Selling Home Furnishings: A Training Program

Chapter IV: Foreword (3)

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Upholstery fabrics were exceedingly rich and gorgeous, Gobelin and Aubusson tapestries, silk velvets, damasks, and brocades being chiefly used. Furniture was upholstered _en suite_, a common arrangement including one sofa, two arm chairs, and nine stools or _tabourets_. Etiquette prescribed the use of _stools_ by most members of the court, and prudence demanded it of the ladies, who at this time wore hoop-skirts, so enormous that they couldn't sit in an arm chair. All furniture was placed against the wall, with the center of the room left clear.

The old-fashioned four-poster bed with drapery belongs here. Most fashionable was the _lit d'ange_ (bed of the angel), canopied but without posts, which was of enormous size and always richly carved and embellished.

While tables were of many kinds and sizes, the rectangular shape with term legs was most characteristic. _Screens_, either one-panel or folding, were used in most rooms, and _mirrors_, _pedestals_, and _tall clocks_ became common, in addition to such older forms as _armoires_, _commodes_, _cabinets_, and _desks_.

The colors of the period were fairly dark and strong, with crimson, green, and gold still favorites; some new and lighter colors became popular; among them aurora--the yellowish pink hue of the dawn--flame, flesh, and amaranth.

_2. Louis XV (Louis Quinze)[8] 1715-74._

Great-grandson of the old king, Louis XV was but 5 years old when the latter died, and for 8 years Philippe of Orleans governed as regent. Louis XV was too young to continue the constant round of formal receptions, and state functions. Court life turned from the great salons to the smaller apartment and the boudoir. Furniture became smaller and more dainty; the hard and virile straight line gave place to the soft and feminine curved line; and dark colors to light and delicate tones. Pale tints of rose, blue, green, and yellow were the favorite colors.

An extraordinary variety of cabinet woods was used--among them walnut, mahogany, oak, rosewood, cherry, violet, and tulipwood. Embellishment included carving; ornamental veneers; marquetry; plaques of porcelain; painting in ivory, soft yellow, gray, or sea green with fine lines of white, gold, or color; and lacquer, which became immensely popular.

Louis XV Furniture.

The chairs, all curvilinear, with and without arms, upholstered or caned, include the _fauteuil_[9] or _large armchair_; the _bergere_, a _smaller armchair_ with solidly upholstered arms and often with loose cushions; the _causeuse_ (the word means talkative, chatty), an easy arm chair; the "_confessional_," large winged chair, often with a high seat matching a large tabouret and put together to form a _chaise longue_, and many others.

_Table_
French Renaissance

_Armchair_
Louis XIV

_Writing Desk_
Louis XV

_Armchair_
Louis XV

_Armoire_
Louis XIV

_Commode_
Louis XV

Figure 9.--Early French styles (1500-1750).]

Beds were as varied as the chairs. Alcove and _sofa_ or _boudoir beds_ were favorites, the latter having headboard, footboard, and back. _Four-poster canopy beds_ were common, and were sometimes made of iron, draped. Another fashionable favorite was the _day bed_, often with a fabric-covered headboard, and placed with either head or side against the wall.

Among the multitude of tables were many of elliptical and other curvilinear shapes; the _crescent_ or _kidney writing table_; the _powder table_, which we have lately revived after more than 150 years; and the _ladies' work table_. The _chiffonier_, a small piece with drawers, came into use about 1750, as did the _corner cabinet_ and the _wall shelves_, now known as hanging _book racks_.

Present-Day Practice.

Louis XV furniture is used often in the drawing room or dining room of important American houses, where a suitable background will be ensured by the architecture.

Most of us, however, have occasion to sell it only for bedroom use.

_3. Louis XVI (Louis Seize[10]) 1774-94._

Louis XVI, grandson of Louis XV, was married at 15 to Marie Antoinette of Austria. He was popular for some time, but was swept aside by the French Revolution in 1789 and was killed on the guillotine.

The style which bears his name (sometimes known as the style of Marie Antoinette) was in reality fully formed before his accession to the throne. It resulted directly from a wave of enthusiasm for the delicate type of classic ornament revealed by the excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were discovered early in the eighteenth century. The Adam style in England came from the same source.

The furniture of the period returned to straight lines and rectangular shapes, with curved lines freely employed but not dominant.

A great variety of cabinet woods was used, fashionable favorites, including mahogany, walnut, sycamore, and satinwood. Carving, architectural moldings, marquetry, figured veneers, lacquer, painting, and porcelain inlays were the usual methods of embellishment. Much furniture was painted.

_Bed_--Louis XVI

_Armchair_
Louis XVI

_Armchair_--Empire

_Armchair_
French Provincial

_Bed_--Empire

Figure 10.--Later French styles (1750-1815).]

