Chapter III: The Growth of the Seaport Towns

The foundation of the seaport towns was the most important, and at the same time the most permanent effect of the Viking invasion of Ireland. Before this the only towns were the larger monastic centres[85] at Armagh, Clonmacnois, Durrow and Clonfert, which, besides the monastery itself, consisted of numerous beehive-shaped houses of stone, or small huts of clay and wattles built for the accommodation of the students attending the schools. During the first half of the ninth century these monasteries suffered sorely from the attacks of Viking raiders. After a stubborn resistance on the part of the Irish, Armagh fell into the hands of Turgeis, who drove out the abbot Farannan and “usurped the abbacy” (c. A.D. 839). Some years later Armagh was abandoned when the Vikings captured Dublin, at this time a small “town by the hurdle ford,”[86] but they were quick to realise its possibilities as the seat of their monarchy and the chief centre of their trade. As a result of the struggle for ecclesiastical supremacy, which took place at a later period[87] between Armagh and Dublin, the Bishops of Dublin were obliged to acknowledge the Primate of Armagh; but the latter town never recovered its former prestige as the capital of Ireland.[88]

That Dublin owes its importance, if not its origin, to the Norsemen may be inferred from the almost total silence of the historians and annalists regarding it in the years preceding the Scandinavian inroads. It is probable that there was a fort to guard the hurdle-ford where the great road from Tara to Wicklow, Arklow and Wexford crossed the Liffey, but it seems to have played no great part in history before the Norsemen fortified it in 840. Between Church Lane and Suffolk Street they had their _Thing_[89] or meeting-place, which was still to be seen in the seventeenth century; while all along College Green, called Le Hogges[90] and later Hoggen Green by the English, lay their barrows (O.N. _haugar_). During the ninth and tenth centuries the Kingdom of Dublin--known to the Scandinavians as _Dyflinarski_--became one of the most powerful in the west. Its sway extended north to its colonies[91] at the Strangford and Carlingford Loughs, west to Leixlip, south to Wicklow, Wexford[92] and even as far as Waterford. The Dublin kings intermarried with royal families in Ireland, England and Scotland, and between the years 919 and 950 ruled, though in somewhat broken succession, as Kings of York.

Limerick (O.N. Hlymrek)[93], the great stronghold on the west coast, had no existence as a city before the ninth century. It was first occupied during the reign of Turgeis by Vikings, who used the harbour as a base for their ships.[94] The only chieftains mentioned in connection with this kingdom during the ninth century are Hona and Tomrir Torra (O.N. Thórarr Thórri), who were slain about the year 860 in attempting to capture Waterford.[95] A few years later Barith (O.N. Barthr) and Haimar (O.N. Heimarr) when marching through Connacht on their way to Limerick, were attacked by the Connachtmen and forced to retreat.[96] The real importance of Limerick, however, dates from the early part of the tenth century when it was colonised by Vikings under Tomar (Thórir) son of Elgi (O.N. Helgi). To secure the fort against attack an earthen mound was built all round, and gates were placed at certain distances leading into the streets and the houses.[97] As a kingdom it was independent, having subject colonies at Cashel, Thurles, Lough Ree and Lough Corrib.[98] It had no connection with Dublin during the tenth century; in fact, there is evidence to show that both royal houses were bitterly hostile towards each another. On one occasion Guthfrith, King of Dublin, led an army to Limerick, but was repulsed with heavy losses by the Vikings there.[99] A few years later (A.D. 929) he expelled Tomar’s successor, King Ivarr of Limerick, and his followers from Magh Roighne (a plain in Ossory), where they had encamped for a whole year. Olaf Godfreyson was equally active. After defeating Olaf Cenncairech and the Limerick Vikings at Lough Ree in 937, he carried them off to Dublin,[100] and that same year probably forced them to fight on his side in the battle of Brunnanburh.

This hostility would seem to have been due to rivalry between two powerful kingdoms, rather than, as has been suggested,[101] to difference of nationality. It is not at all certain that the Limerick Vikings were purely Danes. One Irish chronicler speaks of the Scandinavians in Munster as _Gaill_ and _Danair_ and calls their fleets _loingeas Danmarcach ocus allmurach_ (“fleets of Danes and foreigners”).[102] Elsewhere[103] we find the word Lochlannaigh (_i.e._, Norsemen) used with reference to the Limerick settlers; and Colla (O.N. Kolli), Prince of Limerick (d. 931) was certainly a Norseman, for he was son of Barthr, a leader of the Finn-Gennti in the ninth century. There would seem to have been a mixture of both Danes and Norsemen in Limerick, and since there is no proof that struggles for mastery took place between them, we may take it that they acted in harmony.

During the tenth century Limerick stood in close connection with the Scandinavian Kingdom in the Hebrides.[104] Mention is made of one chieftain “Morann, son of the Sea King of Lewis,”[105] who fought and fell in Limerick against the Irish. Moreover, the occurrence of the names Manus, Maccus (O.N. Magnus) and Somarlidh (O.N. Sumarlithi) in both royal families points at least to relationship by marriage. Indeed, the same family seems to have reigned in both kingdoms. “Godfrey, son of Harold, King of the Hebrides,” who was slain by the Dal Riada in 989[106] was in all probability a son of that “Harold, lord of the foreigners of Limerick,” whose death is recorded by the Four Masters in 940.

