to whome they give it, but only of their own gain,” nevertheless admitted that interest was not always to be condemned. See also Thos. Fuller, _History of the University of Cambridge_, ed. M. Prickett and T. Wright, 1840, pp. 275-6, 288-9, and Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Modern Times_, 1921 ed., pt. i, pp. 157-8.

[IV-42] New Shakespeare Society, Series vi, no. 6, 1877-9, Phillip Stubbes’s _Anatomy of the Abuses in England_, ed. F. J. Furnivall, pp. 115-16.

[IV-43] W. Ames, _De Conscientia et eius iure vel casibus libri quinque_, bk. v, chaps. xliii, xliv. Ames (1576-1633) was educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, tried to settle at Colchester, but was forbidden to preach by the Bishop of London, went to Leyden about 1610, was appointed to the theological chair at Franeker in 1622, where he remained for ten years, and died at Rotterdam.

[IV-44] _E.g._, Stubbes, _op. cit._; Richard Capel, _Temptations, their Nature, Danger, Cure_, 1633; John Moore, _The Crying Sin of England of not caring for the Poor; wherein Inclosure, viz. such as doth unpeople Townes, and uncorn Fields, is arraigned, convicted and condemned_, 1653.

[IV-45] J. O. Halliwell, _The Autobiography and Correspondence of Sir Simonds D’Ewes_, 1845, vol. i, pp. 206-10, 322, 354; vol. ii, pp. 96, 153-4.

[IV-46] Usher, _op. cit._ (see note 34 above), pp. 32, 53, 70, 99-100.

[IV-47] Sept. 26, 1645, it is resolved “that it shall be in the power of the eldership to suspend from the sacrament of the Lord’s supper any person that shall be legally attainted of Barratry, Forgery, Extortion, Perjury, or Bribery” (_Commons’ Journals_, vol. iv, p. 290).

[IV-48] Chetham Society, _Minutes of the Bury Presbyterian Classis, 1647-57_, pt. i, pp. 32-3. The Cambridge _classis_ (_ibid._, pt. ii, pp. 196-7) decided in 1657 that the ordinance of Parliament of August 29, 1648 should be taken as the rule of the _classis_ in the matter of scandal. The various scandals mentioned in the ordinance included extortion, and the _classis_ decided that “no person lawfully convict of any of the foresaid scandalls bee admitted to the Lord’s supper without signification of sincere repentance,” but it appears (p. 198) to have been mainly interested in witches, wizards, and fortune-tellers.

[IV-49] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Report on MSS. in various Collections_, vol. i, 1901, p. 132.

[IV-50] Quoted by F. J. Powicke, _A Life of the Reverend Richard Baxter_, 1924, p. 92.

[IV-51] Selections from those parts of _The Christian Directory_ which bear on social ethics are printed by Jeannette Tawney, _Chapters from Richard Baxter’s Christian Directory_, 1925, in which most of the passages quoted in the text will be found.

[IV-52] _Reliquiæ Baxterianæ_ (see note 2), p. 1.

[IV-53] _Life and Death of Mr. Badman_ (Cambridge English Classics, 1905), pp. 116-25, where Bunyan discusses at length the ethics of prices.

[IV-54] Carlyle, _Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches_, Letter ii.

[IV-55] See on these points Weber, _op. cit._ (note 32 above), p. 94, whose main conclusions I paraphrase.

[IV-56] Milton, _A Defence of the People of England_ (1692 ed.), p. xvii.

[IV-57] See, _e.g._, Thos. Wilson, _A Discourse upon Usury_, Preface, 1925 ed., p. 178: “There bee two sortes of men that are alwayes to bee looked upon very narrowly, the one is the dissemblinge gospeller, and the other is the wilfull and indurate papiste. The first under colour of religion overthroweth all religion, and bearing good men in hande that he loveth playnesse, useth covertelie all deceypte that maye bee, and for pryvate gayne undoeth the common welfare of man. And touching thys sinne of usurie, none doe more openly offende in thys behalfe than do these counterfeite professours of thys pure religion.”

[IV-58] Fenton, _A Treatise of Usurie_, 1612, pp. 60-1.

[IV-59] _Brief Survey of the Growth of Usury in England_, 1673.

[IV-60] S. Richardson, _The Cause of the Poor Pleaded_, 1653, Thomason Tracts, E. 703 (9), p. 14. For other references, see note 72 below. For extortionate prices, see Thomason Tracts, E. 399 (6), _The Worth of a Penny, or a Caution to keep Money_, 1647. I am indebted for this and subsequent references to the Thomason Tracts to Miss P. James.

[IV-61] Hooker, Preface to _The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_, Everyman ed., 1907, vol. i, p. 128.

[IV-62] Wilson, _op. cit._, p. 250.

[IV-63] _Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson, written by his Widow Lucy_, Everyman ed., 1908, pp. 64-5.

[IV-64] See the references given in note 66.

[IV-65] _The Earl of Strafforde’s Letters and Despatches_, by William Knowler, D.D., 1739, vol. ii, p. 138.

[IV-66] No attempt has been made in the text to do more than refer to the points on which the economic interests and outlook of the commercial and propertied classes brought them into collision with the monarchy, and only the most obvious sources of information are mentioned here. For patents and monopolies, including the hated soap monopoly, see G. Unwin, _The Gilds and Companies of London_, 1908, chap. xvii, and W. Hyde Price, _The English Patents of Monopoly_, 1906, chap. xi, and _passim_. For the control of exchange business, _Cambium Regis, or the Office of his Majesties Exchange Royall, declaring and justifying his Majesties Right and the Convenience thereof_, 1628, and Ruding, _Annals of the Coinage_, 1819, vol. iv, pp. 201-10. For the punishment of speculation by the Star Chamber, and for projects of public granaries, Camden Society, N.S., vol. xxxix, 1886, _Reports of Cases in the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission_, ed. S. R. Gardiner, pp. 43 _seqq._, 82 _seqq._, and N. S. B. Gras, _The Evolution of the English Corn Market_, 1915, pp. 246-50. For the control of the textile industry and the reaction against it, H. Heaton, _The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries_, 1920, chaps. iv, vii; Kate E. Barford, _The West of England Cloth Industry: A seventeenth-century Experiment in State Control_, in the _Wiltshire Archæological and Natural History Magazine_, Dec., 1924, pp. 531-42; R. R. Reid, _The King’s Council in the North_, 1921, pt. iv, chap. ii; _Victoria County History, Suffolk_, vol. ii, pp. 263-8. For the intervention of the Privy Council to raise the wages of textile workers and to protect craftsmen, Tawney, _The Assessment of Wages in England by the Justices of the Peace_, in the _Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_, Bd. xi, 1913, pp. 307-37, 533-64; Leonard, _The Early History of English Poor Relief_, pp. 160-3; _Victoria County History, Suffolk_, vol. ii, pp. 268-9; and Unwin, _Industrial Organization in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries_, 1904, pp. 142-7. For the Depopulation Commissions, Tawney, _The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 376, 391. For the squeezing of money from the East India Company and the infringement of its Charter, Shafa’at Ahmad Khan, _The East India Trade in the XVIIth Century_, 1923, pp. 69-73. For the colonial interests of Puritan members, A. P. Newton, _The Colonising Activities of the English Puritans_, 1914, and C. E. Wade, _John Pym_, 1912.

[IV-67] E. Laspeyres, _Geschichte der Volkswirthschaftlichen Anschauungen der Niederländer und ihrer Litteratur zur Zeit der Republik_, 1863, pp. 256-70. An idea of the points at issue can be gathered from the exhaustive (and unreadable) work of Salmasius, _De Modo Usurarum_, 1639.