New Types of Furniture.

Among the new chairs was the _voyeuse_ (vwä-yûz), a lyre-back armless chair with the top rail upholstered as an elbow rest, and used by dandies who bestrode it backward in order not to crush the tails of their coats. Favorite beds included the _sofa_, usually upholstered with damask or brocade, and supporting at the four corners a light open frame bearing a small canopy; and the _day bed_ with or without back.

During the period the _tea table_, _breakfast table_, and _extension dining table_, with four, six, or eight legs, came into common use.

The Directoire[11] (1795-1804) and Empire (1804-15) Styles.

After France had rid itself of royalty and aristocracy through the Revolution, under the direction of the painter David a new style was created; it was "made and molded of things past." Inspired by the classic Roman decoration, it was known at the time as the "antique" style and today is known as the Directoire. (See fig. 7.)

The Directorate was succeeded in 1799 by the Consulate, with Napoleon as First Consul, and the Consulate in 1804 by the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor. Style trends were continuous; for our purpose it is enough to discuss briefly the style known as the Empire _(l'Empire)_.

It is of interest because of its influence upon American furniture of the Federal period.

Furniture was for the most part rectangular, massive, and architectural in design, but curvilinear in Roman and gondola chairs, and in many beds and sofas. Legs included the straight term form; round, either plain or carved; rectangular and turned outward at both front and back as in the chair illustrated (p. 59); flat truss supports and winged chimerical figures for tables and beds. Feet included the paw, ball, scroll, often with leaf shoe.

Mahogany was the favorite wood, with some use of rosewood, walnut, oak, and yew, and with a wide variety of materials for inlay. Carving, veneer, paint, turning, and gilding on metal or carved wood were usual methods of embellishment. Tapestry, damask, satin, brocade, velvet, and worsted damask were used for upholstery, with fringes and gimps common.

The French Provincial Styles.

"French Provincial" refers to furniture made in the French provinces, by local craftsmen and usually of local woods, in close reproduction of the styles dominant at the court. The styles which were widely copied, and which resulted in the most graceful and charming pieces, were those of Louis XV and Louis XVI. (See fig. 1.)

THE ENGLISH STYLES

Because England was ruled by four dynasties--English, Scotch, Dutch, and German--English furniture reveals the effects of a series of strong foreign influences.

The Elizabethan Style.

With the accession of Elizabeth (1558) the English Renaissance was firmly established. Rooms of the period were paneled in oak with small rectangular panels, plain or carved, and usually carried to the ceiling; ceilings in ornamental plaster (parge), or in beamed-wood or open-timber construction; and windows large, with leaded casements separated by mullion. Most important rooms had oak-plank flooring; there was considerable use of oriental rugs, then known as "Turkey carpets." Many rooms still had dirt floors strewn with rushes, which were changed but twice a year, with such results that the Englishman of the period called his floor the "marsh," and kept his feet off it when possible by use of chairs and tables with low, solid stretchers.

Oak was the dominant furniture wood, with some use of elm, beech, yew, pine, and Scotch fir, which was called "deal," and valued highly. Carving, mouldings, and paneling were used for ornament, with marquetry for panels in walnut, ebony, rosewood, pear wood, cherry, yew, and holly.

Furniture was massive, architectural in character, straight-lined, and rectangular.

The beds, which were used only by the great, were the most important article of furniture. They were of great size with a high headboard supporting a very heavy cornice, the other end of which was borne by posts set at the lower corners and often detached from the bottom of the bed.

The Jacobean Style (1625-1685).

This style evolved directly from the Elizabethan, with the development of new forms of furniture and increased use of upholstery. When, at the Restoration in 1660, Charles II returned from France, he brought back something of the French taste and the French desire for luxury.

_Draw-top Table_
Elizabethan

_Armchair_
Elizabethan

_Armchair_
Late Jacobean

_Chair_
Late Jacobean

_Gate-leg Table_
Jacobean

Figure 11.--English styles (1560-1690).]

Oak remained the principal furniture wood, with walnut fashionable after 1660. Furniture design, strongly influenced by Flemish practice, tended to increasing slenderness and grace. The melon and acorn bulb legs remained in favor for several decades; were superseded during the Commonwealth by spiral turning; and in turn gave way to the scroll, or Flemish legs characteristic of Charles II furniture. Chair backs became high and narrow, and were of the ladder type or caned, carved, or upholstered. Chair backs were raked, and later in the period the back legs of chairs--at first perpendicular to the floor as in Elizabethan practice, were bent outward to counterbalance the rake of the back. Stretchers continued to follow frame line, but were gradually made lighter, set a little higher, and turned. Toward the end of the century the front stretching was raised, widened, and carved with a cresting and ~C~-scrolls, as were many of the chair backs.