Practically nothing is known of the Scandinavian settlement in Waterford[107] (O.N. _Vethrafjörthr_) before the year 919, when Vikings under Raghnall (O.N. Rögnvaldr), “King of the Danes,” concentrated their forces there before attacking Dublin. These invaders, sometimes called Nortmannai (‘Norsemen’), but generally alluded to as _Gaill_ (‘foreigners’) must have also included Danes, as Raghnall’s army was composed of both Danes and Norsemen;[108] and moreover, both parties are represented as fighting side by side against the Irish in Waterford.[109]

Waterford had not at first a dynasty of its own, but was dependent on the Dublin Kingdom. Olaf Godfreyson seems to have been in command there while his father was King of Dublin;[110] and we hear also that when the town was attacked by the Irish under Cellachan of Cashel, Sihtric, a prince from Dublin, came with a fleet to relieve it.[111] Later in the same century, the kingdom of Waterford stood quite distinct, and was governed by Ivarr (d. 1000), who was probably a member of the Dublin royal family. He came forward as a claimant to the Dublin throne after the murder of Gluniarainn, son of Olaf Cuaran (989) but was driven out after a three years’ reign by Sihtric Silken-Beard. Ivarr’s successors in Waterford, Amond (O.N. _Amundr_) and Goistilin Gall were killed in the battle of Clontarf.

In the tenth and eleventh centuries Waterford was strongly fortified, and, like Limerick, had gates leading into the town.[112] The town itself was built in the form of a triangle with a tower at each angle,[113] only one of which, the famous Reginald’s Tower, built in 1003, is still standing. Gualtier (? Ir. _Gall tír_, ‘land of the foreigners’), a barony lying on the west side of the harbour, is supposed to have been connected with the ‘Ostmen,’ who were obliged to settle there after the arrival of the English in 1169.

Cork, the seat of a famous school founded by St. Finbar, fell an easy prey to the Vikings in the first half of the ninth century. They built forts there and at Youghal,[114] but in endeavouring to push their way inland to Fermoy were checked by the Irish (866), and their chief, Gnimcinnsiolla (or Gnimbeolu)[115] was slain. We hear no more of Scandinavians here until early in the tenth century when new invaders, part of the large army which came to Waterford with Raghnall and Earl Ottarr in 919, gained possession of the town. The new settlers seem to have been chiefly, if not entirely, Danes (_Danair_ and _Duibhgeinnti_),[116] and it would seem that with the Danish colonies at Thurles and Cashel they subsequently came under the authority of Ivarr of Limerick, “the high-king of the foreigners of Munster.”

Traces of the Scandinavian occupation still remain in the place-names on the coast, especially in the districts surrounding the seaport towns. Near Dublin we find Howth (O.N. _höfuth_, ‘a head’) and Skerries (O.N. _skjær_, ‘a rock’); also Lambey, Dalkey and Ireland’s Eye, all three containing the O.N. form _ey_, an ‘island.’ The name Leixlip is probably a form of O.N. _laxhleypa_[117] (‘salmon-leap’) not, as is generally supposed, of O.N. _lax-hlaup_. The O.N. _fjörthr_ occurs in Wexford, Strangford and Carlingford (O.N. Kerlingafjörthr).[118] Other Scandinavian names on the east coast are Copeland Islands (_i.e._, _Kaupmannaeyjar_, ‘the merchants’ islands’) near Belfast Lough; Arklow, Wicklow (O.N. _lo_, a low, flat meadow by the water’s edge.); Carnsore and Greenore (O.N. _eyrr_, ‘a small tongue of land running into the sea’).

The number of names on the south and west coasts is limited; besides Water_ford_, we find only Hel_vick_ (O.N. _vík_, ‘a bay’), Dursey Island, south-west of Cork, and Swerwick Harbour, in Kerry. At least three well-authenticated place-names have dropped out of use; Dún na Trapcharla, in Co. Limerick (O.N. (1) _torf-karl_, ‘a turf-cutter’ or (2) _thorp-karl_, a ‘small farmer’);[119] Jolduhlaup,[120] a cape in the north of Ireland; and Ulfreksfjörthr,[121] the Norse name for Lough Larne.

It is also interesting to note that the second element in the names of the three provinces, Ulster, Leinster and Munster is derived from the O.N. _stathir_ (plural of _stathr_, ‘a place’), while the name Ireland (O.N. Iraland) is Scandinavian in form and replaced the old Irish word Eríu during the Viking period.

FOOTNOTES

[85] In the _Annals of Tighernach_ (A.D. 716), the _Annals of Ulster_ (A.D. 715), and the _Book of Hymns_ (ed. Todd, p. 156) the Latin _civitas_ (Ir. _Cathair_) is the word used for a monastery.

