Chapter XII: The Roman Question

I. _Before 1870_

The "Roman Question" represents the only "religious" question in Italy. The problems which agitate other lands leave the Italian unaffected, uninterested. He has no genius for reforming, and no genius for sect-making, he is as tolerant of abuses as of diversities. So it comes about that the one and only "religious" question in Italy is a political question--the rights and wrongs of the situation created for the papacy when it was despoiled of its temporalities.

It is certainly not generally remembered that ideals for a great future for Italy were not confined in the "forties" to the Italian _unita_ men. Pius IX. had read Cesare Balbo's "_Speranze d'Italia_" and had understood that it was desirable that Italy should free herself from the stranger. But he had been most strongly moved by Gioberti's "_Primato morale e civile degli Italiani_" in which "the majesty of Christianity and the destinies of Italy" were set forth as mutually interdependent, Italy gaining its pre-eminence from the Christian primacy which had grown in its midst and was of its soil. There he read that "Italy is the capital of Europe because Rome is the religious metropolis of the world," and there he gained his notion of an Italian federation under the civil headship of the Pope. That this idea was unrealisable was not the fault of Pius IX. It was the fault of the age in which he lived. He was not by temperament an obscurantist, and he began by being something of a political idealist. He had been brought up piously and carefully, and had no political arts, and he wondered that the papal government should be found opposing reforms which were demanded by modern progress. Yet his own papal career ended in political obscurantism and the absurdities of the _Syllabus_. Even had the flight to Gaeta, however, never intervened to chill the Pope's political idealism, things could not have had a different ending; for if on the one hand no European nation would have consented to place itself, even nominally, under a theocratic suzerain, on the other hand the papacy was not in the "forties" and had not been for centuries in a position to accept the civil headship of a great European state. Gioberti himself said enough to show that his golden visions for Catholicism were contingent on a complete restoration of the Church which was not undertaken then and has not been undertaken since.

Now that Rome is lost to the popes it is the fashion to conceive of the temporal power as a divinely ordained instrument for the protection and free development of the Kingdom of God on earth--self-consistent, identical, uninterrupted. Such a conception does not correspond to facts. We all know that the "Donation" of Rome to the popes in the fourth century by the first Christian Emperor Constantine, is only a pious myth, but even Charlemagne in the eighth retained his imperial rights over Rome and over the person of the pontiff. It was not till the age of the renascence and the rise of the great European states with the absorption of the small principalities and duchies, that the temporal power of the popes was ideated by them in its modern sense; and it is then that they completed the territorial aggressions by which they carved out for themselves an Italian state extending north and east to Tuscany and Venetia and southwards to Naples. The history of the papacy since then has been a history not of war between the forces of the world and the forces of Satan, the efforts of princes to enslave and the efforts of popes to establish Christian freedom, but a history of the efforts of the civil power and the civil prince to curb papal encroachments on their rights--efforts which during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries attained the proportions of true Magna Chartas of civil liberties. The modern conception of the temporal power aggravated the "pre-eminent domain" which the popes claimed in temporal affairs; the conception of civil liberties which had smouldered in the middle ages burst into flame in the modern world, and less than a century in fact elapsed between the final destruction of all "home rule" in the papal states and the loss of the temporal power.

When we speak of the servitude of the Pope in the King of Italy's dominions, we forget that Catholic princes have always found themselves obliged to restrain the papal arm, and to propound from time to time laws protecting the minor against the major clergy, the prelates against the pretensions of the papacy, the people against the publication of obnoxious Bulls, and the public peace by subjecting the correspondence between the Pope and the bishops to scrutiny. Thus the disciplinary canons of the Council of Trent were not published--and were never accepted--in many Catholic states. Canon law has been the constant butt of civil legislation which has denied one by one the immunities of ecclesiastics and abolished the existence of ecclesiastical courts for the trial of clerical offenders. The abstract question of the popes' relation to civil rights and to temporal power cannot be viewed apart from the sober teaching of history.

The castle of S. Angelo, fortified in the time of the popes, was
built by Hadrian as his mausoleum. The bridge is the ancient _pons
Aelius_ of which the parapet is modern, and the statues of SS. Peter
and Paul and of angels bearing the instruments of the Passion were
added by Clements VII. and IX. It was built by Hadrian to reach his
mausoleum. In the middle ages it was lined by a double row of
booths, and two hundred people were crushed to death here in the
Jubilee of 1450. See pages 32, 239, 242.]

Already in the reign of Pius VI. the Romans had imbibed from the French some of the doctrines of the Revolution, among them that of the sovereignty of the people. From that time onwards the papal power could never have been upheld except by foreign arms; and the spirit in which the great Napoleon offered his services should be sufficient evidence that the task of preserving the patrimony of Peter was not undertaken by those whom we ought to regard as having understood better than the Italians the things which belonged to Catholic peace. Every one will admit that the pontifical states were not really independent during these foreign occupations: what appears to be less clear is that a pope-king is not necessarily more free to exercise his high office than a pope who does not rule or who may even be the subject of another government. There is a covered way from the Vatican to Castel Sant' Angelo which is itself a parable of the history of the Roman popes. It was constructed as a means of fleeing in secrecy and safety from the Vatican when the turbulent Romans or foreign invaders made the pope's life insecure and placed his city at the mercy of vandals. The "Pope's own city of Rome" should never be thought of without a mental picture of the covered passage from the episcopal palace to the fortified castle, along which popes young and old, bad and good, have hurried praying or cursing. Let us look upon some of these fugitive popes, and realise from their trembling steps, their impotent objurgations, the hunted look in their eyes, how much of dignity and liberty the possession of Rome secured to them in the exercise of their divine mission. There is a type of Catholic whose favourite theme is Canossa, as his adversary's favourite theme is the Copernican system. An emperor standing outside the Pope's castle in a penitent's shirt through weary days and icy nights beseeching him to withdraw the decree of excommunication strikes the imagination to the exclusion of the sequel of the story. Four years after the experience of Canossa, the "penitent" emperor, accompanied by his antipope, brought an army to Rome and made Gregory fly to Castel Sant' Angelo. The people abandoned the cause of the great Hildebrand, betrayed Rome to the enemy at its gates and deposed their lawful pope. But imperial vengeance for a humiliation which had been undertaken to satisfy the superstition of the vulgar did not end there. Henry V. exacted from Paschal II. a further penalty, and while Europe looked on in apathy, the Pope and his cardinals were made prisoners and a number of priests were drawn through the mud at the horses' tails as the imperial troops rode off. Gelasius II. was seized in the conclave which elected him, trampled underfoot and chained in a tower belonging to the Frangipani. Rescued by the Romans of Trastevere and the Island, he is next found hiding in the _Borgo_ from the emperor, who pursued him in his flight to Gaeta, annulled his election and proclaimed an antipope. On the Pope's return to Rome he was entrapped at a mass in S. Prassede, but escaping to the meadows by S. Paul's where he was found weeping with the women of the neighbourhood, he died an exile in a Cluniac convent in France.

Placed here by Michael Angelo in 1538, who removed it from the
Lateran Piazza. It owed its preservation to the belief that it
represented Constantine. To the right and left are the museums of
the Capitol. In the rear is the Palace of the Senator overlooking
the Forum. See pages 13-15, 57, 58, 241.]