[IV-68] John Quick, _Synodicon in Gallia Reformata_, 1692, vol. i, p. 99.

[IV-69] For the change of sentiment in America, see Troeltsch, _Protestantism and Progress_, pp. 117-27; for Franklin, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin_, and Sombart, _The Quintessence of Capitalism_, 1915, pp. 116-21.

[IV-70] Rev. Robert Woodrow (quoted by Sombart, _op. cit._, p. 149).

[IV-71] John Cooke, _Unum Necessarium or the Poore Man’s Case_ (1648), which contains a plea for the regulation of prices and the establishment of _Monts de Piété_.

[IV-72] For the scandal caused to the Protestant religion by its alleged condonation of covetousness, see T. Watson, _A Plea for Alms_, 1658 (Thomason Tracts, E. 2125), pp. 21, 33-4: “The Church of Rome layes upon us this aspersion that we are against good workes.... I am sorry that any who go for honest men should be brought into the indightment; I mean that any professors should be impeached as guilty of this sinne of covetousnesse and unmercifulnesse.... I tell you these devout misers are the reproach of Christianity.... I may say of penurious votaries, they have the wings of profession by which they seem to fly to heaven, but the feet of beasts, walking on the earth and even licking the dust.... Oh, take heed, that, seeing your religion will not destroy your covetousnesse, at last your covetousnesse does not destroy your religion.” See also Sir Balthazar Gerbier, _A New Year’s Result in favour of the Poore_, 1651 (Thomason Tracts, E. 651 [14]), p. 4: “If the Papists did rely as much on faith as the reformed professors of the Gospel (according to our English tenets) doe, or that the reformed professors did so much practice charity as the Papists doe?”

[IV-73] S. Richardson, _op. cit._ (see note 60 above), pp. 7-8, 10.

[IV-74] The first person to emphasize the way in which the idea of a “calling” was used as an argument for the economic virtues was Weber (see note 32 above), to whose conclusions I am largely indebted for the following paragraphs.

[IV-75] Bunyan, _The Pilgrim’s Progress_.

[IV-76] Richard Steele, _The Tradesman’s Calling, being a Discourse concerning the Nature, Necessity, Choice, etc., of a Calling in general_, 1684, pp. 1, 4.

[IV-77] _Ibid._, pp. 21-2.

[IV-78] _Ibid._, p. 35.

[IV-79] Baxter, _Christian Directory_, 1678 ed., vol. i, p. 336_b_.

[IV-80] Thomas Adams (quoted Weber, _op. cit._, p. 96 n.).

[IV-81] Matthew Henry, _The Worth of the Soul_ (quoted _ibid._, p. 168 n.).

[IV-82] Baxter, _op. cit._, vol. i, p. 111_a_.

[IV-83] Steele, _op. cit._, p. 20.

[IV-84] Baxter, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 378_b_, 108_b_; vol. iv, p. 253_a_.

[IV-85] _Navigation Spiritualized: or a New Compass for Seamen, consisting of xxxii Points_:

_{ Pleasant Observations
of { Profitable Applications and
{ Serious Reflections._

_All concluded with so many spiritual poems. Whereunto is now added_,

i. _A sober conversation of the sin of drunkenness._ ii. _The Harlot’s face
in the scripture-glass, etc._

_Being an essay towards their much desired Reformation from the horrible and detestable sins of Drunkenness, Swearing, Uncleanness, Forgetfulness of Mercies, Violation of Promises, and Atheistical Contempt of Death._ 1682.

The author of this cheerful work was a Devonshire minister, John Flavell, who also wrote _Husbandry Spiritualized, or the Heavenly Use of Earthly Things_, 1669. In him, as in Steele, the Chadband touch is unmistakable. _The Religious Weaver_, apparently by one Fawcett, I have not been able to trace.

[IV-86] Steele, _op. cit._ (see note 76 above).

[IV-87] Bunyan, _The Pilgrim’s Progress_.

[IV-88] David Jones, _A Farewell Sermon at St. Mary Woolnoth’s_, 1692.

[IV-89] Nicholas Barbon, _A Discourse of Trade_, 1690, ed. by Professor John H. Hollander (_A Reprint of Economic Tracts_, Series ii, no. 1).

[IV-90] The words of a member of the Long Parliament, quoted by C. H. Firth, _Oliver Cromwell_, 1902, p. 313.

[IV-91] _The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon_, 1827 ed., vol. ii, p. 235: “The merchants took much delight to enlarge themselves upon this argument [i.e., the advantages of war], and shortly after to discourse ‘of the infinite benefit that would accrue from a barefaced war against the Dutch, how easily they might be subdued and the trade carried by the English.’” According to Clarendon, who despised the merchants and hated the whole business, it was almost a classical example of a commercial war, carefully stage-managed in all its details, from the directorship which the Royal African Company gave to the Duke of York down to the inevitable “incident” with which hostilities began.

[IV-92] _Ibid._, vol. iii, pp. 7-9.

[IV-93] Sir Dudley North, _Discourses upon Trade_, 1691, Preface.

[IV-94] Petty, _Political Arithmetic_, Preface.

[IV-95] Chamberlayne, _Angliæ Notitia_ (quoted P. E. Dove, _Account of Andrew Yarranton_, 1854, p. 82 n.).

[IV-96] Roger North, _The Lives of the Norths_ (1826 ed.), vol. iii, p. 103; T. Watson, _A Plea for Alms_ (Thomason Tracts, E. 2125); p. 33; Dryden, _Absalom and Achitophel_, 2nd part, 1682, p. 9, where Sir Robert Clayton, Lord Mayor 1679-80, and Member of Parliament for the City 1679-81 and again from 1689, appears as “extorting Ishban.” He was a scrivener who had made his money by usury.

[IV-97] John Fawke, Sir William Thompson, William Love, and John Jones.

[IV-98] Charles King (_The British Merchant_, 1721, vol. i, p. 181) gives the following persons as signatories of an analysis of the trade between England and France in 1674: Patience Ward, Thomas Papillon, James Houblon, William Bellamy, Michael Godfrey, George Toriano, John Houblon, John Houghe, John Mervin, Peter Paravicine, John Dubois, Benj. Godfrey, Edm. Harrison, Benj. Delaune. The number of foreign names is remarkable.

[IV-99] For Dutch capital in London, see _Hist. MSS. Comm., 8th Report_, 1881, p. 134 (proceedings of the Committee on the decay of trade, 1669); with regard to investment of foreign capital in England, it was stated that “Alderman Bucknell had above £100,000 in his hands, Mr. Meynell above £30,000, Mr. Vandeput at one time £60,000, Mr. Dericost always near £200,000 of Dutch money, lent to merchants at 7, 6, and 5 per cent.”

[IV-100] _The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon_, vol. ii, pp. 289-93, and vol. iii, pp. 4-7; and John Beresford, _The Godfather of Downing Street_, 1925.

[IV-101] S. Bannister, _William Paterson, the Merchant-Statesman, and Founder of the Bank of England: His Life and Trials_, 1858.

[IV-102] A. Yarranton, _England’s Improvement_, 1677.

[IV-103] _The Complete English Tradesman_ (1726) belongs to the same genus as the book of Steele (see above, pp. 244-6), but it has reduced Christianity to even more innocuous proportions: see _Letter xvii_ (_Of Honesty in Dealing_).

[IV-104] T. S. Ashton, _Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution_, 1924, pp. 211-26. Mr. A. P. Wadsworth has shown that the leading Lancashire clothiers were often Nonconformists (_History of the Rochdale Woollen Trade_, in _Trans. Rochdale Lit. and Sci. Soc._, vol. xv, 1925).

[IV-105] Quoted F. J. Powicke, _Life of Baxter_, 1924, p. 158.

