Secrets of Wise Men, Chemists and Great Physicians

Chapter VI: Part I: Miscellaneous (4)

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Experiments made upon a large scale have placed beyond a doubt the remarkable properties of salicylic acid as a preventive of secondary fermentation and acidity in beer, and as a preservative of beer in a sound condition when sent out or exposed to the noxious influences of warm cellars, change of temperature, etc. The amount of salicylic acid required to produce the best effects in preserving beer varies according to the quality of the malt liquor; but half an ounce per barrel of 36 imperial gallons will be very generally found to answer the purpose well. The addition of the salicylic acid delays secondary fermentation in stock and export beers, which may then be kept for any length of time without becoming unsound or of unpleasant flavor. Less than a quarter ounce of the powder of salicylic acid per barrel of boiling wort strewn into the same while turning out will destroy or suspend the vitality of the false ferments, especially that of the lactic ferment, in the fermenting vats, and this not only without injury to the yeast cells, but keeping them free from parasitical growths. In this manner the fermentation will take a steadier course and enable the liquor to attain its perfection during the ensuing still fermentation in the cask, into which another quarter ounce or more of the acid is to be given per barrel a fortnight before racking. Stout, and in fact all beers for export to a hot climate, require rather more.

For long transports the acid in powder can be simply thrown into the export casks, in which it dissolves in the course of three days instead of a week, which is required by the cold beer lying quietly.

BOTTLED BEER NOT SALICYLATED IN THE CASK.

The clean bottles must be rinsed with a solution of 1 part of salicylic acid in 4 or 5 parts of spirit (free from fusel oil), which can be poured from 1 bottle to another. Or, a small pinch of the acid in powder is placed in every bottle before filling.

The corks should always be boiled in water containing 1 ounce to the gallon, which is also efficient in disinfecting tubes, taps, etc.

CIDER.

Dissolve 3/4 of an ounce of salicylic acid in a gallon of cider, and then add this amount to each barrel of cider. This is superior to any preparation of lime. The cider must be treated when fresh.

GLUE, GELATINE, GUM ARABIC SOLUTIONS, PASTE, SIZE, STARCH, INK, SKINS OF ALL KINDS, ETC.

Are successfully preserved for a length of time from decomposition or deterioration by means of salicylic acid. One-thousandth part of the acid introduced into a vat of gelatine or into decoctions of animal matter, prevents their undergoing decomposition for an indefinite period of time. Calico printers are using half a pound of the acid to every 100 pounds of dressing starch, in order to entirely preclude the disagreeable odor arising after awhile from dry goods in store.

IN THE PROCESS OF TANNING,

If the bark-color be slightly salicylated, this liquor will not undergo the change which, instead of making the hides and skins swell, often causes the opposite effect, contracting them by an alkaline action, and at the same time imparting to them a putrid odor. Treatment with carbolic acid also leaves a most objectionable odor, especially in fine leather goods. The use of salicylic acid will thus be found highly remunerative to all tanners, as it has proved in the industries already alluded to.

IN SUGAR FACTORIES

Three drachms of salicylic acid are used to every 300 pounds of beetroot in the diffusing liquor, in order to prevent fermentation, and for destroying the parasitical growths, especially noticeable in the old material.

FOR DISINFECTING.

Fumigation with the acid purifies the air and walls of closed rooms. Simply evaporate some on a heated shovel, which must not be red-hot.

The air in crowded buildings, schools, barracks, hospitals, factories, etc., will be improved by keeping the floors sprinkled with the solution. In sick rooms this is of great importance, the dust settling on the floor being the readiest receptacle and means of transmitting the microscopic fungi or germs of infection which float in the air.

VESSELS, CORKS, ETC.,

Are very well cleaned and disinfected by washing them with an aqueous solution of the acid. This deserves especial notice.

It is evident that numerous advantageous applications of salicylic acid are carried out besides those enumerated above, but the descriptions already given will enable any person interested in the matter to find out the best means of deriving profit from the wonderful properties of this extremely useful substance.

Ice-House and Refrigerator.

BY JOHN TAYLOR.

Houses built on this plan are lined throughout the inside with sheet iron. There is a layer of felt nailed to the sides, ceiling, and floor of the room, and on this is nailed the sheet iron. It is then painted with two heavy coats, it being the aim to fill up all joints and seams with the paint. But as the tin and felt do not render the room absolutely air-tight, I am of opinion that it can as well be dispensed with. It might save some ice if the seams were all soldered. The layer of cement, asphaltum or gas tar, which should cover the ground below the joists, is to protect the room from the moisture and warmth of the earth. Above this layer should be about 30 inches of dry sawdust or turners shavings, well packed up to the level of the top of the joists.

