Chapter I: The Vikings in Ireland (795-1014)

The Vikings made their first appearance[1] on the Irish coasts in 795 A.D., when they plundered and burned the church on Recru, or Lambay Island, near Dublin. During the next ten or twelve years Ireland seems to have been almost free from further attacks, but in 807 they descended on Inis Murray, off the Sligo coast, and from there made their way inland to Roscommon.[2] After that the raids ceased for a few years, then began again with renewed vigour on Connacht and Munster, on some of the inland counties of Leinster, and on several places along the east coast.[3]

The arrival of Turgeis[4] (O.N. Thorgestr) in Armagh, about 832, marks a new phase of the invasions. Hitherto the Vikings had come in isolated parties solely for purposes of plunder; now, however, “great sea-cast floods of foreigners” landed in every harbour, and began to form settlements in various parts of the island. Dublin was first occupied in 836, and four years later the Norsemen strengthened their position there considerably by the erection of a _longphort_ or fortress. From their _longphort_ at Linn Duachaill (between Drogheda and Dundalk) built in the same year, they made their way to the West and plundered Clonmacnois, while settlers from Cael-uisce, near Newry, went south and laid waste County Kildare.[5]

The power of Turgeis was not confined to the north of Ireland. His fleets were stationed on Loch Ree, the centre from which Meath and Connacht were devastated. His wife, Ota (O.N. Authr), desecrated the monastery of Clonmacnois by giving her oracular responses (_a frecartha_) from the high altar.[6] The tyranny of Turgeis came to an end in 845, when he was captured by Maelsechnaill, who afterwards became _árd-rí_, and was drowned in Lough Owel.[7]

After his death the tide of battle turned in favour of the Irish, and the Norsemen were defeated in several battles. Weakened by warfare, they had to contend in 849 with an enemy from without--the Dubh-Gaill[8] or Danes who had sailed round the south coast of England and landed in Ireland “to exercise authority over the foreigners who were there before them.” Two years after their arrival the newcomers plundered the fortresses at Dublin and Dundalk, but were attacked in the following year on Carlingford Loch by the Norsemen. In this great naval battle, which lasted three days and three nights, the Danes were finally victorious.[9]

“Amhlaoibh Conung, son of the King of Lochlann,” known in Icelandic sources as Olaf the White, came to Ireland about 852 to rule over his countrymen, and to exact tribute from the Irish.[10] According to the _Fragments of Annals_, he left suddenly and returned a few years later accompanied by his “younger brother, Imhar,” who may be identified with Ivarr Beinlausi (_i.e._, “the Boneless”) son of Ragnarr Lothbrók. Both kings ruled from Dublin, which town now gained a new importance as the seat of the Scandinavian Kings in Ireland. In 865 the Vikings extended their activities to Scotland, whence they carried off much plunder and many captives. An expedition on a larger scale was made by Olaf and Ivarr in 869, when Dumbarton, after a four months’ siege, fell into their hands. They returned in triumph to Ireland in the following year with a large number of English, British, and Pictish prisoners and ended their victorious march by the capture of Dunseverick (Co. Antrim).[11]

Olaf returned to Norway some time after this to take part in the wars there,[12] and we hear no more of him in the Irish Annals. “Imhar, King of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain,” did not long survive him; his death is recorded under the year 873.[13]

During the years which followed Ivarr’s death the country was comparatively peaceful, and the Irish began to enjoy a rest from fresh invasions, which lasted about forty years.[14] The Danes and the Norsemen again began to quarrel among themselves, and once more their opposing fleets met on Carlingford Lough;[15] in this battle Albann (O.N. Halfdanr), brother of Ivarr, a well-known leader of the Vikings in England, was slain. Dissensions also spread among the ranks of the Dublin Norsemen, dividing them into two hostile parties, one siding with Sitriucc, son of Ivarr, the other with a certain Sighfrith.[16] This internal strife so weakened Norse power that the Irish captured the fortress at Dublin in 902, and drove the Vikings across the sea with great slaughter.