[IV-106] Dicey, _Law and Public Opinion in England_, 1905, pp. 400-1.

[IV-107] _The Humble Petition of Thousands of well-affected Persons inhabiting the City of London, Westminster, the Borough of Southwark, Hamlets, and Places adjacent_ (Bodleian Pamphlets, The Levellers’ Petitions, c. 15, 3 Linc.). See also G. P. Gooch, _English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century_, 1898.

[IV-108] Camden Society, _The Clarke Papers_, ed. C. H. Firth, 1891-4, vol. ii, pp. 217-21 (letter from Winstanley to Fairfax and the Council of War, Dec. 8, 1649).

[IV-109] _Records of the Borough of Leicester, 1603-88_, ed. Helen Stocks, 1923, pp. 370, 414, 428-30.

[IV-110] John Moore, _op. cit._ (see note 44, above), p. 13. See also E. C. K. Gonner, _Common Land and Enclosure_, 1912, pp. 53-5.

[IV-111] Camden Society, _The Clarke Papers_, vol. i, pp. 299 _seqq._, lxvii _seqq._

[IV-112] _The Diary of Thomas Burton_, ed. J. T. Rutt, 1828, vol. i, pp. 175-6. A letter from Whalley, referring to agitations against enclosure in Warwickshire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire and Leicestershire, will be found in Thurloe, _State Papers_, vol. iv, p. 686.

[IV-113] Joseph Lee, _A Vindication of a Regulated Enclosure_, 1656, p. 9.

[IV-114] Aquinas, _Summa Theol._, 2^a 2^æ, Q. xxxii, art. v.

[IV-115] _Dives et Pauper_, 1493, Prol., chap. vii; cf. Pecock, _The Repressor of over-much Blaming of the Clergy_, pt. iii, chap. iv, pp. 296-7. For an excellent account of the medieval attitude towards the poor, see B. L. Manning, _The People’s Faith in the Time of Wyclif_, 1919, chap. x.

[IV-116] _A Lyke-wake Dirge_, printed by W. Allingham, _The Ballad Book_, 1907, no. xxxi.

[IV-117] Latimer, _The fifth Sermon on the Lord’s Prayer_ (in _Sermons_, Everyman ed., p. 336). Cf. Tyndale, _The Parable of the Wicked Mammon_ (in _Doctrinal Treatises of William Tyndale_, Parker Society, 1848, p. 97): “If thy brother or neighbour therefore need, and thou have to help him, and yet showest not mercy, but withdrawest thy hands from him, then robbest thou him of his own, and art a thief.”

[IV-118] Christopher Harvey, _The Overseer of the Poor_ (in G. Gilfillan, _The Poetical Works of George Herbert_, 1853, pp. 241-3).

[IV-119] J. E. B. Mayor, _Two Lives of N. Ferrar, by his brother John and Dr. Jebb_, p. 261 (quoted by B. Kirkman Gray, _A History of English Philanthropy_, 1905, p. 54).

[IV-120] _A True Report of the Great Cost and Charges of the foure Hospitals in the City of London_, 1644 (quoted, _ibid._, p. 66).

[IV-121] See, _e.g._, _Hist. MSS. Comm., Reports on MSS. in various Collections_, vol. i, 1901, pp. 109-24; Leonard, _Early History of English Poor Relief_, pp. 268-9.

[IV-122] Sir Matthew Hale, _A Discourse touching Provision for the Poor_, 1683.

[IV-123] _Stanley’s Remedy, or the Way how to reform wandering Beggars, Thieves, Highway Robbers and Pick-pockets_, 1646 (Thomason Tracts, E. 317 (6)), p. 4.

[IV-124] _Commons’ Journals_, March 19, 1648/9, vol. vi, p. 167.

[IV-125] _Ibid._, vol. vi, pp. 201, 374, 416, 481; vol. vii, p. 127.

[IV-126] Samuel Hartlib, _London’s Charity Inlarged_, 1650, p. i.

[IV-127] Hartlib, _op. cit._

[IV-128] Firth and Rait, _Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum_, 1911, vol. ii, pp. 104-10. An ordinance creating a corporation had been passed Dec. 17, 1647 (_ibid._, vol. i, pp. 1042-5).

[IV-129] _Ibid._, vol. ii, pp. 1098-9.

[IV-130] Stockwood, at Paul’s Cross, 1578 (quoted by Haweis, _Sketches of the Reformation_, p. 277).

[IV-131] Steele, _op. cit._ (note 76 above), p. 22.

[IV-132] R. Younge, _The Poores’ Advocate_, 1654 (Thomason Tracts, E. 1452 [3]), p. 6.

[IV-133] For these and other passages from Restoration economists to the same effect, see a striking article by Dr. T. E. Gregory on _The Economics of Employment in England (1660-1713)_ in _Economica_, no. i, Jan., 1921, pp. 37 _seqq._, and E. S. Furniss, _The Position of the Labourer in a System of Nationalism_, 1920, chaps. v, vi.

[IV-134] _Das Kommunistische Manifest_, 1918 ed., pp. 27-8: “Die Bourgeoisie, wo sie zur Herrschaft gekommen, hat alle feudalen, patriarchalischen, idyllischen verhältnisse zerstört. Sie hat die buntscheckigen Feudalbande, die den Menschen an seinen natürlichen Vorgesetzten knüpften, unbarmherzig zerrissen, und kein anderes Band zwischen Mensch und Mensch übrig gelassen, als das nackte Interesse, als die gefühllose bare Zahlung.”

[IV-135] Defoe, _Giving Alms no Charity_, 1704, pp. 25-7.

[IV-136] Petty, _Political Arithmetic_, p. 45.

[IV-137] Sir Henry Pollexfen, _Discourse of Trade_, 1697, p. 49; Walter Harris, _Remarks on the Affairs and Trade of England and Ireland_, 1691, pp. 43-4; _The Querist_, 1737 (in _The Works of George Berkeley, D.D._, ed. A. C. Fraser, 1871, p. 387); Thomas Alcock, _Observations on the Defects of the Poor Laws_, 1752, pp. 45 _seqq._ (quoted Furniss, _op. cit._, p. 153).

[IV-138] Arthur Young, _Eastern Tour_, 1771, vol. iv, p. 361.

[IV-139] Harrison, _The Description of Britaine_, 1587 ed., bk. ii, chap. x, _Of Provision made for the Poor_.

[IV-140] H. Hunter, _Problems of Poverty: Selections from the ... Writings of Thomas Chalmers, D.D._, 1912, p. 202.

[IV-141] For the influence of Chalmers’ idea on Senior, and, through him, on the new Poor Law of 1834, see T. Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_, vol. iii, 1899, pp. 32-4. Chalmers held that _any_ Poor Law was in itself objectionable. Senior, who described Chalmers’ evidence before the Committee on the State of the Poor in Ireland as “the most instructive, perhaps, that ever was given before a Committee of the House of Commons,” appears to have begun by agreeing with him, but later to have adopted the principle of deterrence, backed by the test workhouse, as a second best. The Commissioners of 1832-4 were right in thinking the existing methods of relief administration extremely bad; they were wrong in supposing distress to be due mainly to lax administration, instead of realizing, as was the fact, that lax administration had arisen as an attempt to meet the increase of distress. Their discussion of the causes of pauperism is, therefore, extremely superficial, and requires to be supplemented by the evidence contained in the various contemporary reports (such, _e.g._, as those on the hand-loom weavers) dealing with the industrial aspects of the problem.