The drainage from the ice is carried off by a series of V-shaped tin or iron troughs, which run between the joists, all of which carry the water to one point, where it is carried outside by a trap-pipe. These troughs reach over to the center of the top of the joists, and are soldered together, so that no water will drip on the floor below. It will be seen that in this plan there is no sawdust or other preservative in contact with the ice, and that the air of the room circulates around and over the ice. As long as the temperature of the goods stored is above the temperature of the room there will be a gentle draught around the mass of ice, and of course all the moisture in the air, vapors, and odors from the goods will condense on the ice and pass off, so that you can keep milk, cream, butter, fruits, and meats all in the same chamber without danger of injuring the flavor of either. The atmosphere of the room is always dry, sweet, and pure.

The features of this plan can as well be carried out by arranging a room inside of another building.

I should have explained before that the ice does not rest directly on the joists; but there is a bed of oak lath, about 1-1/2 by 3 inches, laid across the joists, about 4 or 5 inches apart, on which the ice is laid. I would further suggest that another cold chamber can as well be had by making a cellar under the one shown, with a lattice floor between them. It would be necessary to finish the sides and bottom of this cellar in the most complete manner, as above described. At the entrance to the store-room there must be a vestibule, either inside or outside, as space or circumstances may direct. If outside the walls should be thick and the door very heavy. The doors, both inside and outside, should be fitted with rubber, so as to close perfectly tight, and both doors must never be opened at the same time. This vestibule should be large enough to contain a fair wagon load of goods, so that if you are receiving a load of stuff you are not required to stop until all is in the vestibule and ready to store. This house only needs filling once a year. The temperature will range from 34 deg. in winter to 36 deg. in summer, and will preserve fruit perfectly from season to season. The opening for putting in the ice, shown just under the pulley in the cut, has two doors with a space between; each door a foot thick. The window in the cold room has three sets of sash, well packed or cemented. The walls are 13 inches thick, lined with 17 inches of sawdust. Thirty-six inches of sawdust are put on the floor over the ice. The building shown is 25 feet square, inside measure, and 22 feet from floor of cold room to ceiling over the ice. The ice-room is 12 feet high, and the cold room 9 feet. Pillars are required under the center of the ice.--_Country Gentleman._

Cheap Ice-Houses.

Settlers in the newer portions of the country are often deprived of many comforts which are easily accessible in long-settled places. Whatever contributes to lessen these privations, if at little cost, should merit special attention. A cheap ice-house may be made to afford an important share of country comforts in such settlements. There is nothing to prevent an abundant supply through the heat of summer where there is a stream or sheet of water within two or three miles from which clear blocks of ice may be sawed. Sawdust is the best material for packing, but in its absence chaff, chopped straw, or even straw unchopped may be made to answer the purpose.

A costly and elaborate building is no better than the cheapest structure for keeping ice, if care is only taken to have it properly packed, which is very easily done after one “knows how.” We have never seen ice better preserved through a long and hot summer than in a board shanty with only one thickness of siding, and that full of cracks and crevices. For a new settlement one built of logs, like that shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 1), may be made to answer a good purpose. The floor may be slabs, and the roof a covering of brush to hold the packing to its place, if a slab roof is not readily made. If sawdust is used for packing, the crevices between the logs will need close stopping; or, still better, it can be faced on the inside with slabs set upright, with the smooth side inward. If straw is employed, the rough logs may remain, and the crevices between them may be left open. For sawdust a well-packed space of 10 inches between walls and ice will keep the ice well; chopped straw should be 15 or 20 inches thick, and long straw should occupy a space of 2 feet. Stiff, coarse straw will not answer unless packed very solid; finer and softer, as of thickly sown oats, is better, and the walls which it forms need not be quite so thick. Fine hay would be still better, and would answer if only a foot and a half thick and well put in. Dry swamp moss, such as nurserymen use for packing trees and plants, would be one of the very best substances for protecting the ice, if only a foot thick.

Having prepared the house and packing cut the blocks of ice of precisely equal size, using a cross-cut saw with one handle removed, to go under water. The size should be measured and scratched on the surface for the saw to follow. Two feet square is a convenient size. When cut lift them out with a light plank having a batten nailed across one end to hold them (Fig. 2). Place about 10 inches of sawdust on the floor (or twice as much solid straw), and build the structures solid with the ice blocks, ramming in the sawdust or other packing as the structure goes up (Fig. 3). When finished cover it with a thickness of packing nearly equal to that at the sides. It is important that there be free ventilation over the top, which the loose brush will not prevent. If there is a slab roof the air must blow freely between this roof and the top covering. The slab floor will allow a free drainage of all the water which runs down through the packing from the melting ice.

A structure nearly as cheap as the preceding is represented in Fig. 4. It is made by setting rough posts into the ground with the inner sides straight or faced with the ax, and then nailing common rough boards on them (like a tight fence) to a sufficient height. The floor is made as already described, and the roof may be boards or slabs. The openings at the gables perform an important part in the ventilation by admitting all the air that can sweep over the top sawdust. Fig. 3, already referred to, is the ground plan, and Fig. 5 is a vertical section.