In 1144 the Romans determined to restore their free Senate and demanded, under Arnold of Brescia's influence, the abolition of the temporal power. Lucius II. stormed the Capitol and died defending his rights, but his successor was forced to fly the eternal city. Our one English Pope, who possessed the fine old English sounding name of Nicholas Breakspear, declared on his death bed that the Pope of Rome must find means to content the sordid soul of the Roman people or quit his throne and his city a fugitive. Indeed nothing is more noticeable than the strict impartiality with which the Romans meted out violence to popes good and bad; and exactly a century before they were deposing the great Hildebrand, they could have been seen outraging the body of the infamous Boniface VII., surnamed "Francone," whose bleeding corpse was kicked and rolled down the streets of Rome to the foot of the statue of the good Marcus Aurelius. In the same century which saw the English Hadrian IV. reigning in Rome, two German archbishops led troops against a pope. The Romans, as usual, required the vanquished pope to abdicate, and accepted Barbarossa as their ruler, who gave them an antipope. Of one emperor at this time it could be truthfully said that he had "the whole College of Cardinals in his pay" which affords some notion of the spiritual dignity of conclaves, while the ups and downs to which the papal rulers of Rome were subject is illustrated in the case of Pope Alexander who in the same twelfth century was received with open arms after ten years' exile by the fickle people, who however duly stoned his coffin when he died. Clement III., himself a Roman, was obliged to sanction once more the powers of the Roman Senate, and to hand over to the people part of the tolls. Innocent IV. fled to Genoa, this time from fear of the emperor, who afterwards kept him a prisoner in his own Lateran palace. Even a Boniface VIII. narrowly escaped being kidnapped by the French King and died most miserably in the Vatican. Benedict XI., the saintly Venetian pope, attempted to punish the perpetrators of this outrage, but had to withdraw his Bulls, and retire himself to Perugia. The election of his successor the French Pope Clement V. was followed by the exile of the popes in Avignon, and since their return to Rome in 1377 the popes have not belied their character for alternately inspiring and flying from violence foreign and internecine.

That mute but eloquent parable in stone is the real synthesis of the history of the papacy--the episcopal palace by the tomb of the Apostle, in the first Christian church, at one end, and at the other the fortress which was once a pagan emperor's mausoleum, with its dungeons and its history, secret and open, of crime and bloodshed; and between these the covered way along which the popes pass and repass from one to the other, symbol not of the separation but of the fateful conjunction of spiritual and temporal which has haunted their history.

It would, indeed, be strange if ages of barbarism could have secured to the first Christian bishop the honour and safety which can now be assured to him by that civilisation and tolerance which we have substituted for "the ages of faith"; and United Italy must have a long future ahead of it before it can have heaped on the popes one hundredth part of the indignities and sufferings which they underwent when nominally masters of Rome. But such modern conditions have not always prevailed, and those who in all ages have waged war against the theory of the temporal power--saints and philosophers--ought to have recognised that at one period of European history territorial lordship, feudal rank and power, were a necessity. The Church did not create and did not choose the feudal system, which was indeed opposed in principle to the spirit and teaching of Christ's Gospel, and the days have long since gone by when "secular grandeur guaranteed to the Church her religious integrity"--nevertheless these days once existed, and then the Catholic Church was as a strong man armed _cap a pie_ fighting for life, and leaving to the individual--the saintly bishop, the saintly clerk or layman--the task of softening the rigours and planing the roughnesses of a Christian system which was also at war with itself. Although it is true that no form of the popes' temporal sway has at any time secured to the papacy the benefits that have been alleged for it by ultramontane writers since 1870, and conversely true that the events of 1870 did not deprive the pope of those benefits, yet it is also perfectly true that the papacy has been, through the centuries, the means of preserving for Italy its ancient character of a world power, and of preserving for Rome, abandoned by Constantine and his successors to the fate of a small provincial town, cowering in its own ruins and filth, the prestige and significance of the city which ruled the world. It is the successors of Peter who have perpetuated the meaning of its title "the Eternal City," and have carried on, through fine weather and foul, the immortality of Augustus. This surely constitutes the papacy's chief claim on Italy's consideration.

There is, moreover, a curious and subtile, but perfectly comprehensible, tie between Italy and the popes, to which expression was given by the priest-philosopher Gioberti in his book on "The Primacy" already quoted. The Italian who never goes to church, nay the Italian who believes in no Church--and in Italy he is not at all necessarily the same person--contemplates the papal primacy with pleasure and pride, and considers with approval the phenomenon which brings the rest of Europe to kiss the foot of an Italian. He is perfectly aware, on the one side, that the Christian primacy--which is an Italian primacy--adds lustre and a cosmopolitan atmosphere to the city and the land which was the cradle of modern civilisation; and in some undefinable, yet I think definite, way he sees in it a compensation for the glory which has departed from his land of glories, a tangible pledge and earnest of that world-mastery whose sceptre is now wrenched from his hands.

See pages 16, 100, 135.]

The modern ultramontane has accustomed the modern simple faithful to an historical picture which has had, as we see, no existence in fact: the Vatican standing solemn and decorous, at its Bronze Gate the Swiss Guard; the papal sovereignty and the papal troops--disbanded, these latter, by evil men in 1870--guaranteeing to pope and cardinal the freedom of their sacred ministry both within and without the papal confines. It is only since 1870 that such a picture can be seen, in miniature, and within the walls of the Vatican, under the respectful tutelage of a united Italy which now surrounds the solemn and decorous palace, certainly not the least turbulent centre of Europe before 1870.

II. _Since 1870_

The pretension of the popes to wield "the two swords" had ever been a fruitful cause of friction in Europe; but in Rome the immense spiritual claims of the papacy joined to the claim that the Pope was _de jure divino_ monarch of monarchs, and could command the sword of princes in carrying out his ecclesiastical behests, wore a unique aspect, for here the Pope was in actual possession of the temporal sword, and ruled the bodies as well as the souls of men. The civil supremacy of the State is, indeed, a permanent conquest of the age in which we live, and the last European stronghold of the opposing theory was to be seen in Rome itself.

It is interesting therefore to notice that it was for internal civil reform that the Romans were agitating during the last years before 1870. The interference of the clergy in municipal administration was an intolerable grievance, and municipal reforms were still being urged on the Pope in 1857. The agitators were chiefly to be found among the lawyers and doctors, the educated _bourgeoisie_--always a minority in Rome--who were joined by a few heads and scions of great families. But in the previous pontificate "demonstrations" in favour of the falling papacy had still been engineered in Rome. Incited by a cardinal the people would take the horses out of Gregory XVI.'s carriage, and drag the Pope in procession; but the venal demonstrators had each his own personal petition to present, and when, shortly afterwards, one of the principal demonstrators assassinated his wife and aggravated the murder by brutally locking her in a room so that she might expire without assistance, the tender conscience of his comrades was outraged to find that Gregory sent him to the gallows without hesitation. The mercenary troops--the recruited refuse of all nations--described by an eye witness as "a drunken rabble," were also a thorn in the side of the Romans. The character of these papal supporters was in general so infamous that _soldato del papa_ was a proverbial contumely: they were the defenders of Rome in September 1870, under a German Swiss colonel, appointed general for the occasion, whose opponent, Cadorna, an officer of very different standing, wrote the history of the siege.

In the thirty-four years that have since elapsed, the millennium has certainly not come in Italy, nor is everything better than it was before. But at least everything has a chance of being better. Some of the things which the popes were asked to concede, especially as regards penal procedure, are not bettered to-day, for the Italian laws though in certain departments they are ideal schemes of legislation are in practice very frequently dead letters--and some of the crimes which made old Rome hideous have ceased owing to the very simple expedient of lighting the streets at night.

The _Statuto_, the constitution of united Italy, begins with a declaration that the religion of the State is the Catholic religion. The Pope's relation to the State was defined by "the Law of Guarantees" in 1871. His status is not that of a subject, but of a sovereign, though of a sovereign without territorial possessions. He is, however, sovereign in his palaces of the Vatican, Lateran, and Cancelleria, which with the papal country seat of Castel Gandolfo still belong to him. Within the Vatican he can and does maintain certain companies of soldiers and guards, and _extraterritorialisation_ applies to the Vatican precinct, no Italian official having any right to enter there unless invited to do so. Foreign nations can accredit ambassadors and ministers plenipotentiary to the Pope's court, and he can maintain ambassadors, or nunzios, at foreign courts. The archbasilicas of S. Peter's, S. John Lateran, and S. Maria Maggiore, also belong to the Pope, and their possession enabled Leo XIII. to refuse any one of the great basilicas for the marriage of the present King of Italy. The palace of Santa Maria Maggiore was confirmed to the popes in compensation for the loss of the Quirinal, and this territory, like all the other palaces churches and villas named, is _papal_ territory, not Italian territory. In addition, the Law of Guarantees provides that a sum of L130,000 (three and a quarter million francs) should be paid annually to the popes as a compensation for their revenue. This has never been accepted. The Law was intended to secure the Pope's complete independence of the Italian Crown, a matter which it was felt would be jealously watched over by other Catholic States; it guarantees his complete personal and administrative independence in the government of the Church, and in his and his agents' communication with countries outside Italy. That the popes have never been satisfied with it their continued protest and invocation of the liberty and dignity of temporal sovereignty amply proves.