[IV-142] W. C. Braithwaite, _The Second Period of Quakerism_, 1919, pp. 560-2. Defoe comments on the strict business standards of the Quakers in _Letter xvii_ (_Of Honesty in Dealing_) in _The Complete English Tradesman_. Mr. Ashton (_Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution_, p. 219) remarks, “The eighteenth century Friend no less than the medieval Catholic held firmly to some doctrine of Just Price,” and quotes examples from the conduct of Quaker iron-masters.

INDEX

Abbot’s Ripton, 140, 308

Acton, Lord, 65

Acts of Parliament:
15 Ed. III, st. 1, c. 5 (1341), 52 37 Hen. VIII, c. 9 (1545), 159 5 and 6
Ed. VI, c. 20 (1552), 159, 180 13 Eliz., c. 8 (1571), 159, 180, 181, 187 39
Eliz., c. 2 (1597), 178

Aegidius Lessinus, 295, 296

Aeneas Silvius, 110

Agriculture, 136-50, 231.
See also _Enclosures_, _Land_, _Pasture farming_, _Peasants_

Alcock, Thomas, 270

Alien immigrants, 205, 314

Almsgiving, condemnation of, 111, 114, 265, 305;
a duty, 260-1

America, silver of, 68, 74, 135;
Calvinism in, 127-32, 227, 238, 320

Ames, 216-7, 318

Amsterdam, 104

Anglicans. See _Clergy_ and _Church of England_

Annuities, 42, 217

Antwerp, 72, 73-5, 79, 80, 86, 87, 104, 168, 178, 303;
fall of, 77, 176

Apparel, excess in, 115, 127

Aquinas. See _St. Thomas_

Archdeacons, visitations of, 48, 52, 162, 296-7, 310

Aristotle, 44

Asceticism, 17, 18, 19

Ashton, T. S., 252, 325

Aske, 141

Augsburg, 79, 85

Bacon, 148, 151, 185

Baillie, 214

Bancroft, Archbishop, 186, 213, 214

Bank, at Geneva, 120

-- of England, 252

Banking, deposit, beginnings of, 176

Barbon, Dr. Nicholas, 247

Barebones, Praise-God, 247

Bargaining, equity in, 152, 159, 181, 183, 188, 221-3, 224, 244, 272.
See also _Prices_ and _Profits_

Baro, 215, 318

Basle, 120;
Council of, 103

Baxter, Richard, 9, 19, 200, 203, 207, 219-24, 226, 242 (quoted), 243
(quoted), 253, 260, 268, 291

Becon, 82, 141, 144

Beggars. See _Almsgiving_ and _Vagrancy_

Bellarmin, 80, 303

Bellers, 19, 272

Belloc, H., 92

Bennet, Dr., 153

Benvenuto da Imola, quoted, 11

Berkeley, Bishop, 270, 284

Berne, 120

Berthold, Brother, 225

Beza, 119, 121, 122, 123, 215

Birmingham, 204

Bishops, articles of visitation of, 161;
were normally justices, 165; Bill _re_ powers of, 174-5, 312; abolition of,
188, 214. See also _Commissary_, _Court of High Commission_ and _Courts,
ecclesiastical_

Blaxton, John, cited, 156

Bodin, 81

Böheim, Hans, 81

Bolingbroke, 207

Bologna, University of, 81

Boniface VIII, 19; bull of, 21

Bossuet, 83

Boston, 128-31

Bourges, 50

Braddon, Lawrence, 315

Bradford, 204

--, Governor, 127 (quoted), 128

Brentano, 316

Bristol, 202

Brittany, Count of, 299

Bruges, 73

Bucer, 19, 63, 81, 83, 105, 116, 142, 215

Bullinger, 19, 81, 114, 181

Bunyan, 9, 19, 199, 225, 268, 307

Burford, 181

Buridanus, Johannes, 295

Bury, 218

Cahorsines, 29, 294, 297

“Calling,” 240-6, 316, 321

Calvin, 10, 19, 94, 102-32;
teaching of, on usury, 81, 83, 126, 181, 215, 216, 233, 239; letter of, to
Somerset, 116; _Institutes_ of, 116, 117; scheme of municipal government
drafted by, 117; death of, 119. See also _Calvinism_

Calvinism, 102-32, 233-5;
sanctification of economic enterprise by, 34, 104-5, 108, 109, 110,
111, 116, 233, 239;
connection of individualism with, 112-3, 227, 316-7; discipline of, 112,
113, 115-32, 215, 219, 227, 234, 238, 316-7; in France, 125-6; in Scotland,
126-7; development of, in England, 198; in Holland, 211. See also _Calvin_
and _Puritanism_

Cambridge, 318

Canon law. See _Law, canon_

Canonists, chicanery and casuistry of, 37, 51, 54, 60, 100.
See also _Law, canon_

Canterbury, 205;
archbishop of, 47, 156; Canons of, 161

Capitalism, early appearance of, 16, 26, 84, 226;
connection of, with Puritanism, 212, 315-8

Carpenters, parliament of, 292

Cartwright, Thomas, 213, 215

Catholicism, and capitalism, 84, 316

Cattle, loaning of, 54, 154, 181-2

Cecil, William, 145, 165

Chalmers, Dr., 271, 324

Charles I, social policy of, 169-74, 211, 235-8, 319-20

Charles V, 71, 79

Chaucer, 23 (quoted), 302

Chauvet, 123

Chesterton, G. K., 92

Chevage, 147

Chevisance, 51

Choisy, 306

Church, medieval, pomp and avarice of, 59, 60, 62;
attitude of, to established social order, 56-9; strength and weakness of,
59-60; ideals of, 60-2

-- of England, 135-93;
conservatism and ineffectiveness of social theory of, 85, 155-7,
184-93, 282;
Puritanism represented in, 198

-- of Ireland, 161
See also _Clergy_, _Councils (Church)_, _Courts (ecclesiastical)_,
_Law (canon)_, _Papacy_, _Reformation_, _Religion_, and under _State_

Churches, Nonconformist, attitude of, to social problems in 18th
century, 281.
See also _Presbyterianism_, _Puritanism_, _Tolerance_

Civil Law. See _Law, civil_

Clarendon Code, 205

--, Constitutions of, 51

--, Earl of, 173, 204, 249, 252, 321

Class hatred, 18, 123, 145

_Classes_, Puritan, 213, 217, 317, 318

Clayton, Sir Robert, 322

Clergy, taking of usury by, 30, 46, 53, 292-3, 300;
subservience of, 159, 281; return of, to City churches, 204; popular
sympathies of, in France, 281. See also _Church of England_

Cloth industry, 105, 136, 142, 147;
capitalism in, 70, 176, 268-9; distress in, 168, 205, 314; wages in, 174,
293, 320; regulation of, 174, 236, 237, 319; Puritanism in centers of, 202,
203, 204, 322; proposed nationalization of, 236. See also _Textile workers_

Coke, 186

Colbert, 77, 236

Cologne, 37

Colonization, 71, 238, 320

Colquhoun, Patrick, 313

Columbus, 67, 69, 89

Combinations, 55, 87-8, 95-6, 293.
See also _Gilds_

Commissary, Court of, 53, 162, 300, 310

Commissions, Depopulation, 138, 145, 173, 237, 320

Commons, enclosure of, 140, 167, 174, 256, 259, 260.
See also _Enclosures_

“Commonwealth men,” 145

Communal movement, 56

Communism, 32, 256

Companies, infringement of charters of, 237.
See also _East India Co._ and _Royal African Co._