There are three requisites to be secured in order to keep the ice successfully: 1st. The closely packed, non-conducting substance on each side, under and above the mass of ice. 2d. Perfect drainage at the bottom without the admission of air. 3d. Free circulation of air over the top covering. If these requisites are observed the result will be entirely satisfactory.--_Country Gentlemen._

A Cheap Ice-Chest.

Procure two dry-goods boxes, one of which is enough smaller than the other to leave a space of 3 or 4 inches all around when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the two with sawdust packed closely and cover with a heavy lid made to fit neatly inside the larger box. Insert a small pipe in the bottom of the chest to carry off the water from the melting ice. For family or grocers’ use this will prove even more serviceable than some of the high-priced patent refrigerators.

Ice Without an Ice-House.

Select a dry, shady spot; dig a ditch for carrying off the waste water, and over it place a lath-work. Upon this lay a thick layer of moss, leaves, or sawdust. Now pile upon this the cakes of ice, the larger the better, and cut or sawed square in such a manner as to leave as few spaces as possible, filling up those which may occur with fine sawdust in order to prevent the air from penetrating into the interior of the pile. It is best to build the pile in the form of a pyramid. When completed it is covered with straw, moss, or leaves as thick and as close as possible, a layer of earth being thrown upon it to secure the covering and as a further protection to the ice. Where a stream or lake is inaccessible from which to procure ice for filling ice-houses, especially where a small quantity is stored, the ice can be frozen with water from the well in boxes or other contrivance made especially for the purpose, which we leave to the ingenuity of those who are interested.

Freezing Mixtures.

Refrigerating salts and mixtures are used to produce cold artificially. They are used with or without ice or snow. As is well known common salt mixed with pounded ice or snow lowers the temperature to a considerable degree, so there are other mixtures which will produce a still greater degree of cold. The following simple and cheap preparation, when mixed according to directions, will produce artificial cold sufficient to cool wines, etc., without the aid of ice: Take common sal-ammoniac, well pulverized, 1 part; saltpeter, 2 parts, and mix well together: then take common soda, well pulverized. To use, take equal quantities of these preparations (which must be kept separate and well covered previous to using) and put them in the freezing pot; add of water a sufficient quantity, and put in the article to be frozen in a proper vessel and cover up until cooled as desired.

These tables consist of mixtures having the power of generating or creating cold, with or without the aid of ice, sufficient for all useful and philosophical purposes, in any part of the world at any season:

FREEZING MIXTURES WITHOUT ICE.

-------------------------------+--------------------+--------------
| _Thermometer | _Degree of
MIXTURES. | Sinks._ | cold
| | Produced._
-------------------------------+--------------------+--------------
Muriate of ammonium 5 parts}| |
Nitrate of potassium 5 parts}| From +50° to +10° | 40
Water 16 parts}| |
| |
Muriate of ammonium 5 parts}| |
Nitrate of potassium 5 parts}| From +50° to +4° | 46
Sulphate of sodium 8 parts}| |
Water 16 parts}| |
| |
Nitrate of ammonium 1 part }| From +50° to +4° | 46
Water 1 part }| |
| |
Nitrate of ammonium 1 part }| |
Carbonate of sodium 1 part }| From +50° to -7° | 57
Water 1 part }| |
| |
Sulphate of sodium 3 parts}| From +50° to -3° | 53
Dilute nitric acid 2 parts}| |
| |
Sulphate of sodium 6 parts}| |
Muriate of ammonium 4 parts}| From +50° to -10° | 60
Nitrate of potassium 2 parts}| |
Dilute nitric acid 4 parts}| |
| |
Sulphate of sodium 6 parts}| |
Nitrate of ammonium 5 parts}| From +50° to -14° | 64
Dilute nitric acid 4 parts}| |
| |
Phosphate of sodium 9 parts}| From +50° to -12° | 62
Dilute nitric acid 4 parts}| |
| |
Phosphate of sodium 9 parts}| |
Nitrate of ammonium 6 parts}| From +50° to -21° | 71
Dilute nitric acid 4 parts}| |
| |
Sulphate of sodium 8 parts}| From +50° to 0° | 50
Muriatic acid 5 parts}| |
| |
Sulphate of sodium 5 parts}| From +50° to +3° | 47
Dilute sulphuric acid 4 parts}| |
-------------------------------------------------------------------

FREEZING MIXTURES WITH ICE.