[86] The old name for Dublin was _Baile-atha-Cliath_, “the town of the hurdle ford.” It was afterwards called _Dubh-linn_ (“black pool”), of which the O.N. _Dyflin_ is a corruption.

[87] See p. 55.

[88] Armagh is the only place in Ireland which is marked on a tenth century map of the world preserved in the British Museum. See R. A. S. Macalister: _Muiredach_: _Abbot of Monasterboice_, p. 13.

[89] It is called _Tengmonth_ and _Teggemuta_ in medieval documents (_Chartularies of St. Mary’s Abbey_, I., 15, 461, 463, 465) and from it the surrounding parish of St. Andrew--“_Parochia Sancti Andreae de Thengmote_”--took its name. In 1647 it is referred to as “the fortified hill near the College,” but about thirty years later it was levelled to the ground and the earth was used for building Nassau Street (J. T. Gilbert: _History of Dublin_, II, p. 258).

[90] The name survived until the 18th century in _Hog Hill_, but it was afterwards changed to St. Andrew’s Street.

[91] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 839, 840, 925, 928, 934.

These colonies were governed by earls, not kings, and their dependency on the kingdom of Dublin is clearly shown by certain entries in the Annals. In 926 a Viking fleet at Linn Duachaill (on the coast of Louth) was commanded by Albdann (O.N. _Halfdanr_), son of Guthfrith (King of Dublin, 920-933). Later, when part of Albdann’s army was besieged at Ath Cruithne (near Newry), Guthfrith went with his forces to relieve it. In 927 the “foreigners of Linn Duachaill” accompanied Guthfrith when he marched on York. See Steenstrup, _op. cit._, III., p. 115.

[92] Wexford was also governed by earls. One of them, Accolb, is mentioned in the _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 928.

[93] The Irish name _Luimnech_ (hence O.N. _Hlymrek_) was originally applied to the estuary of the Shannon, but was afterwards confined to the town itself when it had risen to importance under Scandinavian rule.

[94] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 843; _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 8.

[95] _Three Fragments of Annals_, pp. 167, 144-6. _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, ch. 23.

[96] _Three Fragments of Annals_, pp. 173-175; _Chronicon Scotorum_, A.D. 887.

[97] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, pp. 9, 66; _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 56.

[98] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 845, 922, 929; _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, p. 10; _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 10; _Three Fragments of Annals_, p. 197.

[99] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 924.

[100] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 935; _Chronicon Scotorum_, A.D. 936.

[101] A. Bugge: _Sidste Afsnit af Nordboernes Historie i Irland_, pp. 254, 255.

[102] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 41.

[103] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, p. 64.

[104] Steenstrup: _op. cit._, III., p. 213.

[105] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, p. 65.

[106] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 988.

[107] _Three Fragments of Annals_ (A.D. 860) record that “two fleets of the Norsemen came into the land of Cearbhall, son of Dunlaing (King of Ossory) to plunder it.” These fleets probably sailed up the Barrow from Waterford harbour. The same annals also mention (p. 129) a Norse chieftain called Rodolbh, who may have been connected with the colony at Waterford. See also _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 888 [891].

[108] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 921.

[109] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, p. 71.

[110] The Four Masters record “the plundering of Kildare by the son of Gothfrith (_i.e._, Olaf) from Waterford” (A.D. 926).

[111] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, p. 70.

[112] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, pp. 13, 70.

[113] Smith: _History of Waterford_, p. 165.

[114] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 846, 864.

[115] _Ib._, 865. _Fragments of Annals_, p. 169.

_Gnimbeolu_ is the O.N. _Grímr Bióla_. The Irish “_Cinnsiolla_” (Nom. Cenn Selach) is probably a translation of O.N. _Selshofuth_, a word which does not occur as a nickname in Old Norse literature. It was, however, known in Ireland as may be seen from the runic inscription--_domnal Selshofoth a soerth (th) eta_--on a bronze sword-plate found in Greenmount (Co. Louth). Cf. Marstrander, _op. cit._ p. 49.

[116] _The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel_, pp. 10, 67.

[117] Cf. Marstrander, _op. cit._, p. 149.

[118] Cf. Marstrander, _op. cit._, p. 154. According to him, the O.N. _Kerling_, “an old woman” in this instance, is a folk-etymological form of Carlinn, the old name for the ford.

[119] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 1062. Cf. _Co dunad na Piscarcarla in Cath Ruis na Rig_ (ed. Hogan) where _Piscarcarla_ corresponds to the O.N. _fiskikari_, “a fisherman.”

The word _Trapcharla_ (“na _Trapcharla_”) also occurs in the _Book of Ballymote_ as the name of a people who fought at Troy. It has been suggested that the term was generally used during the ninth and tenth centuries of a Norse colony in Co. Limerick, which colony would acquire a legendary character after the Norsemen had been driven out of Ireland, and would figure, like the Lochlannaigh or Norsemen, in Middle-Irish stories and poems.

See _Miscellany presented to Kuno Meyer_, pp. 293, 370.

[120] _Landnámabók_ I. ch. 1.

[121] _Heimskringla: Saga Óláfs hins helga_, chs. 88, 10.