Confessors, instructions to, 48-9

Congregationalism, 198

Consistory, at Geneva, 116, 117, 119-24

Constance, Council of, 103

Consumption, 34, 231, 248, 251

Copper, 73, 75, 79

Copyholders, 139, 147, 167, 308

Corn, engrossing of, 123, 168, 174, 311.
See also _Granaries_

Coulton, G. G., 11, 30

Councils, Church, 46-7, 51, 54, 296

Court, De la, 206

Court of Arches, 186

-- Chancery, 51, 53, 295, 300

-- Delegates, 186

-- High Commission, 162, 186-7, 237, 313;
abolition of, 188, 213, 214

-- Requests, 139, 308

-- Star Chamber, 139, 174, 308, 311, 312, 319;
abolition of, 213

Courts, jurisdiction of, with regard to usury, 37-9, 50-4, 160-2;
ecclesiastical, 50-4, 160-2, 186-8, 213, 214, 300, 301; royal, encroachments
of, on feudal system, 57-8, 87. See also the several Courts above-mentioned

Coventry, 37, 309

Craftsmen, deceits practiced by, 24, 126, 298;
relations between merchants and, 26, 136, 137, 173-4, 236, 320; labor of,
honorable, 92, 240. See also _Gilds_ and _Wage-earners_

Cranmer, 83, 160

Cromwell, Oliver, 199, 219, 227 (quoted), 249, 258, 317

Crowley, Robert, 82, 141, 144, 146 (quoted), 148 (quoted)

Cunningham, William, 212, 213 (quoted)

_Curia_, papal, 47-8

Currency, depreciation of, 77, 78, 137, 177

Dantzig, 100

Debtor, defaulting, punishment of, 127

Dedham, _classis_ of, 217-8

Defoe, 205, 252, 315, 324, 325

Depopulation. See _Commissions_ and _Enclosures_

D’Ewes, 217

Dicey, Prof., 254

Diet, Imperial, 88

Diggers, 256, 317

Discipline, versus the Religion of Trade, 211-27.
See also _Calvinism_, _Presbyterianism_, _Puritanism_

Discoveries, 67, 69, 73, 86, 87, 135, 316

_Dives et Pauper_, 9, 216, 261, 323

Downing, Sir George, 252

Duns Scotus, 33

Dutch, virtues of, 211, 252, 269;
capital supplied to England by, 249, 252, 322; imitation of methods of, 252.
See also _Holland_

East Anglia, 174;
Puritanism in, 202, 203

-- India Co., 320

Eck, 81

Economic science, development of, 7-10, 80, 158, 180, 185, 189, 204,
249-50.
See also _Economists_

Economists, 249;
attitude of, towards religious tolerance, 10, 204-5, 206-7; attitude of,
towards poor relief, 267-72, 323-4. See also _Economic Science_

Edict of Nantes, revocation of, 205

Education, diffusion of, 141, 142, 143;
parochial, 154. See also _Schools_

Enclosures, 137-50;
popular agitations against, 137-8, 140, 143-5, 256-7, 323; first account of,
138; steps taken by Government to check, 138, 145, 147, 172-3, 178, 236,
255, 309, 311, 312;
attitude of Puritans to, 217, 224, 236, 255-60. See also under _Gentry_

England, comparison of, with the Continent, 8, 16, 54, 70, 135, 231

Engrossers, 36, 38, 40, 55, 119, 122, 123, 164, 168, 174, 191, 236,
239, 244, 311, 312

Erasmus, 72, 76

Erastians, 214

Essex, 162, 203

Evangelicals, 193, 254

Exchanger, Royal, 237

Exchanges, foreign, discussions on, 43, 158, 177, 316;
control of, 74, 168, 236, 237, 311, 319; lawfulness of transactions on, 80-1

Exchequer, stop of, 224

Exclusion Bill, 203

Excommunication, 29, 45, 46, 47, 52, 117, 121, 142, 161, 214, 299;
disregarding of, 159, 187

Exeter, 204;
bishop of, 169

Fairs, 45

Fenton, Roger, quoted, 106, 157, 305

Ferrar, Nicholas, 263

Feudalism, 22, 57-9, 231;
decline of, 57-8, 147, 149, 174. See also _Peasants_

Figgis, Dr., 6

Financiers, medieval attitude to, 23, 33, 104-5;
international, rise of, 72, 75-6, 78-9; Catholicism of, 84; attitude of
Swiss reformers to, 104, 108. See also _Usury_

Firmin, 272

Flanders. See _Low Countries_

Flavell, John, 321

Fletcher of Saltoun, 265

Florence, 16, 37, 50, 292, 295, 316

Foley, Thomas, 253

Fondaco Tedesco, 68

Food supplies, control of, 173-4, 235, 236, 262.
See also _Corn_

Fox, 199, 200

Foxe, 160

France, 54, 77, 236, 250, 268, 281, 293, 302, 315;
peasantry in, 58, 59, 136, 151; Calvinism in, 125-6, 203, 238. See also
_Lyons_ and _Paris_

Franciscans, 18, 54;
Spiritual, 57

Franeker, University of, 216

Frankfurt, 26, 75, 85, 110

Franklin, Benjamin, 238, 320

Free Cities, 56

Freeholders, 202, 203, 258

Freiburg, 86

Friars, 18

Friends. See _Quakers_

Friesland, West, 238

Froissart, 18

Froude, 5

Fruiterers, of London, 55

Fuggers, the, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, 90, 191, 303

Gay, Prof., 146

Geiler von Kaiserberg, 88, 304

Geneva, 103, 104, 113, 115-25, 215, 226, 227, 234, 235, 306

Genoa, 48

Gentry, opposition of, to prevention of enclosures, 145, 147, 178,
235, 237, 255-7, 258, 309;
attitude of, to commercial classes, 207-10

George, Lloyd, quoted, 4, 291

Germany, 54, 68, 77, 250; schemes of social reconstruction in, 27, 88, 302;
peasantry in, 58, 59, 81, 82, 86-7, 88, 91, 93, 136, 139, 151, 302; trade
and banking business of, 69, 70, 74, 75, 78-9, 86-8, 89-90,
316;
Reformation in, 79, 81, 82, 83, 85-102, 110, 141; wage-earning class in, in
Middle Ages, 86, 292

Gilds, membership of, 26;
policy and ideals of, 26-8; enforcement of rules of, 52, 300; loans by, 54,
301; capture of, by capitalist members, 69, 86, 136; control of, at Antwerp,
75; malpractices of, 137, 293; confiscation of lands of, 139, 309

Glasgow, 238

Gloucester, 204

Godfrey, Michael, 252

Goldsmiths, 249

Granaries, public, 236, 319

Gratian, 32, 35

Gregory VII, 19

Gresham, Sir Richard, 140

--, Sir Thomas, 9, 143, 178, 179

Grindal, Archbishop, 160

Grosstête, Bishop, 29, 293

Hague, The, 252

Hale, Sir Matthew, 263

Hales, John, 145

Halifax, 204

Hamilton, John. See _St. Andrews, Archbishop of_

Hammond, Mr. and Mrs., 18

Hanse League, 68, 73

Harrington, 176

Harris, Walter, 270

Harrison, 270

Hartlib, Samuel, 264

Hatfield Chase, 174

Haugs, the, 79

Heming, Nicholas, 156, 158 (quoted)

Henry of Ghent, quoted, 34

-- of Langenstein, quoted, 36, 42

Herberts, the, 140, 146

Hinde, 312

Hipler, 88, 304

Hobbes, 18

Hochstetters, the, 79, 88, 303

Holland, 8;
wars and commercial rivalry of England with, 7, 249, 252, 268, 321;
religious developments in, 10, 211, 227; economic progress of, 10, 204, 211,
216, 231, 316; controversy in, about usury, 126, 238; middle classes in,
208, 211; emigration of Dissenters to, 314. See also _Dutch_ and _Low
Countries_