-------------------------------+--------------------+--------------
| _Thermometer | _Degree of
MIXTURES. | Sinks._ | cold
| | Produced._
-------------------------------+--------------------+---------------
Snow or pounded ice 2 parts}| to -5° | ..
Muriate of sodium 1 part }| |
| t |
Snow or pounded ice 5 parts}| F e |
Muriate of sodium 2 parts}| r m to -12° | ..
Muriate of ammonium 1 part }| o p |
| m e |
Snow or pounded ice 24 parts}| r |
Muriate of sodium 10 parts}| a a to -18° | ..
Muriate of ammonium 5 parts}| n t |
Nitrate of potassium 5 parts}| y u |
| r |
Snow or pounded ice 12 parts}| e |
Muriate of sodium 5 parts}| to -25° | ..
Nitrate of ammonium 5 parts}| |
| |
Snow 3 parts}| From +32° to -23° | 55
Dilute sulphuric acid 2 parts}| |
| |
Snow 8 parts}| From +32° to -27° | 59
Muriatic acid 5 parts}| |
| |
Snow 7 parts}| From +32° to -30° | 62
Dilute nitric acid 4 parts}| |
| |
Snow 4 parts}| From +32° to -40° | 72
Muriate of calcium 5 parts}| |
| |
Snow 2 parts}| From +32° to -50° | 82
Crystallized muriate 3 parts}| |
of calcium | |
| |
Snow 3 parts}| From +32° to -51° | 83
Potash 4 parts}| |
-------------------------------+--------------------+--------------

COMBINATIONS OF FREEZING MIXTURES.

Constant Water Baths.

[_American Chemical Journal._]

The following simple form of constant water bath, which wastes no water, I have found to be very convenient:

A tube of glass or metal, not less than 1/4 of an inch internal diameter, the ends of which are cut off obliquely, is bent as shown in the cut. It should make an angle of about 30 deg., or a little greater, with the horizontal. The angle may be diminished if the bore of the tube is increased. One end is inserted in the water bath, the other in an inverted bottle. The height of the water in the bath is regulated by the depth of immersion of the tube in it. The boiling is not interrupted by the feeding, which takes place slowly and regularly. It is necessary that the ends of the tubes should be cut off obliquely. The same form of tube answers equally well for keeping a constant level in a filter or drying chamber.

A brass tube is much better than a glass one, as it does not crack at the water level after using for a time. Brass tubes can easily be bent by ramming full of sand, stopping the ends, and bending them over a curved surface. A large number of baths can be run by this apparatus by connecting them with a bath fed by it.--_Charles T. Pomeroy._

Note.--We have used for a number of years in this laboratory a form of constant water bath which was contrived by Mr. Edward Bogardus, formerly chemist to the New Jersey State Geological Survey. As I have not seen it described in print, and as it is cheap, simple, efficient, and ingenious, I will draw attention to it here.

The following cut represents the apparatus:

It consists of two tomato cans connected by a tin tube. Into one of the cans a bottle of water is inverted. We generally use a five-pound acid bottle. The other can makes the bath. This bath can be left running over night without fear. A large number of baths can be run by this contrivance by simply connecting them, by means of rubber tubes, with a reservoir replenished by an inverted bottle. Old fruit cans make excellent baths. A series of holes can be punched round the lower edge of a fruit can, thus affording a distributing reservoir. Corks holding short pieces of glass tube are inserted into the holes. By means of these the reservoir can be connected by rubber tubes with a number of baths at quite a distance. The baths are made by punching a hole near the lower edge of a fruit can and inserting a cork and short piece of glass tube. When the extra vents of the reservoir are not used, they can be closed by a short rubber coupling and a pinch cock.--_Peter T. Austen, Chemical Laboratory of Rutgers College (New Jersey State Scientific School)._

Silos and Ensilage.

The practice of preserving roots, vegetables, and plants by covering them with earth or by placing them in cellars, etc., is an ancient one, but the practical application of the principle on a large scale to the preservation of fodder-corn, clover, etc., as a food for stock is comparatively a recent practice, the first silo in this country having been built within the last twelve years. Previously, however, the French and English gave the subject considerable attention, but it seems that within the last two or three years our American experimenters have made great improvements in the process and construction of the silo by which more successful results have been attained than ever before and have awakened much interest among the progressive class of farmers and stock-growers throughout the country.

A number of the Agricultural Experiment Stations located in the different States, particularly those of Wisconsin, Illinois, and also the Agricultural College at Guelph, Ontario, have made extensive applications of the process. Several articles from them detailing the success of the experiments for the past season have appeared in the columns of _The Breeder’s Gazette_ of this city. Through the courtesy of the editor and Prof. W. A. Henry of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station we are enabled to present full instructions in regard to constructing and filling a silo. These, with clippings which we include from the writings of others high in authority on the subject, contain as full an account of recent experiments as we can give with our limited space.

“Agriculture never took a longer stride in advance than it did when the silo was added to the practical equipment of the farm. Most of us were slow to realize this at first, and a great many are yet unwilling to concede the advantages claimed for the silo, but the utility of the modern silo cannot be gainsaid, for without it we are left at the mercy of the elements in the handling of our great corn crop. There was much truth in the statement that the silo as first introduced was too expensive for the average farmer, but in no department of the farm has there been such a change of opinion and methods of attaining desired results as is the case with the silo. The modern wooden building is not only less expensive but vastly superior to the original cellar or stone structure and every year’s experience is throwing light in hitherto dark places, so that in a short time the progressive dairyman or beef-raiser will think no more of filling his silo than our fathers did of filling the barn with hay, and with proper facilities for handling the corn no part of the silo work will be as hard as pitching hay over the ‘big beam.’” * * * _Supt. Adams, Wis. Agr. Exp. Station._