The relation of Church and State in Italy is like that in other Catholic countries. The entire revenue of the papal States passed of course into the hands of the Italian Government, which also took over the revenues of such institutions as _Propaganda Fide_. A _Fondo Culto_ was created, and the nation continued to administer the ecclesiastical revenues of the country for the same objects as did the Pope. It pays the stipends of the parish priests, and a project has just been matured for increasing these in parishes where they are less than 1000 francs (L40) a year. Only in May of last year (1904) the _Camera_ had under discussion the relief of the lower and unbeneficed clergy, and of the poorer provincial seminaries for training priests. Bishops and canons cannot become possessed of their "temporalities" without the royal _exequatur_, and all public religious fabrics throughout the country belong to the State. Where the ecclesiastical face of Italy has been changed is in the suppression and expropriation of its monasteries and religious houses--the historical sites (with their treasures) have been declared national monuments, the gradual suppression of the communities which inhabited them has been provided for by a law forbidding the profession of new members, and the monastic revenues have been partly converted into insignificant pensions--varying from two francs to fifty centimes a day--paid to each individual of the suppressed communities. That the law has not been pressed with great severity by the tolerant Italian Government is evidenced in the fact that communities still exist who have escaped final confiscation for thirty-eight years by silently adding to their number so that it might never fall below the fatal six which spelt dissolution. At the end of the century there were still 13,875 religious who under this law were in receipt of 176,000 pounds. As to Rome itself, the Religious Congregations have proved that it has not been made an insupportable place of residence for them. The historic houses are national monuments, and the ancient communities are only recruited _sub rosa_, but new "Mother Houses" of all the great orders are taking possession of commanding sites in Rome, the illegal "professions" take place every day, and the number of monks, friars, and religious of both sexes is considerably larger than it was before 1870. So true is it that no district, hardly a street, in Rome is without its convent, that it has been wittily declared that the "temporal power" is in fact returning in this way--and Rome is again in roods and acres becoming ecclesiastical property.

It is difficult to suppose that we are near a conciliation between the Pope and Italy, or that there is still time for a satisfactory coalition between the conservative forces of law and order in the country and the moral forces of Catholicism against the inrush of the subversive forces of socialism and political radicalism. Many of the best men on the Italian side would indeed deplore any reconciliation with the Pope at present on the ground that it would involve a check to the civil progress of the Italian people. Meanwhile the Italians are certainly not becoming more religious under a system which assumes that if you are a good citizen you cannot be "a good Catholic," and it is for the popes to determine whether the irreligion of the people is or is not too heavy a price to pay for the upkeep of their protest against the events of 1870. The consequent alienation of some of the better religious elements in the country is, at least, doing serious harm in that it makes the abler men outside doubt whether the religious elements which remain are worthy to be regarded as in any sense a moral force which could be invoked to co-operate with the best modern secular forces.

Meanwhile the opposing factions have been face to face for thirty-four years. How have they behaved, and how have they altered since then? The official Vatican behaviour never varied until Pius X. ascended the Chair of Peter. Pius IX. had set the example of violent public utterances, and had permitted the subsidised clerical newspapers to attack Victor Emmanuel both in his private and public character. On the other hand he would never tolerate in his presence a word against the King, and his own letters to him were not only friendly but affectionate. This little comedy scandalised the Italian's sense of decorum, and as a policy has succeeded in alienating Italian sympathy. The general tendency on the secular side has been conciliatory; the Italians, indeed, began with a farce on the morrow of their entry into Rome, a farce duly recorded in the name of the street which runs past the church of the _Gesu_. The _plebiscite_ registered the will of the "whites" but not the will of the "blacks," none of whom voted; and the forty-six votes against the new _regime_ which appeared in the total, had been cast by the "whites" themselves. Nevertheless the Catholics in Rome who do not make a _politica_ of their religion, willingly allow that they enjoy a large measure of liberty. Not long since at the request of the visiting chaplain the authorities arranged for a man to be brought back to the prison where his wife was still undergoing sentence, in order that their civil marriage might be completed with the religious rite. For some years past the present Cardinal Vicar of Rome has administered the Easter Communion to the inmates of the _Regina Coeli_ prison to the joy of the prison officials and the reciprocal consolation of the cardinal and the black sheep whom he that day bears home on his shoulder rejoicing. It is well known that the officers encourage the men to attend to their religious duties at Easter, and remind them of these as the seasons come round. Every soldier may then have leave of absence for confession and communion, and a rule is made requiring all men out on leave in this way to bring back with them the Communion ticket which is given at the rails to each Easter communicant. Many of the soldiers choose to go to S. Peter's, and the carabineers in their sober black uniforms may always be seen there during Holy Week.

It will readily be understood that both incongruities and accommodations are rife in such a condition of affairs as the existence of a State Church by the side of a hostile papacy. The King wants a regimental banner blest, or the Pope wants to have the roads kept while fifty thousand pilgrims flock to S. Peter's. During the latter years of Leo XIII.'s pontificate the Italian police were invited into the basilica, and headed a procession with all the decorum of its traditional vergers, the _Sampietrini_. These reciprocal interests even require telephonic communication between the Quirinal and the Vatican. In theory, the House of Savoy, the members of the Government and every person in its pay down to the _custodi_ of the ruins and museums of Rome with their families are excommunicated. In practice the Pope provides a chaplain for the Royal palace, the parish priest has of late years entered the Quirinal and penetrated to the royal bedrooms for the customary blessing of houses on Easter eve, Italian officials and their families receive absolution like any one else, and the irony of history required that the "excommunicated" Queen Margaret of Savoy was the only princely personage to fulfil the conditions of the last Jubilee year in Rome.

Before us is the church built on the site of the Temple of Venus and
Rome and dedicated to S. Francesca Romana, the greatest of Roman
saints. To the left the huge ruins of the basilica of the first
Christian emperor, while to the right is the Arch of Titus,
commemorating the fall of Jerusalem, and the road with its _via
crucis_ which leads to the church of S. Bonaventura, the biographer
of S. Francis, built against the Stadium of Domitian.

The view is taken from the terrace outside that domestic basilica of
the Flavian House which still retains more of the form of a
Christian basilica than any other pagan building. Here are brought
together the old and the new, Christian and pagan, papal and
imperial--the shock of the two world empires. See interleaf, pages
44, 50.]

And the "blacks and the whites"? In the "eighties" the distinction between those who clung to the old _regime_ and those who adopted the new was still sufficiently marked, but in the last decade of the century the "blacks" became "gray" or as they themselves liked to express it _caffe-latte_, neither black nor white. The acceptance of invitations to the Quirinal has, up to now, entailed the forfeiture of those official invitations to the Vatican which are extended to the Roman aristocracy for every great papal function. Many of its older members still absent themselves from all official "white" receptions, and a daughter is still presented not at the Court but to the Pope, with her _fiance_, on her engagement. But in private society the great "black" ladies now know and meet the "white" society with which many of the Roman families are related by marriage; and it is not infrequently the case that one branch of an old Roman house clings to the Pope while another attaches itself to the King. But everywhere, even where the parents absent themselves from official "white" society, their children now go to the Quirinal. Thus we are very far from the time when no member of the Roman aristocracy met the King or Queen, when the Court was entirely composed of new men, or the Piedmontese whom the King brought with him. The day has gone by when even in a ball-room the "blacks" took care to label themselves by wearing a yellow (papal) rose, and only priests and the English converts still make a point of not saluting the sovereign. One Roman prince, however, has kept up a picturesque protest--and the great door of Prince Lancellotti's palace has never been opened since the day the King of Italy entered the Pope's capital. Even when, quite recently, invitations to a ball were issued from the great silent house, all the guests crowded through the postern door.