The forty years’ rest terminated abruptly in 913, when several fleets arrived at Waterford and proceeded to ravage all Munster and Leinster. In 916 Raghnall (O.N. Rögnvaldr), grandson of Ivarr, assumed command while his brother or cousin, Sihtric Gale (also nicknamed Caoch, ‘the Blind’) came with a fleet to Cenn Fuaid, in the east of Leinster, and built a fortification there.[17] Both chiefs united forces against the _árd-rí_ Niall Glundubh, and having defeated him in battle Sihtric entered Dublin and became king (918). In the following year the Irish under Niall made a brave stand at Kilmashogue, near Dublin, but Sihtric won a decisive victory, and Niall and twelve other kings were among the slain.[18]

Scandinavian power in Ireland was now at its height. Large fleets occupied all the lakes in Ulster, so that no part of the surrounding territory was safe from their attacks.[19] The Vikings also retained their grip of the coast towns, and successfully withstood the efforts made by the Irish leaders to dislodge them. Between the years 920 and 950 the importance of Dublin increased considerably through its connection with the Scandinavian Kingdom of Northumbria. Raghnall, grandson of Ivarr, captured York about 919[20] and reigned there until his death in 921.[21] He was succeeded by Sihtric Gale, who had been expelled from Dublin in the preceding year,[22] probably by his brother, Guthfrith. After Sihtric’s death in 927 Guthfrith, King of Dublin (d. 934), with the Vikings of Dundalk, left Ireland in order to secure his own succession in York, but he would seem to have been driven out by Aethelstan, for the Irish Annals mention his return to Dublin after an absence of six months.[23]

Guthfrith’s son, Olaf, came forward about this time. Supported by the Norsemen of Strangford Lough he plundered Armagh, but his subsequent attacks on Ulster were checked by Muirchertach MacNeill, son of Niall Glundubh. Olaf fought in alliance with Constantine in the battle of Brunanburh (937), and after the defeat inflicted on them by Aethelstan’s forces he fled to Dublin.[24] He is probably the “Anlaf of Ireland” who was chosen King by the Northumbrians in 941,[25] but he died about a year later.[26]

Another Olaf, the famous Olaf Cuaran, also called Sihtricsson to distinguish between them, also played an important part in campaigns in Ireland and England. He went to York about 941, and was elected king by the Northumbrians, but was expelled after a few years along with Raegenald, son of Guthfrith.[27] He then took the Dublin Kingdom under his rule, and in the following year was defeated in battle by the Irish at Slaine (Co. Meath). Leaving his brother Guthfrith to govern in his stead, he departed to York, where he became king a second time; but the Northumbrians drove him out after three years and placed “Yric, son of Harald” (_i.e._, Eric Bloodaxe, late King of Norway) on the throne.[28]

Henceforward Olaf limited his activities to Ireland, where he reigned, the most famous of the Dublin Kings, for some thirty years. In 980, having summoned auxiliaries from the Scottish isles and Man, he prepared to attack the _árd-rí_, Maelsechnaill II. A fierce battle was fought between them at Tara in which the Norse armies were completely routed, Olaf’s son Raghnall being among the slain. Maelsechnaill followed up this victory by a three days’ siege of Dublin, after which he carried off a number of hostages from the Norsemen, and also obtained from them 2,000 kine, together with jewels and various other treasures.[29] Olaf himself, utterly disheartened by his defeat, went on pilgrimage to Iona, where he died soon after.

Some fifteen years before, a severe blow had been struck at the power of the Limerick Vikings under Ivarr, grandson of Ivarr and his sons. The attack made on them at Sulcoit (968) by two princes of the Dal Cais, the brothers Mathgamain and Brian, resulted in victory for the Irish, who took Limerick shortly after.[30] Mathgamain was treacherously murdered in 976, and Brian then became King of Thomond. He soon brought the Kingdoms of Ossory and Leinster under his control, and by the terms of a treaty made in 998 Maelsechnaill consented to leave Brian master of Leth Mogha (_i.e._, the southern half of Ireland). The Leinstermen under King Maelmordha, dissatisfied with this arrangement, began to make trouble and revolted, assisted by the Dublin Norsemen. An important victory was gained over their combined armies at Gleann Mama (Co. Wicklow) in the year 1000 by Brian, who after the battle captured Dublin. King Sihtric (O.N. Sigtryggr), son of Olaf Cuaran, had to submit to Brian’s authority. Having accepted his allegiance Brian married Gormflaith, mother of Sihtric and sister of Maelmordha, and at the same time gave his own daughter to Sihtric in marriage.[31]