_Gate-leg tables_ and _day beds_ appeared early in the period--the latter usually caned, and with a sloping head and without footboard or back. The _couch_ took the place of the settee, and was made first with the squab seat, and after the Restoration with the same construction and ornament as the arm chair. _Sofas_ were made like the high-back upholstered chairs, with arms solidly upholstered. _Tall clocks_ and _wall clocks_ appeared, and many _small stands_.

The Style of William and Mary (1689-1702).

James II, last of the Stuart kings of England, was followed by the Dutchman William of Orange and his wife Mary. These names stand for a rich but confused style which marks the transition between Old English practice and the Dutch style, fully developed a few years later in the reign of Queen Anne. Architectural backgrounds were lighter and richer, and the walls were often covered with velvets, damasks, and brocades in large baroque patterns, or with papers in Chinese designs.

Walnut was the fashionable wood, but oak, elm, pine, chestnut, pearwood, cedar, and painted beech were used, with marquetry of many woods, plus bone and ivory. Furniture was rectangular in outline, with a free use of curves. Carving was used for the legs and backs of many chairs, but flat panels were embellished with veneers, marquetry, and lacquer. Furniture legs were mostly turned, of trumpet shape and with bun feet, though the Dutch cabriole legs, with pad feet and a single shell carved on the knees, were not uncommon.

William and Mary brought from Holland the vogue for Chinese ornament. Everyone collected porcelain and drank tea; new types of cabinets, small chairs, and occasional tables appeared in profusion.

The Style of Queen Anne (1702-14).

The style of Queen Anne persisted, with unimportant changes, throughout the reign of George I. It was less magnificent and impressive than preceding styles, but lighter, more graceful, and more comfortable.

The walls were often paneled, but in deal rather than oak, either in the natural color or painted, and panels were frequently embellished with high-relief carving. For un-paneled walls, cheap printed cotton fabrics largely replaced the sumptuous materials of the previous style, while many walls were covered with wallpapers in landscape or mythological subjects, or in imitation of veined marble or wood wainscots. Ceilings were painted as in the Stuart period. Windows were increased in size, and hung with figured velvets, satins, damasks, and chintzes.

Lacquer continued to be vogue, and was used on _cabinets_, _screens_, _occasional tables_, and _chairs_. Carving and painting--in black and gold, red, blue, and green with gilding--were favorite methods of embellishment. Caning was common. For upholstery needlepoint, figured and plain velvet, and damask were chiefly employed.

In this style curved lines supplanted straight lines for the first time in England. Cabriole legs were almost universal; chair backs were high and narrow, with open framing and a fiddle splat, usually plain but sometimes simply carved or pierced. Chair-back crests and the legs of most furniture were ornamented with a carved shell which reached England from Italy by way of Holland. High curved stretchers, connecting front and back legs only and tied at the middle by a single cross stretcher, were in general use but sometimes omitted.

The _love seat_ became an important piece of furniture at this time, and was usually made with a double chair back, six legs, and upholstered seat. _Dining tables_ were of the _gate-leg_ type, usually of elliptical shape. _Tallboys_ became common, and contained from six to nine drawers.

The Georgian Era.

Georgian England produced the decorative style created by Robert Adam, and the individual furniture styles of Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.

EARLY GEORGIAN FURNITURE

The development of English furniture between 1715 and 1727 is of little interest save to the expert. The period was a time of lowered taste. Mahogany, introduced from the West Indies as a curiosity about 1710, became within two or three decades the dominant cabinet wood.

THE CHIPPENDALE FURNITURE STYLE

There were three Chippendales, all cabinetmakers. The second, Thomas Chippendale (born 1710; died 1779), came to London with his father in 1727 to open a shop. By 1735 the firm was prospering, and 15 years later Thomas Chippendale was a great success. As is usual with men of genius, however, he was undervalued by his contemporaries; and it was not until a hundred years later that he came to be recognized as the greatest furniture designer of his race.

_Settee_
William and Mary

_Armchair_
Chippendale

_Chair_
Late Queen Anne

_Armchair_
Chippendale

_Wing Chair_
Queen Anne

_Armchair_
Chippendale

_Cabinet_
William and Mary

Figure 12.--English styles (1690-1760).]