When one asks any of the old school now whether the old Government did well or ill, the best, and the wisest, answer that they can give us is "They were _altri tempi_, other times." And this is the reason why it is impossible that the two parties should continue to exist after the present generation. The cleavage has really been due to the fact that the Vatican and Quirinal parties live in two different epochs; they live in different worlds and speak a different language. The old fashioned "blacks" can only think in a circle of ideas and sentiments, political and moral, to which they were born but which has no present point of contact with reality, with the living world around them, with "things as they are." The old has its beauty and the new has its uglinesses, as always; but also they frequently change these positions. Fifteen years ago one of the most distinguished Italian diocesans wrote a pamphlet entitled "_Roma e l'Italia, e la realta delle cose, pensieri di un prelato italiano_"--"Rome, Italy, and things as they are; thoughts of an Italian Prelate." As soon as his name was discovered, he was told to withdraw the pamphlet, publicly from his own pulpit. This was not encouraging to others who thought as he in a country where secular public opinion still counts for so little, the individual "courage of your opinions" counts for still less, and where a public opinion among ecclesiastics is simply non-existent. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, a Cardinal Secretary of State had the courage of his opinions as the following passages from his Memoirs will prove. He is known for his protection of the Jesuits against the Jansenists during his sojourn in Paris as papal Envoy Extraordinary, and by the Pacca law, which is called after him, prohibiting private owners from disposing of great works of art out of Italy. "Providence," he writes, "has taken away the temporal power from the Holy See and prepared those changes in States and Governments which shall once more render it possible for the Pope, although a subject, to rule over and govern the whole body of the faithful." "The popes, relieved from the burden of the temporal power which obliged them to devote a great part of their time to secular affairs, may now turn all their attention and all their care to the spiritual government of the Church; and when the Roman Church lacks the pomp and magnificence which temporal sovereignty has given her, then there will be numbered among her clergy only those who _bonum opus desiderant_."

That pathetic combatant for papal rights in the twelfth century Gelasius II., exclaimed to his cardinals "We must leave Rome, where it is impossible to stay." That plaintive cry need, we trust, have no further echo: the ages of which Gregorovius writes that popes "were obliged to leave Rome to realise in foreign countries that they were still actually reverenced as representatives of Christ" closed, we hope, with the entry of the Italians into Rome and the consequent creation--in lieu of the elusive "_Roma intangibile_"--of what Bismarck happily called an "intangible Vatican."

Index

Abruzzi, Abruzzese, 153, 155, 188

Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici, 221

Accoramboni, Vittoria, 167

Acilii Glabriones, 45

Adelbert, S., 8

Adonis, 90

_Aedes publica_, 31

Aeneas, 2, 130

Aesculapius, 7, 8

Agape, 46

Ager (agro), 1, 15, 70-1, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 90

Agricultural colonies, 11, 76

Agrippa, 20, 22, 30

Alabaster, 27

Alaric, 37

Alba Longa, 1, 2, 15

Alban hills, 17, 23, 70, 78

Albani, 171

Alexander III., 241

Alexander Severus, 22, 32, 63

_Alta Semita_, 55

Altar, 19, 20, 35, 186;
position of priest at, 36, 186

Altieri, 172

_Ambarvalia_, 15

Amphitheatre, 22, 31, 33, 163

Anacletus II., 161

Ancus Martius, 5, 26

Anguillara, 60, 162, 168

Animals, cruelty to, 81, 88, 129, 147-8, 155;
Leo XIII. and, 148

Anio, 24

Annibaldi, 168

Anselm, S., 5

Antonelli, Cardinal, 202, 219

Antonines, 11

Antoninus Pius, 32, 197

Antony, S., 68, 148

Apostles, 42, 48, 199

Appian Way, 30, 41, 45, 70, 168

Appius Claudius, 21

Apprentice, 67

Apse, 19, 35, 36

Aqueducts, 21, 22, 30, 31, 37, 39, 73

Arabesques, 29

Arcadians, 2

Arch, 36;
of Janus, 162

Arches, triumphal, 33;
of Constantine, 32, 162;
of Septimius Severus, 32;
of Titus, 31, 162;
of Trajan, 31

Architraves, 19, 36

Arenula, 56

Aristocracy, 94, 99, 109, 132, 135, 159, 160, 170, 172, 173, 174,
178, 215, 221, 245, 253

Arnold of Brescia, 240

Augustus, 4, 10, 12, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31, 53, 54, 55, 57, 74, 164, 243;
house of, 10, 30;
mausoleum of, 30, 164, 242

Aurelian, Emperor, 6, 32;
wall, 32, 38, 43, 163

Aurelii, 45

Aurelius, Marcus, 32, 46, 55, 63, 197, 241

_Ave Maria_, 232

Aventine, 26, 30, 160, 202, 227

Avignon, exile in, 6, 14, 57, 242

_Baioccho_, 105

Balbo, Cesare, 235

_Baldacchino_, 10, 177, 211

_Balnae_, 20

Bambin Gesu, image in Ara Coeli, 230;
convent of the, 223

Banners, regional, 55, 57, 58, 59

Baptism, 231

Barbarossa, 241

Barberini, 9, 10, 171

Barbers, street, 101

Baronial towers. _See_ Towers

Bartholomew, S., 7

Basilica, Christian, 33, 34, 36, 50, 67, 186, 209;
domestic, 34, 35;
Flavian, 35;
forensic, 19, 20, 24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37;
Julia, 20, 30;
Ulpian, 31

Baths, public, 19-21, 24, 30, 31, 39, 54, 61, 99

Beggars, 11-12, 54, 99

Belli, Gioacchino, 140

Bell towers. _See_ Towers

Benedict XI., 241

Benedict XIII., 167

Benedict XIV., 59, 178

Benedict, S., 78

Beneficent clubs, 68

Beneventum, 7

_Berretta_, 204, 205, 209

Bibulus, 29

Bismarck, 255

"Blacks" and "Whites," 252-4

Boatmen's guild, 63

Bombardment of Rome, 212

Bonaparte, 171

Boncompagni, 170

Boniface VII., 241

Boniface VIII., 164, 165, 167, 168, 201, 241

"Book of the Art," 84, 86

Borghese, 123, 170, 171, 174

Borgo, 55, 90, 228, 240

Bracciano, 17, 168;
duke of, 167

Braschi, 173

Breakspear, Nicholas, 240

_Breccias_, 27

Bricks, 23, 25, 37

Brigands, 11, 54, 89, 96, 150

Buffalo Bill, 89

Building crisis, 12

Burial guilds, 8, 42, 63, 77

_Butteri_, 89, 90

_Buzzuri_, 138

Byzantium, Byzantine, 42, 137, 234

Cadorna, General, 246

Caecilia Metella, 29, 168

Caecilii, 45, 46

Caelian hill, 5, 31, 53, 202

Caesar, Julius, 29, 30

Caesarius, S., 74

Caetani, 164, 168, 177

Cafe, 101, 142

_Cafoni_, 138

Calabria, Calabrese, 126, 139, 155

Caligula, 31

Callistus, catacomb of, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46;
Pope, 42 _n._;
Callistus III. 60

_Camorra_, 139, 139 _n._

Campagna, 17, 21, 38, 69-80, 83, 89-92, 107, 228;
cattle in, 77;
cities, ancient, of, 72;
deaths in the, 77, 90, 143;
malaria in, 74-5;
towns of, 78, 107

Campitelli, _rione_, 56

Campo de' Fiori, 219

Campo Marzo (Campus Martius), 18, 22, 30, 33, 37, 55, 59, 60, 163, 228

Campo Vaccino, 61, 62

_Cancellum_, 19, 35

Candelabra, 36

Canon law, 238

Canon, a, of S. M. in Trastevere, 232

Canonisation, 50

Canossa, 239

Capitol, 4, 18, 28, 30, 31, 38, 56, 57, 58, 130, 135, 161, 169,
172, 173, 240

_Capo d'arte_, 66

_Capo rione_, 57, 58

_Cappa magna_, 209

Captains, regional, 54, 55, 56, 58

Carabineers, 150, 151, 151 _n._, 225

Caracalla, 20, 21, 32

Cardinal, Bishops, 201, 205;
Chamberlain, 210;
deacons, 201, 202, 205;
priests, 201, 202, 205;
vicar, 201, 251

Cardinal's dress, 204, 206, 209, 210;
hat, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209;
vicar, 201