* * * A _silo_ is a place where fodder is preserved in a succulent condition. It may be a pit, a box, a mow, a tank, a building, or a trench in the earth. _Silage_ is the word denoting the fodder so preserved. _Ensilage_ is the term applied to the process or system. _Ensile_ is the verb expressive of the action of making silage. _Ensilor_ stands for the person using the _silo_ to _ensile_ fodder for _silage_ by the process of _ensilage_.--_Prof. James W. Robertson, Ontario Agr. Col., Guelph._

* * * I further believe that our present knowledge of the silo and the best methods of storing crops therein is not perfect, and that we will make great advancement in the future; but that we have reached a point where this method is within the possibilities of our average farmers, and it is this class most of all that needs this method. The time has come when we must produce more beef, butter, wool, and pork to the acre or sink beneath the wave of competition that is driving over our land. The silo seems to be a valuable and important means to this end.--_Prof. W. A. Henry._

CONSTRUCTING THE SILO.--BY PROF. W. A. HENRY.

“Silos are like houses, no two individuals can agree upon the same plan; for this reason I approach this branch of the subject with no expectation of pleasing all or of giving directions for making a perfect structure. I deem it best to give a description of one way in which a double silo may be built and leave it to the reader to introduce such modifications in the plan as may best meet his particular wants and circumstances. The drawing herewith presented shows an ideal two-room silo 16 feet wide, 32 feet long, and 16 feet to the eaves. Built as described each room would have a capacity of over 3,000 cubic feet which would contain about 50 tons of settled ensilage weighing 35 pounds to the cubic foot. We may say then that this figure represents a 100-ton silo. For the foundation of this structure either brick or stone may be used, going deep enough to avoid heaving by the frost and rising 6 inches or 1 foot above the surface of the level ground about it. Upon this wall a sill should be laid which had best be constructed of 2×10 inch plank. One of the difficulties in silo construction is to avoid spreading of the building, which sometimes occurs through lateral pressure of the contents when settling. For this reason the sills must be well tied together at the corners; instead of using square timbers, which are greatly weakened by cutting, plank may be substituted and the corners of the sill constructed as in Fig. 2. If well spiked there will be no danger from spreading at the corners. The plank of which the sills are constructed should be at least 8 inches wide; 10 would be better. By using four of these, lying one on top of another, the sill will be 8 inches thick. Midway between the ends of the building a cross wall should be built, and on this a sill should be laid upon which to erect the partition which divides the silo into two compartments. This cross wall should be so worked into the side walls as to hold them securely, and thus prevent the silo from spreading on the sides. A little ingenuity will make the foundation and sills secure. If possible the sills should be as wide as the wall upon which it rests, but if this cannot be conveniently done the wall of stone or brick should be raised above the ground but a very few inches at most, as the ensilage in settling on the shoulder made by the jutting wall is almost certain to spoil at that point. Having laid the sill upon the wall in the manner described proceed to erect the building by standing 2×8 or 10-inch studding perpendicularly upon this sill, placing them not further apart than every 16 inches, so that a sheet of tarred building paper will lap two studding in each case. The reader is cautioned to measure the building paper carefully, before setting up the studding, as it is sometimes scant in width and trouble will occur when one attempts to tack on the paper. Double the studding at the corners. In the illustration of the building I have not placed the proper number of studding, but the reader can rest assured that once in 16 inches is not too often. Having placed our studding in position and secured them by a plate running around the top we are ready for the rafters. Fig. 3 shows how these rest upon the plates and how they are tied together so as to least interfere with the filling of the silo. For a cheap silo boards may be used, though probably shingles are the cheapest in the end. In the roof upon one side place a dormer window at D in the illustration; this window is immediately over the partition. It is intended that the ensilage carrier shall pass up through the window so that the ensilage will fall over the partition and can be deposited in either one of the two compartments by means of a slanting chute. If one does not wish to undergo the expense of the dormer window a scuttle in the roof is all that is necessary. The roof is the same as for any building.

“We are now ready to sheathe the silo; let us begin on the inside. First of all tack tarred building paper to the studding, running the strips up and down and having them catch on every third studding. Avoid all openings or rents in the paper. Having placed the paper take common boards dressed on one side and sheet up to the top of the studding. When this is completed repeat the operation by placing a second layer of boards over the first, breaking joints. Narrow boards are preferable to wide ones for this work, as they will swell without bulging. We have double-boarded the inside of our silo by this operation, and rendered it practically impervious to the air. I see no reason for using anything but common lumber for this purpose, as upon swelling it will close up tight enough to keep out the air. Upon the outside of the studding tack building paper again, as shown at Fig. C in the first illustration. Over this paper place any kind of boards that the fancy of the builder may dictate, as clapboards, shiplap, or drop-siding. It will be seen that our walls are constructed as follows, beginning at the outside: First, siding; second, building paper; third, a dead-air space of 8 or 10 inches; fourth, building paper; fifth, common boards; sixth, common boards. No sawdust, tanbark, or other filling should be used, as a dead-air space is a better non-conductor for our purpose and less expensive than any of these. The partition can be built of narrower studding than those used on the sides of the building, and one thickness of boards used on each side, together with building paper, as in the first instance, is sufficient. To prevent lateral pressure bulging the silo two iron rods should be run through the partition walls joining the sides of the building, placing one about two feet above the partition sill and the other about four feet above that. Half or three-fourths-inch rods with heavy caps at the ends should be sufficient, and are easily put in place before the boards are tacked to the partition.