Holland, Lord, 237

Hooker, Richard, 166, 170, 234

Hospitals, 144, 263;
loans by, 54, 301

Hostiensis, 158, 304

Houblon, James and John, 252

House of Commons, 143, 178, 179, 187, 264

-- of Convocation, 160

Huguenots, 252

Humanists, 79, 110, 114, 262

Hungary, 75, 79

Hutten, 88, 304

Imhofs, the, 79

Independents, 112, 212, 214, 219, 252

Indians, American, 130, 185

Indifferentism, 17, 18, 19, 188, 280

Individualism, rise of, 10, 13, 22, 65, 74, 81, 141, 163, 166, 172,
175-93, 227, 235, 250, 253, 254, 262, 316-7;
deduction of, from teaching of reformers, 82-4, 90, 112-3, 226-7. See also
under _Puritanism_

Industrial Revolution, 18, 193

Innocent IV, 29, 44, 293

_Interesse_, 42, 43, 95

Interest, rate of, 120, 124, 128, 153, 162, 180, 322;
“pure,” 42; true and unfeigned, not usury, 304. See also _Interesse_ and
_Usury_

Ireland, 231, 270, 324;
Church of, 161

Ireton, 258

Iron industry, 202, 220, 252-3, 325

Italy, 9, 54, 72;
medieval capitalism in, 26, 84, 86, 316; wage-earners in, 26, 38, 292;
financiers of, 29, 45, 73, 136; canonists of, 54; economic position of, 67,
69, 70, 231. See also _Florence_ and _Venice_

_Jacquerie_, 58

Jewel, Bishop, 82, 156

Jews, 37, 249

John XXII, bull of, 57

John of Salisbury, quoted, 22, 24, 292

Joint-stock enterprise, outburst of, 176

Jones, Rev. David, 246

Journeymen. See _Wage-earners_

Justices in Eyre, 51

-- of Assize, 173

-- of the Peace, usurers dealt with by, 164, 168;
regulation of markets and of wages by, 173; closing of public-houses by,
218; administration of poor laws by, 236, 263; administration of orders
against enclosures by, 173, 255

Keane, Robert, 128-31

Ket, 144, 302

Keynes, J. M., 251, 286

Kidderminster, 207, 220

King’s Lynn, 301, 309

Knewstub, 215, 318

Knox, John, 10, 19, 115, 118 (quoted), 127, 213

Lancashire, Puritanism in, 203, 204, 214, 322.
See also _Bury_

Land, 9, 137-50;
purchase of, by _nouveaux riches_, and speculation in, 87, 139-41,
143-4, 176, 208, 257;
mortgaging of, 103, 168. See also _Enclosures_, _Landlords_, _Pasture
farming_, _Property_,
_Rent-charge_, _Rents_

Landlords, oppressions of, 50, 140, 155, 164, 167, 172, 223, 236, 238,
298;
ecclesiastical, management of estates by, 58-9, 139, 144. See also
_Peasants_ and _Rents_

Lanfranc, 18

Langland, 18, 261

Lateran Councils, 46, 54

Latimer, 10, 19, 82, 141, 145, 255, 256, 262, 275, 287

Laud, 10, 19, 113, 133, 170-5, 188, 205, 210, 213, 236, 237, 255, 311

Laurentius de Rudolfis, 9, 291

Law, canon, 9, 165;
rules of, as to usury, 10, 36-55, 94, 95; serfdom recognized by, 58;
discredit of, 62, 65, 143, 159, 187; continued appeal to, 81, 85, 152-63,
305-6; compatibility of exchange business with, 80. See also _Canonists_

--, civil, 159-60

--, common, 159, 161, 186

--, natural, 39, 62, 179-80, 192, 259, 278

Law, John, 253

--, William, 190

Layton, Dr., 159

Leach, A. F., 143

Leadam, 146

Lease-mongers, 144

Lee, Joseph, quoted, 259

Leeds, 204

Leicester, 204, 256, 258

Leonard, Miss, 173

Levellers, 19, 212, 255, 317

Lever, 82, 141, 144, 156

Linen industry, 142

Lisbon, 79, 86, 87

Loans, charitable, 54, 154, 164, 263, 301;
public, indemnification of subscribers to, 179. See also _Interest_ and
_Usury_

Locke, 7 (quoted), 179, 189, 250, 258

Lollards, 50

Lombard bankers, 29, 51

London, 26, 51, 52, 55, 140, 263;
growth of money-market in, 75, 136, 177; Nonconformity in, 104, 203, 204,
214, 243, 252; fire of, 204, 221; bishop of, 29, 53, 162, 294

Lotteries, 126, 306

Low Countries, 70, 71, 72-3, 77, 231;
early capitalism in, 16, 25, 84, 292, 316; wage-earners in, 25-6, 38, 292;
_Monts de Piété_ in, 54, 301; religious tolerance in, 206. See also
_Antwerp_ and _Holland_

Luchaire, A., 30

Luther, 10, 19, 36, 79-102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 116, 241, 265, 298

Lyndwood, 54

Lyons, 75, 77, 120;
Poor Men of, 18; Council of, 46

Machiavelli, 7, 80, 184, 316

Maidstone, 205

Maitland, 159

Major, 107

Malynes, G., 177

Mandeville, 190 (quoted), 313

Manning, B. L., 19

Marx, Karl, 36, 112, 269

Massachusetts, 127-31, 238

Melanchthon, 81, 92, 107, 158

Mendicant orders, 92, 240

Mercantilism, 31, 80, 237, 251

Merchant Adventurers, 68, 73

Merchants. See _Traders_

Merchet, 147

Meutings, the, 79, 303

Middle classes, rise of, 8, 86, 87, 94, 111, 176, 177, 208, 234, 268,
269;
Calvinism and Puritanism among, 111, 113, 187, 202-10, 211-2, 231,
266, 317;
qualities of, 111, 208, 211, 230-1; humbler, attitude of, to rising
commercialism, 163-4; economic position of, 207-8, 244, 315

Middlemen. See _Traders_

Mill, James, 243

Milton, 199, 231

Mines, of New World, 68;
of Europe, 68, 75, 79; capitalism in working of, 70, 176

Monarchy, paternal, 211, 232, 235, 236-8, 253, 319.
See also _Charles I_ and _Tudors_

Monasteries, loans by, 54, 301;
relief of beggars by, 92, 114, 266; dissolution of, 138-41, 144, 308, 309

Moneylenders. See _Interest_, _Loans_ (_public_), _Usury_

Money-market. See _Exchanges_, _Financiers_, and under _London_

Monopolies. See _Patents_

Monopolists, denunciations of, 38, 81, 88, 93, 96, 119, 221

Montagu, 253

Montesquieu, 208

_Monts de Piété_, 43, 54, 301, 320

Moore, John, 257, 259

More, Sir Thomas, 73, 138, 139

Mosse, Miles, 156, 158, 160 (quoted)

Mullins, Archdeacon, 310

Nationalism, 68, 77

Netherlands. See _Low Countries_

New England, Calvinism in, 127-32, 227, 238

New Model Army, 219

Nicholas III, 29

Nonconformists. See _Churches (Nonconformist)_, _Independents_,
_Presbyterianism_, _Puritanism_, _Quakers_, _Tolerance_

Norfolk, 168, 203

North, Sir Dudley, quoted, 250

Notre-Dame, Cathedral of, 30, 294

Nürnberg, 85, 110

O’Brien, G., 43 (cited)

Œcolampadius, 82, 106, 114

Oresme, Nicholas, 9, 291

Owen, Robert, 272

Oziander, 83

Paget, 145

Paley, 287

Pallavicino, 178

Papacy, avarice and corruption of, 29, 85, 89-90, 92, 110, 111;
financial relations of, 29, 30, 44, 296-7