Chippendale served the world of fashion, observed and followed style trends closely, and successively developed the Dutch, Rococo, Chinese, and Gothic styles. He lost popular favor when the classic revival, led by Robert Adam, became the dominating influence about 1762, and much of his time thereafter was spent in executing work for Adam, who designed furniture for houses but did not make it. Taking the period from 1727 to 1765, Chippendale's career as a designer took the following course:

1725 Dutch mode, with early Georgian heaviness. The chairs had
bandy legs, ball and claw feet, broad seats and fiddle backs,
carved and sometimes pierced. Gradually the proportions were
refined, a shorter and squarer back with rounded corners was
developed, and the splat was replaced by a richly carved member.

1735 Dutch influence yields and blends with the French styles of
the Regency and Louis XV, resulting in more slender and graceful
proportions and a free use of Rococo ornament.

1745 French influence predominant, with floral and Chinese lattice
detail gradually introduced and the Chinese influence growing
stronger. Lightness of effect sought after, and achieved by means
of pierced work.

1755 Chinese influence stronger, waning after 1760. Between 1750
and 1760 he developed the Gothic style, sometimes blending it
with Chinese motives.

For ornament Chippendale used mahogany and depended upon carving, of which he was a great master, set off by gilding, japanning, and lacquer. He made furniture for every purpose, including _mirror_ and _picture frames_, _girandoles_, _pier tables_ and _brackets_, and _china shelves_ and _cabinets_ (see fig. 3.) Doubtless his _chairs_ are his most significant creations. His chair backs fall into three classes:

1. "Splat" or upright center bar, passing from plaint splat to
jar shape pierced and carved with scrolls and foliage, and
culminating in the elaborate ribbon back.

2. "All-over" patterns, covering in equal fashion the whole of the
back, and characteristic of his Chinese and Gothic designs.

3. Ladder-back or horizontal rails.

Chippendale made a free use of colorful textiles for both squab seat and upholstered pieces, employing tapestries, worsted damask, Spanish tooled leather, and close-stitch embroidery.

THE ADAM STYLE

The classic revival, discussed under the French style of Louis XVI, was initiated in England by the Scotch architect, Robert Adam. He was appointed architect to the King in 1762; designed many important homes for private owners; and with his brother James, under the firm name of The Adelphi (Greek for brothers), carried out an extensive program of fine residence construction in London. Robert Adam died in 1792.

Adam designed everything that went into his houses, including the _fire grates_, _girandoles_, _upholstery_, _carpets_, and _furniture_.--He was not a cabinetmaker, but the furniture made to his designs by other men--including Chippendale and Hepplewhite--was called Adam furniture.

The Adam style perfectly reveals the classic qualities of fine proportions and symmetrical balance, combined with a delicacy strongly influenced by Pompeian decoration. Walls were paneled and painted, with paneling and cornice enriched by painted compo ornament. Ceilings were in relief, designed from a center to fit the room with the motives repeated in the floor coverings.

Adam furniture was in mahogany, satinwood, and painted wood. This was embellished with low relief carving, narrow moldings, inlays of exceptional delicacy and beauty, and painted decoration. Forms were basically rectangular, but softened by a free use of curves. Chair legs were straight and tapering, square or round, and plain, fluted, reeded, or carved. Chair backs were square, round, elliptical or shield-shaped, upholstered or filled with carved wheel, lyre, urn, or other ornament. _Console tables_ and _cabinets_ were often of semielliptical shape, and _sideboards_ frequently were formed of two pedestal cabinets, surmounted by _knife urns_, and connected by a _shelf table_.

THE HEPPLEWHITE FURNITURE STYLE

George Hepplewhite (or Heppelwhite--both spellings are used) was a designer and cabinetmaker whose proclaimed purpose was to unite elegance and utility in furniture. His work was in the neoclassic style; was very strongly influenced by Louis XV and Louis XVI decoration, and by the work of Robert Adam; and enjoyed a great popularity from 1785 to 1795. Hepplewhite died almost at the beginning of his vogue, and his business was carried on by his widow, Alice, under the firm name of A. Hepplewhite & Co.

Hepplewhite's furniture was distinguished by lightness, refinement, and elegance. It was chiefly in mahogany or satinwood, with cheaper woods employed as a base for painting or japanning. Carving and marquetry were employed for embellishment, with the ornament drawn from the same sources as that of Louis XVI and Adam, but with special emphasis upon wheat ear, garrya husk, and three-feather Prince of Wales' plume.

_Sideboard_
Hepplewhite

_Settee_--Sheraton

_Armchair_
Hepplewhite

_Chair_--Adam

_Armchair_
Sheraton

_Side Table_--Adam

Figure 13.--English styles (1760-1800).]