“Two doorways should be left by cutting out a single studding in each compartment upon the most convenient side. These doorways reach to within three feet of the ground, and should be about seven feet in height. They need not reach to within five feet of the top of the building. The ensilage will settle in the silo several feet, and when the time comes to pass it out through the doorway it takes but little time to dig down two or three feet to the top of the door and make an opening large enough to pass out the upper layer. Fig. 1 shows one of the ways in which a doorway may be made so that it can be boarded up air-tight. Instead of making solid doors hung on hinges I think it is better to use boards that will fit in crossways, making them double thick, and having the inside board even with the inside boarding of the silo, as shown in Fig. 1. Do not make the doorways over 6 or 7 feet in length vertically, as in all cases they weaken the structure. Endeavor to have the inside of the silo smooth and perpendicular from top to bottom, with no jogs or shoulders upon which the ensilage can catch or drag.

“If built above ground fill the rooms of the two compartments with earth until the surface is three or four inches above the outside level, so that no water will at any time enter to injure the ensilage that rests on the ground. I do not yet know which is the best method of preserving the silo from decaying. This is an important branch of the topic, but it has thus far received little attention. Some have recommended using kerosene for an inside coating. We shall try that this season, and also gas or roofing tar, which I think will be excellent. This roofing tar when heated becomes liquid, and can be applied with a mop to the inside of the silo. As soon as it cools it hardens into an impervious glossy layer that I should think eminently adapted to this purpose.

“Having no ceiling or floor, and being built of common material, there is no necessity for the silo being an expensive structure. Of course the reader will modify the description given to suit his own wants and circumstances, but I can assure him that in some such way he can provide a silo at no great expense.

“After the structures built for the special purpose comes the modification of building already erected. A great many farmers are building over bays in their barns for silos. This is easily accomplished by placing studding all around the bay and double boarding on the inside. If one fears cold weather he can make a dead-air space by using two sets of studding and boarding on the inside of the bay. Stone buildings can be converted into good silos by furring out and double boarding on the inside. In general I am adverse to stone structures for this purpose unless thus boarded. Some kinds of stone seem to do very well, but stone walls carry off the heat and moisture too rapidly to make good silo walls. If one wishes to try preserving corn-fodder and cannot afford a structure of wood, he can excavate a pit in the earth and bury the corn-fodder therein, though I am sure he will soon give up this practice as unduly expensive.

“A word in regard to the location of the silo. It may be built adjoining the feeding barn with the doors so placed that the ensilage be conveyed directly to the cattle, or if that is not possible, place it where the ensilage can be conveyed by a car or cart. Mr. Hiram Smith of this State, who has large silos and uses ensilage extensively, holds that it is not inconvenient to have the silo located a few rods from the feeding barn. The ensilage is pitched into a cart with forks and the cart driven into the feeding barn between the two rows of cows which stand facing each other. The ensilage is placed in front of the animals directly from the cart with great rapidity. In some cases a car can be used which can be run down grade into the barn in front of the cattle. I think either of these methods is preferable to attempting to carry ensilage in baskets any distance.

FILLING THE SILO.

“Probably very few stone silos will be built in the future, for experience shows that a stone wall chills the ensilage during the curing process and if it does not seriously injure that portion next to it to a thickness of several inches it renders it at least less palatable than ensilage nearer the middle of the silo. One reason, in my judgment, that the silo has not won more friends in the Eastern States is owing to the common use of stone in its construction. On our experimental farm at Madison our first silo, built in 1881, was of stone, and our conclusions in regard to ensilage were made up from results obtained with this silo; had we put up a wooden structure I am confident our results would have been worth vastly more to our people than they have been.

“The question of stacking ensilage is sometimes raised, being urged upon our people by the practice of our English friends, who are experimenting quite largely in this direction. It will be no more profitable to stack ensilage in the Northern States than to stack hay, and even less so in my judgment, for the waste would be very considerable and no one would relish the job of handling it during bad weather. Silos built of wood or made by changing over the bays of barns are the proper structures, judging from our present knowledge, for the Northern States; our friends at the South may find stacking successful.