Cardinals, 15, 58, 159, 175, 200-211, 225, 228, 240, 241

Cardinals, College of, 15, 201, 202, 205, 210, 241, 252

Carnival, 58

Carrara marble, 25

Carters, carts, 63, 72, 88, 90, 96, 228

Caserta, 168, 177

Cassandrino, 141

Castel Gandolfo, 171, 247

Castel Sant' Angelo, 56, 239, 242

_Castelli Romani_, 71, 78, 79

Catacombs, 196;
art in 46;
number of, 43;
prayers for dead in, 48-9;
testimony of the, 47-8

Catholicism and the Catholic Church, 45, 47, 137, 181, 184, 195,
199, 236, 243;
and Catholic clergy, 137, 248, 254

Celestine III., 167

_Cella_, 18, 19

Cement, use of, 24, 27, 37

Cenci, Cencius, 168, 169;
Beatrice, 160;
Bolognetti, 169;
Johannes, 169;
Marcus, 169;
Virginius, 169

Centurion, 54

Cestian bridge. _See pons_

Chapter of S. Peter's, 67, 209

Charioteers, 33, 63

Charities, Roman, 11, 56, 66, 174, 217, 223

Charlemagne, 14, 237

Chigi, 170;
Agostino, 171

Chivalry, 5, 112

Chrism ("confirmation"), 231

Christians, early, 34, 42, 47

Church and State, 248

Churches--
S. Adriano, 202;
S. Anastasia, 2;
SS. Andrea and Gregorio, 161, 202;
S. Angelo in Pescheria, 56;
SS. Apostoli, 232;
Ara Coeli, 57, 86, 161, 230;
S. Barbara, 66;
S. Bartholomew, 8;
SS. Bonifacio and Alessio, 202;
S. Caterina de' Funari, 66;
Chiesa Nuova, 56;
S. Clemente, 202;
SS. Cosma and Damiano, 32;
S. Croce, 35;
S. Domitilla (catacomb), 187;
S. Eligio dei Ferrai, 68;
S. Eusebio, 202;
S. Eustachio, 56;
S. Francesca Romana, 32;
S. Giorgio in Velabro, 202;
S. Giovanni Calibita, 7;
S. Giuseppe degli Falegnami, 66;
S. John Beheaded, 86;
S. John Lateran, 35, 36, 247;
S. Lorenzo in Lucina, 226;
S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 32, 66;
S. Luigi, 173;
S. Marcello, 161;
S. Marco, 230;
S. Maria degli Angeli, 21;
S. Maria in Aquiro, 202;
S. Maria Aventinense (_see_ Priory of Malta);
S. Maria in Cosmedin, 7, 31, 186;
S. Maria in Capella, 229;
S. Maria in Domnica, 187;
S. Maria Maggiore, 23, 34, 60, 171, 187, 223, 231, 247;
S. Maria dell' Orto, 66, 229;
SS. Nereo and Achilleo, 187;
S. Paul's-without-the-Walls, 36, 240;
S. Peter's, 10, 16, 32, 38, 41, 42, 67, 196, 247, 251, 252;
S. Prassede, 240;
S. Prisca, 202;
S. Sabina, 186;
S. Silvestro in Capite, 166;
S. Stefano, Via Latina, 187;
S. Tommaso a' Cenci, 66, 169

Cippolino, 27

Circolo San Pietro, 76, 222

Circus, 19, 26, 33;
Maximus, 30

_Civis romanus_, 181, 199

Claudius, 26, 31, 181

Clement, Pope, 14

Clement III., 241

Clement V., 242

Clement IX., 172

Clement XI., 171

Clement XII., 171

Clement XIII., 146

Clementi, 156 _n._

_Clivus capitolinus_, 30

_Cloacae_, 18, 39

Cloisters, 36, 38

Cluilian Ditch, 15

Coaches, bambino's, 230;
pope's, 217, 231, 245;
cardinal's and prince's, 173, 207, 208, 210

Cohorts, 54

_Collegio_, 63, 64, 65, 66

_Colles_, 53

_Collina_, 53

Colonies, agricultural, 11, 76

Colonna, 55, 162, 163, 164-7, 170, 172;
Lorenzo, 165;
Marc' Antonio, 165;
Sciarra, 164;
Stephen, 165;
Vittoria, 165

Colosseum, 11, 22, 32, 39, 162

Coltello, 145

Columns, 33, 38;
of Marcus Aurelius, 32;
of Trajan, 31, 142

_Comitium_, 4

Commemorative banquets, 63

Communes, Roman, 13, 59, 64;
Italian, 14, 179

Communion, Easter, 223, 251;
first, 222, 223;
tickets, 223, 224, 251

Conciliation. _See_ Pope and Italy

_Conciliatore_, 110-111

Conclave, 58, 210-11, 241

Concrete, use of, 24, 25, 27, 28, 37

_Confessio_, 36, 50

Confession, 222, 223, 251

Confraternities, 67, 68

Confraternity of Prayer and Death, 67, 143;
red, 8, 229

Congregations, Roman, 203, 249;
of women in Rome, 220, 228, 230

Consistory, secret, 204;
public, 204

Constantine, 31, 32, 34, 37, 42, 162, 237, 243

Consular families, 13, 34, 63

Conti, 160

Corinthian pillars, 19

Cornelius, pope, 45

Corporations, 62, 63

Corte Savella, 160

Corsi, 161

Corsini, 171

Corso, 9, 59, 93, 100, 101, 115, 141, 161, 172, 220, 221;
Vittorio Emanuele, 169

Cosmati, 36

Courtship, 152-3

Crime, 81, 139, 145-6, 149, 246

_Croce Rossa_, 75

Crostarosa, Mons., 34 _n._

Curatii and Horatii, 15

Curator, regional, 53, 54, 64

Curia, 201, 203

_Curiae_, 154

Curule chairs, 197

Customs officers, 64, 103

Dante, 9

Deacons of Rome, 55, 200, 201, 202

Decimal system, 105

Decoration, 25, 28, 29

Deffand, Marquise du, 226

Democracy, 114, 115, 194

De Rossi, 44

Destruction of city. _See_ Rome

Diaconate, the, 200

Diocletian, 20, 21, 32, 33, 61;
museum, 29

_Dio in terra_, 216

_Dispetto_, 134

District courts, 110

_Divin amore_ festa, 234

Doctors, guild of, 63

Dogma, 47, 50, 56, 64

Domitian, 30, 31;
house of, 31, 35

_Domui_, 23

Donation of Constantine, 237

Don, 178

Donna, 178

Door charms, 234

Doria Pamphili, 68, 172, 221

Doric columns, 19

Dowries, 12, 56, 66, 67

Dress of Romans, 141

Dyers, guild of, 63

Easter. _See_ Communion

Egypt, 7, 25, 180, 183

Esquilina, 55

Esquiline, 5, 53, 55, 202

Etruscans, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 70, 181, 182, 197

Eucharist, 46, 47, 49, 196, 197

Eugenius IV., 165

Evander, 2

Evil eye, 231

Exarchate, 13, 14, 42

_Excubitoria_, 56

_Exequatur_, 248

Exorcism, 81, 82-3, 187, 222

Extraterritorialisation, 247

Extreme unction, 192

Fabrician bridge. _See pons_

Family life in Italy, 116-17, 155;
Rome, 97, 154, 155

Farms in the campagna, 33, 71, 72, 73, 77

Fattore, 77

Faustulus, 2

_Fedeli_, 59

_Festa_, 100, 102, 156, 204, 224, 228

Feudalism, 112, 160, 162, 243

Fever, goddess, 74

"Field of Cows," 38, 61, 62

Firemen, 54

Flavian house, 12, 31, 35, 45

Florence. _See_ Tuscany

Fluor-spar, 27

_Fondo culto_, 248

Fortress, military, 23, 38

_Fortuna Virilis_. _See_ Temples

Forum, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 56, 59, 61, 66, 147, 231