Except for his furniture which used the cabriole legs and Rococo ornament of Louis XV, Hepplewhite employed the straight tapering leg, square or round, and plain-fluted or reeded, with straight, collard, or spade feet. Chair backs were most characteristically of shield shape, filled with carved styling, urns, the feather back, or the interlocking heart form. These backs were supported by a construction of the back legs, and were not attached to the seats. Front legs (except in the case of the cabrioles) were perpendicular to the floor, while back legs curved outward to balance the rake of the back. Console cabinets were often semielliptical, and sideboards were rectangular except for concave curves near the ends.

For covering, Hepplewhite insisted upon silks and satins, and he was especially fond of narrow stripes. He often designed or selected the draperies used with his furniture and chose the narrow stripes of plain lines and serpentine pattern of the French styles, as well as designs of ribbons, festoons and tassels, shields, circles, and garrya husks.

THE SHERATON FURNITURE STYLE

Thomas Sheraton (born 1751; died 1806) was the last of the great English furniture designers. He was strongly influenced by Louis XVI and Adam designs.

Sheraton was not a money maker, although, in addition to cabinetmaking, he worked as a drawing master, preacher, author, and publisher. However, he was a great cabinetmaker and a great designer, unsurpassed and probably unequaled by any man of his race in the making of _cabinets_, _secretaries_, _sideboards_, _dressers_, and _tables_. (See fig. _3a_, p. 16.)

He used mahogany for dining-room, library, and bedroom furniture; and rosewood, satinwood, and painted furniture for the drawing room. Inlay was his favorite method of embellishment, with turning, some carving, ornamental veneering, and painting. His ornaments included swags, the star, cockleshell, fan, and disk.

Notwithstanding its apparent delicacy, Sheraton's furniture was structurally sound. The legs were very slender, usually round but sometimes square, tapered, and often reeded. Some of his later pieces have spiral-turned legs. The feet were inconspicuous, usually spade or straight and collard. Chair backs were characteristically square, with a central panel rising slightly above the top rail, and the lower rail kept the back well up from the seat.

For upholstery Sheraton used plain, striped, and flowered silks, and gold and silver brocades. He was especially fond of blue as a color, three of his favorite schemes being in blue and white, blue and black, and very pale blue and yellow.

The Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles are similar and cannot always be distinguished without careful study. Sheraton used more underbracing, and his sideboards have convex instead of concave corners. Beside the characteristic difference in chair backs, Hepplewhite pulled his seat covers well over the apron, while Sheraton permitted a part of the seat frame to show.

AMERICAN STYLES

The early colonists came from England to Virginia, New England, and parts of Pennsylvania; from Holland to the Hudson River country and Delaware; and from Germany to parts of Pennsylvania. The little furniture brought with them, as well as the ideas upon which they proceeded to build and furnish their homes in the New World, were representative of the common houses of the small towns and countryside of their native lands. (See fig. 45, see page 212.)

The interest in Early American art is now so widespread, and the sales of Colonial furniture so great, that every salesman should have sound working knowledge of the subject. Many books are available, a few of which are mentioned in the reading list. One of the most useful is _A Handbook of the American Wing_ of the Metropolitan Museum[12]--a book every furniture store can well afford to own.

THE EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD

The earliest New England houses were solid but simple and primitive. Walls were of whitewashed rough plaster or of wide molded boards, which were used vertically to form partitions; ceilings of wood, with exposed joists resting upon heavy supporting beams; and floors of plank.

Furniture was of Jacobean type, some of it brought from England, but for the most part made here from oak, pine, maple, and other native woods. The forms were few and simple and included _cupboards_, _chests_, _trestle tables_, and _chairs_ of the turned or wainscot types. Most furniture was left unfinished. Later there came the _chest of drawers_, and chairs of the Cromwellian and Carolean types, often with spiral turned legs and scroll feet, and either caned or with seats and backs upholstered in needlework.

Near the beginning of the eighteenth century the open-construction rooms began to give way to complete interior finish, with paneled walls. The American form of the _Windsor chair_ which reached its highest development at about this time, was mostly of hickory because of the adaptability of that wood for bows and spindles.

Courtesy Merchandise Mart News Bureau.

Figure 14.--Harmony in periods in rugs and furniture is shown by this figured Axminster, accurate reproduction of an old floral hooked rug shown with Early American. The design is red, rust, and green on wood tones, harmonizing with the green of the ivy in the wallpaper pattern, and the rust of the draperies.]

THE LATE COLONIAL PERIOD

By 1750 the production of good furniture was well under way, with designs based upon Early Georgian models, and 10 years later, in the period of the strongest Chippendale influence, the fine homes of the Colonies were filled with very distinguished furniture of American design, of which the _highboy_ is a perfect example.

The Adam influence appeared here shortly before the Revolution.

Sheraton and Directoire models were adapted and combined by Duncan Phyfe of New York, who shares with William Savery of Philadelphia the distinction of creating some of the finest American furniture.