“Having constructed the silo somewhat after the one described, though, be it remembered, large latitude is allowed in this matter, we will proceed to fill it with one of the two crops most suitable for the purposes; clover or fodder-corn. If clover is to be used I would recommend that a hay-loader be tried for the purpose of picking it up just as left by the mower. I have hopes that some form of hay-loader will do this work satisfactorily. The clover, either fresh or partly wilted, in any degree of dryness indeed, may be carried at once and unloaded into the silo, care being taken to fill and tramp down the corners and along the edges so that when all has thoroughly settled there will be no air spaces to favor decay. To fill a silo with clover is indeed a most simple process. By having two divisions the pits can be filled alternately, each layer of material heating up to the required temperature before the next is placed over it.

“For fodder-corn the processes are a little more complex, though in reality very simple. The fodder-corn should be allowed to approach maturity, the best point for cutting being not far from that at which we would ordinarily cut any shock. By this I do not mean to allow the leaves to become dry and crisp, but rather that they show a change from deep rank green to that yellowish tinge indicative of maturity, though with still an abundance of moisture in them. Formerly ensilage corn was cut shortly after the tassel appeared. Without doubt very considerable loss was incurred by such a practice.

“It is evident that if we cut our fodder at the time the corn is glazing our practice is as near correct as the present stage of investigation points out. Since the period of filling the silo will occupy several days, or even a couple of weeks, we must gauge the date of commencement to strike the best average conditions. For cutting the fodder some parties recommend the use of the reaper, but I judge from what I have been told that a good many rakes have been broken in attempting the work, and that many have given them up and gone back to the use of the corn knife. Such must be the case usually, at least where large varieties of corn are grown. The stalks should be cut close to the ground and thrown into bundles or gavels. If the weather is at all threatening I think it proper to cut and shock, since the fodder will dry off much more rapidly if rain falls, and it will not be so muddy and disagreeable to handle as when laid on the ground.

“Last season the writer urged that the fodder be wilted before it was put into the silo, and his own experience, with that of many others, corroborates this method of procedure, which has the additional advantage that less water is handled in the operation. If it is intended to allow the fodder to wilt the corn had better be cut and shocked, after which it may stand from three to ten days, depending upon the maturity of the stalks at time of cutting and the weather. If the fodder dries out rapidly, from four days to a week is amply long for it to stand in shock, while if the weather is somewhat damp or the fodder quite green it may even stand ten days with no loss. One of the advantages of cutting and shocking is that when it is over the force of men employed in this operation can be changed to filling the silo. If the corn is cut and placed in the silo at once quite a force of hands is needed, but by cutting and shocking first we can avoid this double force.

“For drawing to the silo truck wagons are better than ordinary ones, since the fodder is more easily loaded upon them. The common practice is to attach a plank to the rear of the wagon, up which the men can walk with their arms full of fodder, which should be placed with tops all one way for ease in unloading. If the fodder is to be put through the feed-cutter the cutter should be placed so that the carrier will deposit it in either of the two pits as required. Formerly the carriers were so constructed that they would not work advantageously at a much greater angle than 45 deg., but now I note that some manufacturers have them arranged to carry almost vertically.

“In regard to the kind of feed-cutter to be used, it may be said that there are several valuable machines before the public, any one of which will prove satisfactory if properly managed. The only point I desire to urge is that a large machine be purchased, one having about double the advertised capacity. Small cutters are a nuisance; hand-power cutters are out of the question. The cutter should be driven by three horses on a sweep power or two on a tread, or by a steam engine. Many farmers delay ordering the cutter until within a week or two of the time to fill the silo and are obliged to wait weeks until it is received, thereby suffering great inconvenience and loss. As soon as the question is settled in favor of having a silo a cutter should be selected and ordered, and it should be set up and run in a test trial not less than a week before actual filling is contemplated, so that repairs or changes can be made. To run a feed-cutter properly requires considerable experience and some knowledge of machinery, and many persons have suffered serious losses by not giving this side of the subject due attention.

“This brings me to a point in the discussion of considerable interest to many persons who desire to have silos but dread the experience and expense of machinery. Corn-fodder may be preserved in a perfectly satisfactory manner without running it through the feed-cutter, and may be drawn from the field and deposited directly in the silo. The expense of putting corn-fodder through the feed-cutter, first and last, is not far from half of all that incurred from the time of cutting the fodder to closing the silo. To fill the silo with long fodder let it be drawn in the usual manner and lifted at once into the pit, which can be accomplished in several ways, either by hand or the horse hay-fork carrier and slings. In the silo it should be distributed evenly and probably had better be placed in regular layers, lapping “shingle fashion” so that it will settle evenly.