_Forum Romanum_, 4, 15, 18, 20, 30, 31, 147

Fountains, street, 21, 33, 39, 93, 175

Francis, S., 8, 189, 195

Franciscans, 8, 189, 229

Frangipani, 161, 240

Franks, 65

Frascati, 171

French kings, 14, 241;
Revolution, 146, 238

Fresco painting, 29, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47

Friezes, 19, 28, 37, 61

Gaeta, 202, 214, 215, 236

Gaetani, 164, 168, 177

Galera, 168

Gardens, 33, 39, 93

Garibaldi, 118, 123

Gates of Rome, 100, 207

Gelasius II., 168, 240, 255

Genazzano, 79, 83, 166;
madonna of, 83

Genseric, 37

_Gentes_, 13, 14, 45, 70

_Gentiluomo_, 208, 209

Genzano, 79

George, S., 74

Germanicus, house of, 29, 157

Geta, 32

Ghetto, 7, 11, 56, 219, 230

Ghibellines, 60, 162, 163

_Giallo Antico_, 27

Gioberti, 235, 236, 244

_Giulio_, 105

Giustiniani, 173

Gladiators, 22, 63

Goat herd, 38

Goatskin breeches, 90

"Golden book," 172

Golden house of Nero, 29

Governor of Rome, 222

_Graffiti_, 44

Gratian, 37

Grazioli, 172

Greece, 3, 7, 8, 13, 18, 20, 25, 27, 45, 129, 130, 182, 183,
186, 197

Gregory the Great, 11

Gregory VII., 239

Gregory XI., 57

Gregory XIII., 170

Gregory XVI., 213, 218, 219, 245

_Grosso_, 105

Grotta Ferrata, 166

Grotto of Lupercus, 2

_Guardia_, 144, 149, 150, 151

Guelphs, 60, 162, 163

Guilds, trade, 52, 58, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68;
conditions of membership, 64, 66;
funds, 65;
patrons, 63, 64;
religious, 63;
under State control, 64;
statutes, 66

Guiscard, Robert, 37

Gymnasia, Greek, 20

Hadrian, Emperor, 23, 31, 32, 37

Hadrian's mausoleum, 23, 32, 37

Hadrian IV., pope, 78, 240, 241

Handicrafts, 52, 58, 63

Hannibal, 168

Heliogabalus, 32

Henry IV., 239

Henry V., 240

Heraldic Commission, 179

Hildebrand, 240, 241

"Hill of goats," 38

Hill villages, 71, 78

Holidays, Roman, 100

Holy See, the, 201, 207, 218, 255;
vacancy of, 210

Honorius I., 32

Honorius IV., 160, 161

Horatii and Curatii, 15

House of Savoy, 115, 252

Humbert, King, 115

Hymettan marble, 27

Industrial classes, 62, 63, 66, 141, 228

Innkeepers, guild of the, 63

Innocent III., 160

Innocent IV., 241

Innocent XI., 172

Inn of the Bear, 9

_In petto_, 204

_Insulae_, 23

Ionic columns, 19

Ironworkers' guild, 58, 68

Isis, 183

Island of the Tiber, 240

_Isola sacra_, 240

Italian art, 123-5, 127, 191;
Catholicism, 81, 91, 188-196;
characteristics, 112-122;
crowds, 121;
cruelty, 81, 146-7, 155;
democracy, 114, 115, 193-5;
garden, 73;
"individualism," 115-116, 183;
women, 153-55

Italians and English, 112-124, 132, 145, 146, 151, 153-155, 157,
190, 191, 194-196;
and French, 112, 119-122, 133, 145, 146;
and Germans, 112, 117, 122, 123, 131, 145, 146, 153, 157, 190,
196;
and Irish, 120, 126

Janiculum, the, 5, 16, 17, 171, 207, 227

Jasper, 27

Jerome, S., 37, 200

_Jettatura_, 231

Jews, in Rome, 5, 7, 45, 46, 160, 161, 180, 181-2, 183, 188,
198, 199;
bonnet, 46;
of the dispersion, 45;
quarter, 7, 56, 169

John X., 168

Jubilee year, 217, 252

Jupiter (Jove), 18, 28, 30, 37, 78, 130, 131, 181, 182

Justin Martyr, 46

Kitchens, Roman, 54, 94, 98, 99, 101, 108

Kitchen range, 98

La Marmora, General, 123

Lancellotti, Prince, 253

_Lapis lazuli_, 27

_Lares compitales_, 53

Larva, 27

Latin league, 69, 78;
religion, 91, 92, 181, 182, 183, 193, 194, 196, 197

Latium, 1, 2, 70, 71, 146, 147 _n._, 181, 196

Law of guarantees, 247

Laws, Italian, 149, 246

Leo IV., 6

Leo IX., 161

Leo X., 13

Leo XIII., 148, 203, 247, 248, 252

Leonine city, 55, 56

Letter-writers, public, 102

Lewis Gonzaga, S., 102, 223

Lewis the Bavarian, 164

Libraries, 21, 31, 35, 174, 175

Lime-kilns, 37

Livy, 25

Lombardy, Lombards, 14, 65, 77, 125, 126, 188

Lottery, the, 84-87

Lucina, crypts of, 46

Lucius Crassus, 28

Lucius II., 240

_Lucomones_, 197

Lucullus, 28

Ludovisi, 170

_Lumachella_ marble, 27

Luna marble, 25

Lupercus, 2, 91, 196

_Lupetto Romano_, 90

Macaroni, 97, 98, 100, 103

Madonna di S. Agostino, 86

Madonna, cult of the, 83, 87, 89, 91, 99

_Mafia_, 139, 139 _n._

Magistrates, 53, 110

Malaria, 74

Malta, order of, 5

Mamertine prisons, 18, 147

Manfred, 168

Marbles, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 36, 54, 61, 98;
workers, 27, 36, 37, 39