THE FEDERAL PERIOD

The work of Duncan Phyfe belongs to this period, and it is supposed that the White House was first furnished by Thomas Jefferson with furniture of that style. Destroyed by the British in 1814, the White House was rebuilt and furnished by James Monroe in 1817 with Empire originals imported from France. This style, as modified in the United States, with its heavy, classic ornament, and gilt mountings, remained dominant until it was replaced by the ungraceful and ugly adaptations of the style of Louis XV which appeared in Victorian England and were copied here.

THE MODERN STYLE (L'ART MODERNE)

"Modern art" is a term used to include aspects of present-day practice which depart widely from traditional or conventional models. It regards period styles as survivals of a past, dead and gone. Avoiding mere prettiness, it seeks dominant simplicity through elimination of ornament on structural forms, and an adaptation of design to function as complete as that revealed by today's motor car or skyscraper. Literally, it is streamlined for comfort and beauty in the modern way.

Broadly speaking there are two modern developments in functional furniture:

1. There is a _classic-modern_ development deeply rooted in
tradition but adapted to the needs of today.

2. There is a _functional-modern_ development which, forsaking the
past, is giving us a fresh, practical angle in furniture design.

Both developments seek comfort, simplicity, and beauty in all ways.

The simplicity features of functional furniture are triumphs in finish and in structure. Surfaces are flat and smooth without applied ornament. The completed pieces are sharp and vigorous in outline, perfection in finish, with long continuous curves replacing the old sharp angles. In the new metal furniture it is not uncommon to note that the entire frame of a chair, settee, or table has been made from a single length of metal tubing. Grace and lightness are natural attributes of these flowing lines.

This contemporary furniture also achieves a sincerity which marks a new high. Without ornamental features which characterize the classic-modern development it is impossible to hide flaws in workmanship. Construction accordingly is emphasized rather than concealed. There are no "fake antique" effects about this functional furniture. No one is trying to make these materials look like something else. Metal is called metal; maple is maple; and neither, sparkling under a brown graining, pretends to be walnut. Finishing processes continue to be used but they aim at developing the individual grain, color, and texture of each species. The following statement quoted from the April 1940, Bulletin of the National Retail Dry Goods Association, is a forcible expression of this viewpoint:

The majority of consumers interpret such expressions as "all
mahogany" or "genuine Honduras mahogany" or "all maple" or "all
walnut" literally, i. e., that furniture so described is made
wholly of mahogany or maple or walnut according to the wood
named. The National Better Business Bureau recommends that such
terms be applied only to those articles of furniture in which
all the exposed parts are made wholly of the wood named. If the
exposed parts are composed of more than one kind of wood such
article should be described by the names of the principal woods
used, viz, "mahogany and gumwood," "walnut and gumwood," not by
such description as "combination mahogany," and "combination
walnut." Also it is recommended that furniture employing veneered
construction be frankly described in advertising as "veneered."

To achieve the finish and structural beauty of functional furniture the modern craftsman works with various materials. The whole world is bringing to the markets choice cabinet woods to be used in producing hitherto undreamed-of effects. Magnolia, amboyna, bubinga, macassar, satinwood, narra, makore, padouk, and thuya--these are familiar names. Glass--clear, white, and colored--has won acceptance as a structural material. Aluminum, stainless steel, and chromium plate are popular. Cork veneer with its velvety texture and warm coloring is excellent surface finish for wood furniture. Metal frames with veneer tops often are shown in designs suitable for use as kitchen, sunroom, porch, and even living-room furniture. Linoleum tops for tables and desks afford variety in color. Various synthetic products are converted into tops which have been proofed against heat and liquid stains, thus popularizing them for cocktail and coffee tables. Colored lacquers reminiscent of the orient have been appropriately used. Textile designs which are largely depended upon to supply the necessary ornament for rooms, employ the straight lines, acute angles, and whirling curves of the futurists as well as natural forms drawn with little or no attempt to representation. The end is not yet predictable, but there is much to be learned now.

USING STYLE APPEAL IN SELLING

We may use style appeal in selling furniture of any quality except the poorest to customers of any level of taste except the lowest. The salesperson should have some appreciation of the importance and dignity of furniture, and a fair working knowledge of the forms, materials, and ornament of the several period styles.

HOW FURNITURE KNOWLEDGE IS SPREADING

We must remember three things:

1. All furniture is derived, however remotely, from earlier forms
and therefore can be identified with a style appeal.

2. American women have become style-conscious in matters of
decoration.

3. The home-furnishing art is studied in colleges and secondary
schools; books dealing with it are widely read; at least 25
million persons read national magazines which devote space to
it; hundreds of newspapers publicize it; powerful agencies are
actively engaged in widening popular knowledge of it.