Brian became _árd-rí_ in 1002, and after that for about twelve years there was peace. Towards the end of that time Gormflaith, who had meanwhile separated from her husband, incited her brother Maelmordha to make war on Brian. Maelmordha and Sihtric began to gather forces for the coming struggle. Sihtric at his mother’s command sought the aid of Sigurthr, Earl of Orkney and of Brodar,[32] a Viking whose fleet then lay off the west coast of Man. Fleets also came from Norway[33] and Iceland to help their kinsmen. The armies under Brian and Maelsechnaill marched towards Dublin, and having encamped near Kilmainham set fire to the district of Fingal (_i.e._, _Fine Gall_, “the Foreigners’ territory”) north of the city. The two armies met at Clontarf on Good Friday morning and the battle, one of the most famous ever fought on Irish soil, raged all that day. The Norsemen suffered a severe defeat, and in attempting to fly for refuge to their ships were slaughtered by Maelsechnaill at Dubhgall’s Bridge, near the Four Courts. Brian himself did not take part in the fight, but he was slain in his tent by Brodar after the battle.[34]

After the Battle of Clontarf the Norsemen became gradually absorbed in the general population except in a few coast towns, where they continued to live more or less distinct and governed by petty kings until the English Invasion (1169). In the chronicles of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries they are generally alluded to as “_Ostmen_” (corruptly _Houstmanni_, _Nosmani_, etc.),[35] and it would seem that when Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford were captured by the English the “Ostmen” had to withdraw to certain districts outside the walls of these towns. Thus, near Dublin, north of the River Liffey, we hear of Ostmaneby[36] (_i.e._, _Austmannabyr_) afterwards called Ostmanstonry, and now known as Oxmanstown. Mention is also made (c. 1200) of a “‘cantred’ of the Ostmen and holy isle,” near Limerick and (c. 1282) of a “vill of the Ostmen”[37] near Waterford.[38] In the records of the fourteenth century, however, there is an almost total absence of references to the “Ostmen” in Ireland.[39]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Zimmer was of the opinion that the Norsemen made their way to Ireland as early as the seventh century. He bases his theory on an entry in the _Annals of Ulster_ and in certain other Irish annals (under the year 617) recording “the devastation of Tory Island by a marine fleet.” (_über die frühesten Berührungen der Iren mit den Nordgermanen_, p. 279 ff. in _Sitzungsberichte der kgl. preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_. 1891. Bd. I., pp. 279-317.) But this attack is likely to have been due to Saxon or Pictish raiders rather than to the Norsemen.

[2] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 807.

[3] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 811, 820-824, 827, 830.

[4] Some writers would identify Turgeis with Thorgils, son of Harold Fairhair, who with his brother Frothi went on a viking expedition to Ireland. They captured Dublin, and Thorgils reigned there for a long time as king. In the end, however, he was betrayed by the Irish and was killed. (_Heimskringla: Haralds saga hins hárfagra_, ch. 35.)

This account of Thorgils certainly bears a resemblance to that of Turgeis contained in the Irish chronicles and Giraldus Cambrensis (cf. Todd: Introduction to _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, I., ii.), but it is of course incorrect to say that Turgeis was a son of Harold Fairhair.

[5] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 841.

[6] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 13.

[7] _Ib._, p. 15.

[8] The Irish chroniclers use a variety of names for the Scandinavians: _Dibearccai_ (outlaws), _Gaill_ (foreigners), _Gennti_ (Gentiles), and _Pagánaigh_ (Pagans). They also distinguish between Danes and Norsemen. The Danes were known as _Danair_, _Danmarcaigh_, _Dubh Gennti_ (Black Gentiles), and _Dubh-Gaill_. The word _Dubh-Gaill_ (Black Foreigners) still survives in the personal names _Doyle_ and _MacDowell_ and in the place-name _Baldoyle_. The Norsemen were called _Finn-Gaill_ (Fair Foreigners), _Finn-Genti_, _Nortmannai_ (Lat. Northmanni) and _Lochlannaigh_ (_i.e._, men of _Lochlann_ or Norway).

[9] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 851 (= 852).