Marcellus, theatre of, 30, 160, 168, 228

_Marchesi di baldacchino_, 177, 178

Marcia, acqua, 22, 73

Marcus Aurelius, 32, 46, 55, 63, 197, 241

Marforio, 140

Margherita, queen, 115, 252

Marino, 166

_Marmoratum_, 26

Mars, 3, 59, 74;
spears of, 3;
Ultor, 30

Marshall of Conclave, 170, 211;
of the Pope's Horse, 170

Martin V., 166

Martyrs, 41, 42, 43, 51

Mass, 3, 184, 191, 224, 232;
in the Campagna, 76;
commemorations in the, 49

Massimo family, 168

Master of Ceremonies, 205;
of Sant'Ospizio, 170;
workers, 67

Mausolea. _See_ Tombs

Maxentius, 32

Maximi Caecilii, 45

Mazzini, 214

Meals, Roman, 97

Menage, Roman, 93

Merchants, 63

_Mercanti di Campagna_, 77

_Mesata secca_, 106

Michael Angelo, 165

Michael, S., 74

Middle ages, 23, 36, 55, 65, 67, 161

Militia, Roman, 56, 64

Minerva, 18, 80, 181

Misericordia, 77

Mithras, 183

Mixed marriages, 122

Monasteries, 38, 66, 67, 96;
number of, 249;
suppression of, 248-9

Monastic professions, 249

Monks and nuns, 215, 220, 228, 229, 230, 249

Monopolies, 67

Monsignore of the papal wardrobe, 205;
of roads and streets, 9

_Mons Saturninus_, 30

Monte Cassino, 179

Monte Cavo, 17, 78

Monte Giordano, 163

_Montes_, 53

Monti, 55, 59, 60

Monticiani, 60, 61, 62

_Morra_, 101

Mortar, 22, 23, 24

Mosaic, 36, 37, 39, 174;
pavement, 27, 28, 33;
sectile, 28

Moses, 45, 181;
and Peter, 42

Mother houses, 249

Municipalities, Italian, 14, 15

Municipality, Roman, 13-16, 59

Municipal liberties, 14-16, 56, 64, 237, 245

Naples (Neapolitans), 72, 89, 126, 132, 138-9, 147, 166, 168,
187, 188, 237

Napoleon, 61, 141, 171, 238

Navicella, 61

Nero, 20, 22, 29, 31

Nicholas III., 167

Nobility, Roman, 63, 159, 160, 172, 173, 174, 178, 253

Numa, King, 52, 62, 181

Numidia, 27

Obelisks, 26, 28, 33, 38

Obsession, 82

_Octroi_, 103

Odescalchi, 168, 172

Olevano, 79

Olive, 80

Olive harvest, 80

_Ombrellino_, 230

Opus incertum, 25;
mixtum, 25;
reticulatum, 25

Orderlies, 107

Oreglia, Cardinal, 203

Orsini family, 60, 160, 162, 163, 165;
Filippo, 167-168;
Giordino, 167, 168

Osteria, 100

Ostia, 26, 33, 63

Ostian Way, 70

Ostie, 229

Otho III., 7, 8

Oxen, 24, 26, 68, 77, 96

Pacca, Cardinal, 255

Pacca law, 255

Palaces of Caesars, 30, 33

Palaces, 38, 39, 93, 94, 172, 174, 175;
Aldobrandini, 6, 50;
Antici Mattei, 172;
Balestra, 172;
Barberini, 171, 232;
Bolognetti-Cenci, 169;
Bolognetti, 169;
Bonaparte, 172;
Borghese, 172;
Braschi, 173;
Cancelleria, 173, 247;
Cenci, 169;
Chigi, 172;
Colonna, 166, 172;
Corsini, 171;
Costaguti, 172;
Doria Pamphili, 172, 175;
Falconieri, 173;
Farnese, 173;
Farnesina, 171;
Ferraiolo, 172;
Fiano, 140, 172;
Gabrielli, 163;
Gaetani, 172;
Giustiniani, 173;
Grazioli, 173;
Lancellotti, 253;
Lateran, 36, 247;
Longhi, 172;
Massimo, 169;
Odescalchi, 172;
Orsini, 168;
Patrizi, 173;
Piombino, 172;
Quirinale, 208, 214, 231, 247, 251, 252, 253, 254;
Ruffo, 172;
Ruspoli, 172;
Rinuccini, 172;
Salviati, 172;
Sciarra, 172;
Simonetti, 173;
Theodoli, 172;
Venezia, 172

Palatine, 2, 4, 5, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 53, 56, 135, 157, 162

Pales, 91

Palestrina, 164, 165, 166

Palestrina, Pier-Luigi, 156

Paliano, 166

_Palladium_, 2

Pallas, 2, 13

Pamphili-Doria, 172

Pan, 2, 91, 92

Pantheon, 10, 19, 30, 56

Paola aqueduct, 22

_Paolo_, 105

Papacy, 16, 57, 162, 167

Papal government and theocracy, 214, 217, 218, 219, 224, 225,
236, 245, 254

Papal titles, 177, 179

_Papetto_, 105

Parian marble, 26

Parione, 56

Parishes, Roman, 53, 56, 200, 201, 206

Parliament House, 101

Paros, 27

Paschal II., 166, 240

"Paschal lambs," 223

Pasquale, convent of S., 223

Pasquinades, 140

_Pastor Bonus_, 197

_Patres conscripti_, 178

Patriarchal menage, 175, 176

Patricians, Roman, 45, 70, 159, 170, 178

Patrimony of Peter, 237, 238;
extent, 257

Patrizi, 177

Paul II., 172

Paul V., 170

Paul, S., 192, 199

Paulinus of Nola, S., 8

Pavements, mosaic, 27, 28, 33

_Pavonazzo_, 27

_Pax Romana_, 198

"Peace of the Church," the, 12, 34, 43, 198

Pensions of monks and nuns, 248-249

Pentelic marble, 27

_Peperino_, 23, 73

Pepin, 14

Peretti Francesco, 167

Peruzzi, B., 168

Persecutions, 20, 42, 51

Peter, S., 16, 42, 50, 166, 199, 200, 243;
chair of, 46;
and Moses, 42;
primacy of, 42;
statue of, 11

Petrarch, 164

Philip Neri, S., 77

_Piano nobile_, 175

Piazza SS. Apostoli, 166, 172;
Colonna, 172, 202;
Lateran, 26;
Montanara, 90, 160;
Navona, 173;
Pantaleoni, 169;
del Popolo, 219;
Tartaruga, 172;
di Venezia, 169, 172

Piedmont, Piedmontese, 126, 132, 139, 155, 171, 253

Pierleoni, 160, 161

Pigna, _rione_, 56

Pilgrims in Rome, 9, 67

Pincian hill, 16, 17, 100, 135, 224, 244

Pinelli, 140, 226

Piombino, 68, 170, 174

Pius VI., 140, 173, 238

Pius IX., 11, 22, 85, 202, 203, 208, 213, 215, 219, 231, 238;
and Italy, 214, 215, 219, 235, 236;
liberal impulses, 213;
and the _non possumus_, 215;
and the people, 222, 245;
and the syllabus, 236;
and Victor Emmanuel, 250

Pius X., 77, 250

Pizzardoni, 151

Plebiscite, the, 251

Plebs, the, 14, 56, 62, 78, 81

Police, 54, 55, 144, 149-151, 215

Pompeii, 29, 45

Pompey, theatre of, 163

Pomponius Grecinus, 45

Pons Aelius, 32;
Fabricius, 7, 29;
Cestius, 7;
Triumphalis, 55

Ponte Margherita, 102;
Quattro Capi, 29;
Rotto, 223;
S. Angelo, 9, 32

Ponte, _rione_, 55

_Pontifex Maximus_, 197

Pontine marshes, 30

Pope, 201, 202, 205;
court of the, 173;
presentation at, 253;
and conciliation, 249;
and the Catholic princes, 237, 238;
election of, 202;
and Italy, 246-250, 252

Popes, fugitive, 239;
Senate of the, 201

Population of Rome, 12, 34

_Populus_, 14

Porphyry, 27, 36

_Porporati_, 204

_Porta Furba_, 72, 73

Porter, house, 94, 95, 110, 175

Porticoes, 33, 35

Portico of Octavia, 30, 168

Porto, 26

Possession, 82

_Pozzolana_, 24

Praetextatus, 45

Praetorian guard, 54

Prelate, Italian, pamphlet by, 254

Prefect, 54, 169

_Prepotenza_, 134

Presbyters, 200, 201

Primacy, papal, 42, 235, 244

Princes, Roman, 108, 159, 161, 170, 172, 173, 176, 177, 207

Prince Assistant, 167, 170

Priory of the Knights of Malta, 5

Priscilla and Aquila, 5

Processions, 58, 66, 67, 205, 252

_Propaganda Fide_, 248

Prophets, 48, 188

Protestantism in Rome, 47, 189, 190, 193

Provisioning of the city, 65, 103, 105

Pudens, 45, 46

Pumice stone, 24

Puritanism, 112, 188, 189, 194, 196

Quarries, 23, 24, 25

_Questura_, 150

_Questurini_, 150

Quirinal hill, 5, 6, 31, 53, 163, 166, 208

Quirites, 4, 5, 15

Regional devices, 57, 59

Regions, 43, 52-61, 201-2

Regola, _rione_, 56

Religion. _See_ Roman, and Catholicism, Italian

Religious fabrics, laws about, 248

Remus, 5

Renaissance, 36, 38, 58, 124, 172, 237

Republic. _See_ Rome

_Res publica_, the Roman, 180-186

Rhea Silvia, 2

_Rheda_, 72

Rienzo, Cola di, 14, 57

Rignano, duca, 168

_Rioni_. _See_ Regions

Ripa, _rione_, 56

_Roma Quadrata_, 2, 4, 197

Roman art, 18, 127, 156-8, 190, 191;
characteristics, 8, 9, 10, 11, 107, 126-8, 133-7, 146, 147,
150, 156, 183-5, 187, 194, 229, 240, 241;
Church, 14, 41, 42, 50, 126, 184-7, 198-9, 201, 255;
customs, 82-7, 99-103, 140-144, 230, 231;
dialect, 132;
imperialism, 64, 115, 198-9;
marriage, 153-5;
realism, 113-14, 124-5, 185;
religion, 180-88, 192, 196-8;
type, 129-132;
voices, 132, 157

Romans, and agriculture 2-3, 17, 76, 91, 128-9, 147;
ancient, 3-4, 78, 128-9;
and English, 123, 131, 135, 174, 185, 192, 193;
and French, 152, 184, 185, 238;
and Greeks, 129, 130, 180, 182-4, 185, 197;
and Italians, 126, 137-9, 188;
and Jews, _see_ Jews;
modern, 128, 130, 134, 136-7, 138-9, 225, 252-4;
a pastoral people, 3, 17, 91, 182