WHAT SUCCESSFUL STYLE SELLING INVOLVES

In order to enhance the desirability of an article through an appeal to beauty of design or style, we must cause the customer to see in it something desirable which she has failed to see for herself. To do this we must be able to notice this "extra something" ourselves, and to convey a clear and interesting picture of our observations.

Many never see more than a part of the sales possibilities of what we have to sell. Our merchandise is as common to us as an old shoe. We are prone to forget that its forms are the result of age-long processes of development, its ornament the heritage from an immemorial past. Often we forget its romance, its quickening appeal to the imagination, its promise as a way to richer and more stimulating life. To us a chair is a chair, and a rug is just another rug.

You will sometimes find it effective in building up appreciation of a fine machine-made rug to tell how much time would have been required for weaving alone had it been made by hand. Count the number of tufts per square inch; multiply by 144 to get the number per square foot; then by the number of square feet in the rug, divide the total by 2,500--the average number of knots tied by a Persian weaver in a full day's work--to arrive at the number of working days. Make a few of these calculations based on rugs of standard weave and size at your leisure, and remember the results for use when required.

To equip yourself to emphasize style in furniture, first go through your stock carefully, and identify the style of all pieces that are accurately reproduced or closely adapted from historic designs. It may surprise you to learn how many pieces can be definitely assigned to one of the historic styles.

The ideal way, of course, would be to have each piece styled and marked by the manufacturer; this may come in time. Another way would be to have the style names agreed upon by the entire sales force, after discussion, and marked on the tags, so that everybody will be telling the same story. But if no definite plan is used, study the stock by yourself. After all, the man who wants to travel ahead of the crowd must expect to do some pioneering, and you will be the one to profit.

Every clever oriental-rug man realizes the sales value of an identifying name. He knows that women particularly like to know the name or weave of a rug and any facts connected with its design, because these things make them feel more assured in buying and give them something to talk about pridefully to their friends.

In presenting your furniture under its historical names, be careful not to make claims you cannot establish. They will expose you to the ridicule of a well-informed buyer, of whom there are many.

Never say that a piece is a reproduction unless really it is. Say that it is "in the style of" or "inspired by," or "derived or adapted from," or "a present-day adaptation of," or "a twentieth century interpretation of" the style to which you have assigned it. Having said this, proceed at once to give it whatever additional importance or value you can draw from your knowledge of the history, personalities, or practice of the period. Do not lecture but try to dramatize your merchandise.

The highest use of language is pure self-expression. Only your choice of words and expression can give your customer kinship with what you feel. An encyclopedia of information is not of itself complete customer service when you are dealing with style, period, color, harmony, and satisfaction.

DRAMATIZE YOUR MERCHANDISE

Suppose, for example, that you want to sell an ordinary loose-cushion sofa in blue velvet, with machine-carved cabriole legs, rolled arms, and straight-lined back with curved ends.

It is easy to say, "Here is a handsome, well-made sofa in blue velvet. Just the right thing for your room; the price is $95."

But it is almost as easy, and in many cases far more effective, to say, in substance: "This, as I understand it, is what you may have in mind. There is nothing striking or extreme about the design. Notice the graceful curves of the cabriole or f scroll legs, which are completely adequate to hold up the heavy body; note how those same curves are echoed in the arms and suggested in the back, so that the whole piece reveals harmonious lines. This sofa expresses the quality of repose which makes it so important in the properly furnished modern home." Or, suppose you have a reproduction of a Chippendale ladder-back chair. With 9 possible buyers out of 10, it would be foolish to try to sell such a piece through the bald statement that it is a beautiful Chippendale chair.

A better approach would be as follows: "Here is an armchair reproduced from one of Chippendale's masterpieces. If you will set it off by itself you will see its extraordinary grace and harmony of line. In this piece we have Chippendale's conception of the ladder back--a very old form of chair expressed in flowing curves which descend rhythmically from top rail to floor. As a chair it is perfect--staunch, thoroughly comfortable, and enduring; it is even more desirable as a work of art. Anyone may well be proud to own it."

This language is not intended to be "stilted." If delivered casually, with no thought of reciting a memorized paragraph, or of delivering a set speech, these ideas will be effective in sustaining interest while, informally, you direct attention to other features. "High-lighting" or dramatizing your merchandise is as difficult as it is necessary when one must guard against failure by enhancing the desirability of the merchandise.

STYLE APPEALS BASED ON PERIOD DECORATION

Your description should not be left to chance or to the inspiration of the moment. Think them out at home or in your free time in the store, and plan just how and when you will use them.