[10] _Three Fragments of Annals_, p. 127.

Vogt (_Dublin som Norsk By_, p. 66) suggests that Olaf was related to Turgeis, the first Norse King of Ireland, and to Earl Tomrair (O.N. Thórarr), “_tanist_ of the King of Lochlann,” who fell in the battle of Scaith Neachtain (847). On the other hand it may be noted here that the Annalist errs in making Olaf a brother of Ivarr the Boneless.

[11] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 870.

[12] _Three Fragments of Annals_, p. 195. The _Landnámabók_, II., ch. 15 says that “Olaf fell in battle in Ireland,” but this is surely a mistake.

[13] _Annals of Ulster_, _sub anno_, 872 (= 873).

[14] Cf. _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 27. Cf. also the entries in the _Annals of Ulster_:

“Ruaidhri, son of Muirmenn King of the Britons came to Ireland, fleeing before the Black Foreigners” (an. 876).

“The shrine of Colum-Cille and all his relics were brought to Ireland to escape the Foreigners” (an. 877).

[15] The _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_ (p. 27) mentions another battle between Fair and Black Gentiles, in which many of the latter were killed.

[16] It is extremely difficult to identify these two princes owing to the similarity between their names. It has been suggested that Sighfrith is the Siefredus or Sievert who ruled jointly with Guthred-Cnut (d. c. 894) as King of Northumbria, while Sitriucc son of Ivarr is probably the “Sitric comes” whose name appears on a coin dating from this period. (See A. Mawer: _The Scandinavian Kingdom of Northumbria_, pp. 11-13. Saga-book of the Viking Club, VII. Part I.)

[17] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 916.

[18] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 918. _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 37. An entry in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (A.D. 921), referring to the result of this battle, runs:--“In this year King Sihtric slew his brother Niel.” There is, however, no evidence in Irish sources that Sihtric and Niall were brothers, or even half-brothers.

[19] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 920, 921, 923, 925.

[20] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A.D. 923.

[21] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 920.

[22] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 919.

[23] _Ib._, A.D. 927.

[24] _Ib._, A.D. 937. _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A. Annal, 937.

[25] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, D. Annal 941.

[26] _Ib._, E. Annal 942; _Annals of Clonmacnoise_, A.D. 934.

[27] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A. Annal 944.

[28] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, E. Annals 949, 952.

[29] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 978, 979; _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 979 (= 980).

[30] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 77.

[31] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 115; _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 997.

[32] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 153. _Njáls Saga_, ch. 155. In the _Annals of Loch Cé_ (A.D. 1014) Brodar is called the earl of York (_iarla Caoire Eabhroigh_).

[33] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 151.

[34] _Ib._, pp. 151-191; _Njáls Saga_, chs. 155-157, _Annals of Loch Cé_, A.D. 1014; _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 1013.

[35] _Calendar of the Ancient Records of Dublin_ (ed. by J. T. Gilbert), II. 81; _Chartularies of St. Mary’s Abbey, Dublin_ (ed. by Gilbert), I. 258; II. 251; Giraldus Cambrensis: _Topographia Hibernica_, V. 187.

The name “Ostmen” is generally supposed to have been first given to them by the English, but the word is Norse (_i.e._, _Austmenn_, plural of _Austmathr_, “a man living in the East”) and therefore must have been current in Ireland before the English invasion. It may be suggested that the name was applied to the original Scandinavian settlers in Ireland, to merchants and other later comers from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Cf. the nickname _Austmathr_, given to a certain Eyvindr by the Scandinavian settlers in the Hebrides because he had come there from Sweden.

[36] _Chartularies of St. Mary’s Abbey_, I. 267; _ib._, I. 227, 234, etc.; _Calendar of the Ancient Records of Dublin_, I. 55; II. 96.

[37] _A Calendar of Documents Relating to Ireland_ (ed. by H. S. Sweetman), I. 24.

[38] _Ib._, II. p. 426.

[39] For interesting articles on the Ostmen in Ireland see A. Bugge: _Sidste Afsnit af Nordboernes Historie i Irland_, pp. 248-315 (Aarb ger for nord. Oldk. 1900); and E. Curtis: _The English and the Ostmen in Ireland_ (English Historical Review, XXIII., p. 209 ff.).