Rome,
bombardment of, 212;
and Byzantium, _see_ Byzantium;
destruction of city, 9, 11, 37, 39;
and Greece, _see_ Greece;
origin of, 1-5;
imperial, 23, 25, 28, 41, 62, 65, 129, 137;
kingly, 1, 2, 3, 5, 18, 52, 53;
republican, 14, 23, 29, 62, 129, 137, 182, 186;
world empire of, 15, 16, 42, 127, 198-9, 236

Rome before 1870,
appearance of city, 9, 227 _et seq._;
artists in, 210;
clergy in, 217, 219, 221, 224, 245;
education in, 220;
government of, 213-15, 217, 219, 224-5, 246;
moral notions in, 83, 87, 220, 222, 225-6, 230;
people in, 11-12, 215-16, 217;
spies in, 224

Romulus, 1, 2, 3, 32, 154, 198;
and Remus, 2, 3, 198

Rospigliosi, 172

Roviano, _duca_, 168

Ruspoli, 169, 177

Sabine hills, 70, 78, 79, 81, 82, 96, 166, 169, 170;
people, 2, 4, 5, 15, 154

_Sacramentate_, 232

Sacred College, 15

Sacrifices, 19

Sacrifice, eucharistic, 49

Saints, cult of, 43

Salaria, 45;
_porta_, 102, 135

Salviati, 171

Sanctuary of a church, 51

Sanctuaries. _See_ Shrines

Saturn, 30, 91;
hill of, 13

Savelli, 160, 161, 165, 170

Savorelli, Vittoria, 221

Saxons, 65

_Sbirri_, 61, 217

_Schola_, 65

Scholasticism, 112

_Scudo_, 105

Sculptors, guild of, 64

Seamen, guild of, 63

See of Rome. _See_ Holy See

Sees, suburban, 201

Senate, 13-15, 34, 45, 57, 70, 149, 159, 164, 240, 241

Senate and People of Rome, 13, 14, 15

"Senator, the," 14

Senators, 45, 58, 63, 159, 178;
and conservators, 55

September 20th, 11, 212, 213, 215

Septimius Severus, 20, 31, 32

Septizonium, 31

Serenade, the, 141, 144

Serlupi, 170

Sermoneta, _duca_, 168, 177

Serpentine, 27

Servants, 94, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109-111, 224

Servius Tullius, 5, 18, 52, 53

Seven hills, 5, 51, 52, 53

Seven sacraments, 48

Sforza, 170

Shops, Roman, 39, 53, 67, 93, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106

Shrines and sanctuaries, 63, 73, 83, 90

Sibylline oracles, 7

Sicily (Sicilians), 126

Sistine chapel, 205, 211

Sixtus I., 35

Sixtus IV., 165, 173

Sixtus V., 55, 140, 167

Slaves, 11, 21, 25, 34, 64, 75

Soldiers, 151;
papal, 215, 244, 246, 247

_Soldo_, 101, 104, 107

Sora, _duca_, 170

Spoleto, 167, 178

S.P.Q.R., 15, 59, 138

_Stadia_, 33

Staircases, 95, 176

Standard of Rome, 15

Standard-bearer, 55, 64, 66, 170

Statilius Taurus, 22

Statues of women, 154

Statutes of guilds, 66

_Statuto_, 246

Streets, Roman, 93, 105, 152;
refuse in, 9

Stucco, 24, 28, 29

Subiaco, 78

Subterranean Rome. _See_ Catacombs

Suburra, _rione_, 53

Sulmona, _principe_, 170

_Suovetaurilia_, 15

Superstition, 81, 83, 136, 187, 196, 222, 226, 231

Susanna and the Elders, 45

Swiss guard, 210, 244

Sylvester, S., 74

Syndic, 166

_Tablinum_, 28

_Tabularium_, 23, 29

Talbot, Gwendoline, 123, 174

Talbots in Rome, 123

Tanners, guild of, 63

_Tarantella_, 140

Tarquinius Priscus, 18, 30, 52;
Superbus, 18

Tarquins, 29, 30

Taste and art, 157

Taxes, 64, 107, 139, 217, 219

Teano, _principe_, 168

Temples, 18, 19, 30, 33, 37, 39, 163;
of Antoninus and Faustina, 32;
Castor and Pollux, 30;
Ceres, 31;
Concord, 30;
Dii Consentes (portico of), 181;
Fortuna Virilis, 29;
Libertas, 160;
Mars Ultor, 30;
Romulus, 198;
Saturn, 30;
Templum Urbis, 32;
Venus and Rome, 32;
Vespasian, 31

Temporal power, 42, 214, 215, 219, 235-9, 240, 242-3, 245, 255

_Teppa_, 139, 139 _n._

_Terno_, 85, 86

_Testone_, 105

Theodoli, 177

_Thermae_, 20, 21, 32, 33

Throne room, 176, 207

Tiber, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 21, 33, 63, 70, 131, 171, 173

Tiberius, 30

Titles, patrician, 177

_Titulus_, 5, 34, 201, 202

Titus, 20, 21, 22, 27, 29, 31, 182

Tivoli, 24, 32, 33, 78

Tombs, 33, 36, 72;
Bibulus, 29;
Cecilia Metella, 29, 168;
Latin, 29;
of S. Peter, 16

Tor de' Conti, 160;
di Nona, 163

Tor Sanguigna, 163;
de' Specchi, 102, 230

Torlonia, 169, 230

Towers, 56, 163;
baronial, 23, 38;
bell, 38;
semaphores, 73;
vedette, 38, 73

Trades unions, 68

Tradesmen, 103, 104, 105

Trajan, 5, 20, 22, 31, 77, 142, 231

Transtiburtina, 55

Trastevere, 55, 56, 61, 62, 130, 162, 171, 240

Trasteverini, 60, 130

_Trattoria_, 79

Travertine, 22, 24, 27, 39

Trent, Council of, 238

Trevi, _rione_, 55

Tribune, 19, 36

Tribunes, 54

_Triclinium_, 35

Triumvirate, 123

Troy, 2

Tufa, 18, 23

_Turris Cartularia_, 161

Tuscans (Tuscany), 69, 125, 126, 129, 133, 188, 237

Tusculum, 39, 78, 166

Twelve Tables, 23

Ulpii, 45

Umbria, 148, 188

Unction, extreme, 192

Universities. _See_ Guilds and women, 155

Urban VIII., 9, 140, 171

Vandals, 9

Vatican, 28, 56, 58, 161, 163, 203, 205, 208, 211, 228, 230,
239, 241, 244, 247, 252, 254

Veii, 33, 72

Velabrum, 18

_Vendetta_, 149

Venice, Venetians, 125, 126, 132, 188

Venosa, _principe_, 170

Vespasian, 22, 28, 31, 33, 72, 154

Vesta, 181

Vestals, 2, 72, 154

Vestibulum, 35

Via Botteghe Oscure, 173;
Julia, 173;
Lata, 56;
Monserrato, 160;
Nazionale, 194, 160;
dell' Orso, 9;
Pilotta, 166;
Plebiscito, 172;
Quattro Fontane, 232;
Quirinale, 166;
Strozzi, 6;
Viminale, 6

Viaticum, 12, 193, 230

_Vici_, 53

Vicovaro, 169

Victor Emmanuel II., 10, 169

_Vidua_, 46

_Vigiles_, 26, 54, 59

Villa Aldobrandini 171;
Borghese, 171;
Corsini, 171;
Hadrian's, 32;
Massimo, 6;
Mondragone, 171;
Pamfili-Doria, 73, 231

Villas, 33, 38, 39, 93, 94, 172, 174

Viminal hill, 5, 6, 53, 55

Vintage, 78

_Virgo, aqua_, 22

Vitiges, 37

Voices. _See_ Roman

Volcanic rock, 17, 23, 25

Volcanoes, 17

Vulcan, 80, 88

Wagner and Germans, 190;
and Italians, 124

Walls, 32, 38, 56, 93, 102, 163

Washing tubs, 102

Weavers, Guild of, 63

Windows in temples and churches, 19, 186

Wines, Roman, 79

Wiseman, Cardinal, 208

Wolf, the, 2

Women, Italian, 153, 155

Young Italy, 214, 215, 235, 242, 244, 246

Zagarolo, 166

Zitelle, 67

THE END

_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.

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