“The use of long fodder for the silo has been urged with considerable vigor by Mr. I. J. Clapp of Kenosha, Wis., one of _The Breeder’s Gazette’s_ correspondents, and I think much good has resulted from his advocacy. There is no doubt but that long fodder will keep just as well as that which is cut up, and I am not at all certain but such ensilage is even better in some cases than that made by cutting up the stalks into small pieces. When cut into small pieces the fodder is considerably bruised, and there is much more exposure of the juices to the air than there is where whole fodder is used. My attention was called to this point by a recent letter from Mr. Clapp, and I hope we can make some observations on the subject in the future. At any rate let those parties who either from choice or necessity do not wish to use the feed-cutter hesitate no longer in regard to the silo if they wish to try it, but go ahead and place the whole fodder in one, and I am confident they will not be disappointed in its feeding qualities. The only difficulty with long fodder comes at the time it is to be taken out for feeding purposes; then if large varieties have been used the man who attempts to get it out of the silo will need strong muscles and a large degree of patience to enable him to tug at the compact mass, which is quite difficult to manage. Twenty-five cows will eat up the ensilage about as fast as one man can get it out. It may be just as economical, however, to put two men into the silo for an hour or two each day during the winter, when labor is cheap, to get out the ensilage as it is to use more expensive labor in the fall to accomplish the extra work of running the feed-cutter.

“Slow filling is without doubt the best method for securing good ensilage, no matter what material we are using, be it clover, long fodder-corn, or fodder cut fine. When the pit has been filled three or four feet deep no more should be placed within it until this layer has heated to the neighborhood of 125 deg. Fahrenheit. Mr. John Gould of Ohio, who has been a deep student of this subject from the practical side, I believe holds that the ensilage should be allowed to pile up as it falls from the carrier, and after the pile has heated to the right temperature it should be distributed evenly over the silo, throwing that which is hottest to the corners and along the walls. It is certain that ensilage usually heats up easily and rapidly except in the corners and along the walls, where we find the temperature does not rise so rapidly nor to the same degree as it does in the body of the silo, and anything that will help us overcome this lack will improve its quality, and I deem Mr. Gould’s suggestion a valuable one. No packing down is needed except in the corners and along the walls; at these points we endeavor to firm the ensilage just as much as possible. I wish we could avoid this operation, and in the future we may do so. I believe the ensilage would be better without any tramping and packing if we could only get it to settle uniformly without. We should endeavor to secure an elevation in temperature of from 120 to 140 deg. uniformly throughout the mass of material. If the contents of the silo heat up to different degrees in different places we cannot expect them to be uniform in quality, though all will be eaten by the stock. The theory advanced by Mr. Fry of England that a temperature of 122 deg. Fahrenheit destroyed the ferment that produced the temperature seems hardly correct, for we find that the temperature goes on beyond this very rapidly--indeed, it is often very difficult to hold it below 140 or 150 deg., while in other cases I have known silos in which I could detect no faulty handling of the crop that would not heat to 120 deg. A case in point occurred last season; while we were busy filling our silos at the experimental farm I was called to the telephone by a young farmer living some thirty miles away who asked several questions about temperatures. I answered him to the best of my ability and the matter dropped from my mind. A couple of hours afterward, however, the party himself appeared on the scene in a troubled state of mind; he said he feared that he could not make his case plain through the telephone, and so had come on the first train to consult personally. His ensilage would not heat up to 120 deg., but was moulding badly instead. I advised that he go on filling the silo, ignoring the temperature question entirely. He did so, and in the winter reported satisfactory results. In my opinion we have much to learn in regard to this ferment, and that very close, patient study will be required to bring out the scientific side in a satisfactory manner. Fortunately we do not have to be very particular in our practice to obtain a very good quality of ensilage. I would advise, therefore, that a person allow the temperature to run from 120 to 140 when the thermometer is buried a foot deep in the fodder; but when these conditions are not obtained, no matter whether the degree be lower or higher, to go right on without feeling anxious in the matter. If the contents of the silo do not heat at all, or if the temperature gets up to 160 deg., the cattle will still eat the ensilage without complaint and relish it better than average dry fodder. I speak pretty positively upon this point because novices find it difficult to get over it and become quite excited and nervous if they cannot attain the exact directions given by most writers on this subject. The best rule is to go ahead, do the best one can, and the cattle will be very well satisfied with the result. Remember that the experience of a single individual or a single season may be no criterion for other cases. The reasons for these great variations are not yet apparent.

“Silo filling may go on for two or three weeks, or until the pits are filled, when they should be covered after standing a day or two to allow the last layer to heat. For covering material there may be placed over the ensilage building paper upon which may be placed sand, earth, chaff, cut straw, marsh hay, long straw, sawdust, or almost any material which will help keep out the air. If one wishes the pits may be left uncovered, in which case something like a foot of the ensilage will decay and form a covering and protection for that beneath. The practice of weighting the silo is now largely abandoned, though I am not certain but what some heavy material along the edges and in the corners will aid in saving the ensilage at those points, since it is here that the contents do not settle so well as does the body of the material. For a few weeks after filling the sides and corners should be tramped down occasionally to aid them in settling.”

PLANTING, CUTTING, FEEDING, ETC.

The following extracts from “Bulletin No. 2,” Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, by Thomas F. Hunt, answers some important questions in regard to planting, etc.:

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Secrets of Wise Men, Chemists and Great PhysiciansChapter VI: Part I: Miscellaneous (4)

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