Papillon, Thomas, 252

Papists, unaptness of, for business, 206;
charity of, 233, 265, 320

Paris, 26, 75, 80, 120, 125, 293;
bishop of, 30, 294

Parish, loans by, 54, 154, 301;
organization of, 154-5, 312

Parker, Bishop, 204

Parliament, Levellers’ demands for reform of, 255

Parliament, Barebones, 219, 247

--, Long, 175, 187, 237, 255, 257

“Parliaments,” of wage-earners, 26, 292

Partnership, profits of, lawful, 42, 295;
fictitious, 48, 297

Pasture farming, 136, 137, 139, 140, 142, 145, 173, 178.
See also _Enclosures_

Patents, 236, 237, 319

Paterson, William, 253

Pawnshops, public, 164

Peasants, associations among, 27;
harshness of lot of, 57-8; revolts of, 58, 59, 70, 140, 143-5, 256, 302;
revolts of, in Germany, 58, 59, 81, 82, 88, 91, 93, 139, 145, 302;
emancipation of, from serfdom, 58, 59, 69, 87, 136, 147; comparison of, with
peasantry of France and Germany, 59, 86-7, 136,
151;
calling of, praised, 92. See also _Jacquerie_ and _Landlords_

Peckham, Archbishop, 29

Pecock, Bishop, 50, 55, 100, 297-8, 301

Penn, William, 188

Pennsylvania, 238

Pepper, 75

Pepys, 204

Petty, Sir William, 206, 250, 251 (quoted)

Piccarda, 17

Pilgrimage of Grace, 141

Pirenne, Prof., 74, 292

Political Arithmetic, 10, 185, 189, 204, 250.
See also _Economic Science_

Pollexfen, Sir Henry, 269

Ponet, 82, 141

Poor, relief of, 82, 92, 114, 141, 144, 155, 161, 193, 239;
investment of money for benefit of, 126, 182, 306; legislation _re_ relief
of, 127, 262, 264-6, 271, 323, 324; administration of laws for relief of,
168, 173-4, 236, 263; right of, to relief, 264-5, 271; relief to, to be
deterrent, 271, 324; able-bodied, employment of, 168, 262, 264, 265, 271,
323-4. See also _Almsgiving_, _Poverty_, _Vagrancy_

-- Law Commissioners, 271, 324

-- Men of Lyons, 18

Portugal, 67, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 84

Poverty, attitude of Swiss reformers to, 105, 114-5, 132;
attitude to, in eighteenth century, 189-90; attitude of Puritans to, 231,
233, 253-5, 260-73; medieval attitude to, 260-1, 323; attitude of Quakers
to, 272; causes of, 262, 264-5, 265-7, 270, 324. See also _Poor_

Predestination, 108, 112

Presbyterianism, 198, 213-5, 217-8, 234, 317, 318.
See also _Puritanism_

Presbyterians, 203, 207, 252;
struggle between Independents and, 112, 212, 214

Prices, rise in, 9, 70, 75, 81, 137, 147, 177, 180;
just, doctrine with
regard to, 17, 36, 41, 81, 94-5, 153, 156, 216-7, 222, 225, 244, 268,
293, 295, 318, 325;
control of, 41, 117, 119, 122, 123, 128-30, 142, 143, 168, 173, 174,
262, 320;
opposition to control of, 179, 235, 315. See also _Bargaining_

Privy Council, activities of, 166-9, 173-4, 236-8, 263, 320

Production, 248, 249, 251

Profits, medieval doctrine as to, 32, 34-6, 42, 104;
attempted limitation of, in New England, 127-31. See also _Traders_

Property, theories with regard to, 32, 102, 146-50, 189, 258, 261, 262

Prophesyings, 201

Public-houses, closing of, 218

Puritanism, 195-273;
quarrel between monarchy and, 6, 212, 232, 235-8, 318-9; medieval, 18;
discipline of, 113, 127-31, 187, 213-9, 234-5, 317; theology of, 113,
227-30; connection of individualism with, 113, 127, 212, 213, 219, 227,
229-39, 253, 254, 266, 271, 272, 316;
divergent elements in, 198, 212-3, 316; sanctification of business life by,
199, 201, 230, 233, 239-54, 272; geographical distribution of, 202-4;
connection of, with capitalism, 212, 316-7. See also _Calvinism_, _Middle
classes_, _New England_, _Poverty_,
_Presbyterianism_, _Usury_

Quakers, 19, 272, 325

Quarter Sessions. See _Justices of the Peace_

Quicksilver, 79

Rabelais, 77

Rationalism, medieval, 18

Reformation, relation of, to changes in social theory, 14-5, 19-20,
65-6, 81, 82-5, 89-93, 141, 154, 155-60

Regensburg, 85, 225

Religion, sphere of, all-embracing, 5, 8-10, 14, 18, 19-36, 60-2, 80,
82-5, 90-1, 97-8, 99, 148, 150-75, 182-3, 221, 224-6, 278, 279, 281-2,
285 (see also under _Traders_);
economic and social activities excluded from province of, 5, 6-13,
17, 91, 96-101, 175, 177-93, 221, 226, 238, 254-5, 277, 278-87;
wars of, 6-7, 119. See also _Asceticism_, _Calvinism_, _Indifferentism_,
_Presbyterianism_, _Puritanism_, _Reformation_, _Tolerance_

Rent-charge, considered lawful, 42, 43, 95, 182, 216, 217, 295

Rents, control of, at Geneva, 117;
raising of, 119, 140, 146, 153; Baxter’s teaching as to, 224

Rhode Island, 238

Riches, medieval attitude to, 32, 34-5, 55, 285, 301-2;
attitude of Calvinists and Puritans to, 105, 132, 230, 239, 267; modern
attitude to, 282-7. See also _Financiers_ and _Traders_

Ridley, Thomas, quoted, 186

Ripon, 53

Rome, corruption and avarice at, 28-30, 85, 90, 92, 110

Root and Branch Petition, 314

Rotenburg, 86

Rouen, 75

Rousseau, 293

Royal African Co., 249, 322

St. Ambrose, 260

St. Andrews, 127;
archbishop of, 50

St. Antonino, 9, 17, 32, 40-1, 88, 225, 291, 294, 295

St. Augustine, 48

St. Bernard, 30

St. Francis, 18, 57

St. Johns, the, 140, 308

St. Léon, Martin, 28 (quoted), 292, 293

St. Raymond, 48, 153

St. Thomas, 17, 20 (quoted), 31, 33, 35 (quoted), 36, 39 (quoted), 40,
58, 152, 200, 225, 260, 304

Salerno, archbishop of, 48

Salisbury, bishop of, 156;
mayor of, 218

Sanderson, Bishop, 188

Sandwich, 205

Sandys, Bishop, 82, 156

Say, J. B., 1

Saye and Sele, Lord, 174, 312

Schoolmen, 9, 16, 19, 30-6, 40-1, 80, 82, 148, 152, 155, 158, 183,
225.
See also _St. Antonino_ and _St. Thomas_

Schools, confiscation of endowments of, 143, 309;
establishment
of, by Church, 193.
See also _Education_

Schulze-Gaevernitz, 212

Scotland, 113, 126-7, 227;
Commissioners from, 214

Scriveners, 176

Self-interest, of individual, harmony of needs of society with, 13,
24, 179-80, 191, 192, 246, 259-60, 277.
See also _Individualism_