These "high lights" may be based upon history, beauty, and sentiment. To illustrate:

Bedroom Suite Adapted From the Style of Louis XVI.

_History._--"In this suite we have a reflection of the last of the great decorative styles developed in France under the Bourbon Kings. Louis the Sixteenth was king of France when our forefathers signed the Declaration of Independence. There was great gratitude and admiration for France in those days, which inspired the importation of a good deal of furniture of this style for the statelier homes of America. Washington bought some of it for Mount Vernon, and Jefferson for Monticello."

_Sentiment._--"This suite called Louis XVI, named for an era made brilliant by the later courts of France, is reminiscent of the days of Marie Antoinette. Lovers of style and beauty the world over have for decades, even centuries now, looked back to the days of the last lavish escapades of the French courts whenever there is a resurge of the human appetite for the ornate, gilded opulence of color and design that you see characterized in these pieces."

_Beauty._--"In this suite we find the slender proportions, fine lines, chaste ornamental forms and delicate grace of the style of Louis Seize. See how skillfully the strength and dignity of these pieces is insured by the straight vertical lines of the frames, and their effect of soft and luxurious ease by the curves of the top rails and mirrors."

Cabinet, Chest, or Dining Suite Adapted From Style of the Italian Renaissance.

_History._--"This piece was certainly made in America, and it may have been made within the past 2 months--it is new in our stock. Yet in every line and detail it recalls to us the great age of the Italian Renaissance, when the New World was being discovered and explored, and the Old World made over for the development of modern life."

_Sentiment._--"Women, of course, counted greatly during the Italian Renaissance; but they did not dominate the design of furniture as they do today. Note the virility of this design--its straight, vigorous lines, its solidity and strength, its unyielding angles, and its simple, sparse ornament."

_Beauty._--"There are times and places when delicacy and daintiness fail to please. For the room that has such a place nothing could be more appropriate and satisfying than this cabinet, designed in the virile spirit of the Italian Renaissance. There is a beauty in straight lines, in strong and noble proportion, in rich dark coloring."

These tabloid statements are of course to be regarded as suggestions, not as models. Make up your own, couched in your own language, and based upon your own merchandise and your own customers. But do not assume that this sort of thing cannot be done in your store and with your customers, or that it is old-fashioned, and of no value. It must be done at certain times if we want to sell furniture in volume and on other bases than utility and price.

TWO CLASSES OF EXCEPTIONAL CUSTOMERS

In making a style appeal based upon period decoration you will occasionally encounter customers who belong to either of two classes, both small, but important enough to merit brief mention--

1. Those who express contempt for modern machine-made furniture.

2. Those who have no use for period design and often for the whole
matter of style.

Nothing will be accomplished by argument. But the one who scorns style probably does not carry that idea over into his purchase of clothing for himself or of the automobile he drives. In dealing with this type of customer it may be worth while to point out that the machine at least has enabled us to reproduce the truly beautiful pieces of the old masters with their full beauty preserved and to make them available to people of ordinary means. Certainly society could not support the immense number of craftsmen that would be necessary to make good furniture by hand.

Nor is it a question of paying more for style. When one chooses well-styled furniture it is true that he pays for materials and labor, but he gets in addition the distinction that comes from rich historical associations, and aristocratic lineage.

QUESTIONS

_1. How would you make a style appeal based upon period decoration to a customer who professed contempt for modern machine-made furniture?_

_2. What steps would you take in selling a reproduction of the Chippendale splat-back chair?_

_3. What are the characteristics of the four outstanding furniture periods known as the French, Early English, Georgian, and American? (Consider each period from the viewpoint of historic date, lines, proportions, woods, upholstering fabrics, and modern use)._

_4. Why may Sheraton, Hepplewhite, and Duncan Phyfe furniture be used together?_

_5. What is meant by the following: "Modern arises from the fact that its designers are neither bound by traditions of the past nor wedded to the present, but move alertly up and down the centuries--combining the old and the new--with a refreshing disregard of dynasties and dates?"_

_6. To what extent is streamlining, now an accepted feature of kitchen equipment, appearing in metal and wood furniture?_

_7. Contemporary furniture finds expression in honest construction. Construction is emphasized rather than concealed. In what ways would you say_ sincerity _was the most revolutionary characteristic of contemporary furniture?_

_8. What has been contributed in domestic comfort by the idea of interchangeable unit furniture?_

_9. What unusual service features are afforded by the sectional sofa? Is this trend likely to become "fixed" as a furniture emphasis or is it merely seasonal?_

_10. Where are the great furniture manufacturing centers in the United States? Where and when are our big furniture style shows held? By whom?_

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Selling Home Furnishings: A Training ProgramChapter IV: Foreword (3)

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