Senior, Nassau, 271, 324

Serfdom, 57-9;
attitude of Church to, 22, 58-9, 302. See also _Peasants_

Serfs, runaway, 139, 147, 308.
See also _Peasants_

Seville, 75, 135

Shaftesbury, Earl of, 249

Shaw, W. A., 215

Sheep-grazing. See _Pasture farming_

Sheldon, Dr. Gilbert, 311

Sidney, Sir Philip, 140

Sigismund, Emperor, Reformation of, 27, 88, 293

Silver, of America, 68, 74, 135;
of Europe, 79

Sion, monastery of, 140

Slave-trade, 185

Smiles, Samuel, 253

Smith, Adam, 35, 192, 253, 293

--, Rev. Henry, 215, 318

--, Sir Thomas, 160

Smiths, of London, 52, 292, 300

Soap, monopoly of, 237, 319

Social Democratic movement, 219

Society, functional theory of, 13, 22-5, 93, 97, 149, 169-70, 171,
172, 189, 191, 254;
modern conception of, 12-3, 22, 189, 191

Somerset, Duke of, 116, 147, 309

South Sea Bubble, 191

Spain, 70, 71, 72, 77, 79, 84;
dealers of, on Antwerp Bourse, 80

Speculation. See _Engrossers_

Speenhamland, 264

Spices, trade in, 74, 75, 79, 86

Spinola, 178

Spurriers, of London, 52, 300

Starkey, 22, 138, 292

State, relation between Church and, 6-10, 18-9, 20, 70, 91, 101-2,
124, 159, 165-6, 170-1, 172, 175, 278-9;
Locke’s conception of, 7 (quoted), 179, 189; unitary, sovereignty of, 278,
293; Distributive, 92, 151

Steele, Richard, 240, 243 (quoted), 243-5, 251, 266

Step-lords, 146

Stockwood, Rev. J., quoted, 266

Strafford, Earl of, 210, 213, 236

Strassburg, 75

Stubbes, Philip, 216

_Summæ_, 16, 19, 30, 220.
See also _Schoolmen_

Swift, Dean, 207

Switzerland, Reformation in, 102-25, 141, 265;
_bourgeoisie_ in, 111, 122, 208

Synods, French, 125-6

Taunton, 204

Taylor, Jeremy, 160 (quoted), 188

Temple, Sir William, 206

Tenures, military, abolition of, 257

Textile workers, of Flanders and Italy, 26, 292;
of Paris, 293. For England see under _Cloth industry_

Tobacco, 127

Tolerance, religious, 113, 118, 175, 219;
commercially advantageous, 10, 197, 205-7

Tories, distrust of commercial classes by, 207

Torrens, R., 3

Townsend, Rev. J., 313

Trade, flourishing of, under religious tolerance, 10, 197, 205-7;
free exercise of, 179; foreign, increase in, 136, 176; balance of, 247, 250

Trade unionism, 26, 293

Traders, medieval attitude to, 17-8, 23, 32, 33-6, 37, 104;
relations between craftsmen and, 26, 136, 137, 173, 236, 320; sanctification
of occupation of, 34, 104-5, 108, 109, 110, 111, 115,
199, 201, 230, 234, 239-53, 254, 273;
frauds and extortion of, 50, 105, 119, 126, 142, 153, 155-6, 298-9,
307;
Luther’s attitude to, 92; growth of power of, 136, 137; purchase of land by,
140, 208; breakdown of State control of, 179, 236. See also _Bargaining_,
_Prices_, _Profits_

Travers, W., 213

Troeltsch, Prof., 91, 212, 316

Tucker, Dean, 11, 192, 197 (quoted), 314

Tudors, social policy of, 164-70, 235, 262-3, 266, 270

Turgot, 293

Turks, 68, 69

Tyndale, 308, 323

Tyrol, 68, 75, 79

Udall, J., 213

Ulm, 85

Unwin, Prof., 173

Usher, R. G., 202

Usury, controversy on, 9, 81, 82, 151-64, 178, 180-3;
teaching of medieval Church on, 17, 36-9, 42-55; practicing of, on a large
scale, in Middle Ages, 29, 44-5, 176; restitution of profits of, 30, 46, 47,
49; enforcement of prohibition of, 37, 45-53, 100, 119, 121, 123, 127,
160-2, 164, 169, 187, 237, 238, 297, 298, 310;
prevalence of, 39, 151-2; popular denunciations of, 39, 81, 138, 144, 152;
annuities, compensation for loss, profits of partnership and
rent-charges not regarded as, 42, 43, 95, 182, 216-7, 295;
ecclesiastical legislation as to, 46, 52, 55; devices for concealment of,
47, 48, 53, 297; secular legislation as to, 52, 153, 159, 180, 187; attitude
of reformers to, in Germany, 81, 83, 94, 95, 100; in Switzerland, 81, 83,
103-4, 105-8, 117, 119-24, 181, 215, 216; in France, 126, 306; meaning of
term, 152-3, 160-1, 183; disappears from episcopal charges, 191; Puritan
attitude to, 209, 213, 215-7, 218, 223, 225, 232-3, 239,
246, 252, 269, 318, 319, 320.
See also _Clergy_, _Interest_, _Loans_

Utilitarianism, 243, 271

Utrecht, University of, 238

Vagrancy, measures for suppression of, 92, 168, 217, 262, 263, 265,
269-70, 271;
increase of, 263, 265. See also _Almsgiving_ and _Poor_

Value, theories of, 36, 40

Venezuela, 79

Venice, 68, 70, 73, 75, 87, 120, 316

Vienne, Council of, 46

Villeinage. See _Serfdom_

Virtues, economic, applauding of, by Calvinists and Puritans, 105,
110, 111, 114-5, 227-54, 271-2, 273

Vitry, Jacques de, 302

Vives, 114, 262

Voltaire, 208

Wadsworth, A. P., 322

Wage-earners, small number of, 26, 38, 137, 151, 207, 268, 292;
organizations of, 26; attitude of economists to, 268-70. See also _Wages_

Wages, withholding of, 50, 223, 298;
regulation of, 128, 173, 174, 235, 236, 293, 320; payment of, in truck, 153,
174, 236; economists’ views on the subject of, 268-70, 271. See also
_Wage-earners_

Wallas, Graham, 12

Wamba, 90

Warburton, 192

Ward, Sir Patience, 252

Warwick, Earl of, 145

Warwickshire, 138, 323

Washerne, 140

Wealth. See _Production_ and _Riches_

Weber, Max, 212, 316-7, 319, 321

Welsers, the, 78-9, 88, 303

Wentworth, 174

Wesley, 190

Westminster Assembly, 10, 214, 218

Whalley, ecclesiastical court of, 53

Whalley, Major-General, 259, 323

Whigs, 203, 252

Whitby, Abbey, 140

_Whole Duty of Man, The_, 191

Widows and orphans, usury for benefit of, 182, 233

Wilcox, Thomas, 161

Williams, Roger, 128

Wilson, Thomas, 156, 157, 160, 179, 234, 319

Wiltshire, 218, 237

Winstanley, Gerrard, 113 (quoted), 256

Witt, John de, 206

Wolsey, 138, 147

Wood, H. G., 318

Woodrow, Rev. Robert, quoted, 238

Woollen industry. See _Cloth industry_

Worcester, Priory of, 42

Workhouses, 265, 270, 271, 324

Works, good, 98, 109, 111, 239, 242, 266, 320

Wyclif, 18, 25 (quoted), 27, 39 (quoted), 40, 293

Yarranton, A., 253

Yeomanry, 58, 202

York, Province of, 161, 169

Yorke, Sir John, 140

Yorkshire, 141, 162, 204

Young, Arthur, 270

Younge, R., quoted, 267

Zürich, 103, 114, 117

Zwingli, 82, 103, 114-5, 117

Transcriber’s Note

Inconsistent hyphenation has been standardized throughout, except in quotations and publication titles. Minor printing errors have been corrected. αὐταρκεία has been changed to αὐτάρκεια. In this text version italics are indicated by an underscore.