Chapter VIII: Part III: , pp. 75-98. United States Government Printing Office (4)

The Axminster weave is produced by an ingenious process which beggars description but is explained and illustrated in the Britannica and other standard works on carpet manufacture. The technique permits production of rugs with a great variety of color effects in each pattern. The tufts, in the Axminster, are mechanically inserted in the fabric and bound down into the back, essentially in the manner of oriental rugs, except that the entire process is one of machine technique instead of the customary oriental hand-knotting. None of the yarn is buried in the back of the fabric, as it is in the Wilton weave, other than that which is required for attachment. Yarn preparation for Axminster weaving is a long process involving weeks of work, while actual weaving time requires but one-tenth of the entire time of manufacturing.

The commercial qualities of Axminster vary widely in wool, type of yarn, number of tufts per square inch, and height of pile.

TAPESTRY BRUSSELS, VELVETS, AND WILTON VELVETS

Tapestry Brussels have a looped pile like that of body Brussels and are woven of worsted yarns; Wilton velvets are also made of worsted yarns, and have a close upright pile resembling Wilton. Velvets (formerly called tapestry velvets), have a short upright pile and are made of woolen yarns. These weaves, which are not yarn-dyed, are made both by the drum printing and the roller printing methods.

In _drum printing_, the yarn is wound on a huge drum; the color applied by means of a carriage and color roller in narrow lines; the yarn removed and steamed to fix the color; the separate yarns wound on bobbins and then "set" in such a way that when fed into the loom over the wires that form the pile loops each line of color comes up where it is required to form the pattern. This technique is economical of wool, but naturally is incapable of yielding the definite exactness of pattern produced by the other weaves.

In _roller printing_ the carpet is first woven in white, and then printed on rollers by a process substantially like that of a perfecting press printing a newspaper in color.

_Broadloom carpetings._--Any carpet woven on a wide loom. The term is applied particularly to Wiltons, Axminsters, and plain chenilles.

_"Sheen-type" rugs; also known as American orientals._--Any machine-made pile rug which has been chemically washed to soften the colors and give it sheen and luster; made in the Wilton, Axminster and chenille weaves.

LINOLEUM

Because of consistent and attractive advertising by manufacturers, the quality and desirability of linoleum and felt-base floor covering are now taken for granted by consumers, and these floor coverings, once regarded purely as a utility product, are sold chiefly on the basis of their decorative appeal. In order to be well informed on their construction you must get the facts from the manufacturers whose products you handle, as both the materials and processes employed have been somewhat widely changed in recent years.

The old method of making linoleum involved the production of solidified linseed oil and its reduction by heat and the admixture of resinous gums to a rubberlike mass known as cement, which was then ground up with cork dust, wood flour, whiting, and pigment to form the "linoleum material." In plain and printed linoleums this material was then calendered on the canvas by heavy heated rollers and seasoned in the drying rooms from 2 to 60 days in temperatures of from 90° to 170°. Granites, jaspes, and cork carpets were made by almost the same process. In making inlays the colored linoleum materials were formed into patterns by one of several hand or machine processes.

In recent years progress has been made toward the partial substitution of linseed oil by a nitrocellulose base in the preparation of the cement. In addition, much linoleum now has a surface coat of nitrocellulose composition, which gives it a glossy surface practically non-markable and highly resistant to strong soaps and soda.

Felt-base floor covering has a printed pattern on a base of felt impregnated with a base of bituminous composition.

CARE OF LINOLEUM

Most linoleum used in homes is manufactured with a lustrous surface which can be maintained with little effort.

_Washing._--The basis of all linoleum maintenance is the same--a thorough cleaning with a mild soap, followed by waxing. Soaps which contain excessive alkali destroy the linseed oil content of linoleum. Cleaning compounds of the type ordinarily used for scouring porcelain sinks and tubs, contain abrasive material and are not suitable for use on linoleum, because they scratch the surface of the material. These slight scratches soon fill with dirt and make subsequent cleaning more difficult; also, they shorten the life of the linoleum. Be sure that only pure soaps are used and wash with lukewarm water. Use very little water and remove all traces of the soap. The floor should then be allowed to dry thoroughly.

_Waxing._--After the floor is cleaned and dried, apply a very thin coat of liquid or paste wax manufactured for the purpose of maintaining linoleum.

FIBERS AND RELATED RUG TYPES

The striking improvements in weave, in colors and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fiber and related rugs may be put appropriately. Originally thought of primarily as summer rugs, and then principally for porch use, today these rugs enjoy a greatly increased use.

_Process of manufacture._--The materials employed and the processes of production in the making of fiber, grass, and other rugs of this type are so different that they deserve special mention and description. They are known as flat-weave fabrics to differentiate them from the pile fabric rugs.

_Fiber rugs._--When a new type of yarn made from wood fibers became available as a filler to take the place of wire grass, it widely increased the range of utility and beauty in this type of floor covering.

Courtesy Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.

Figure 35.--The striking improvements in weave, in colors, and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fibers and related rugs may be put.]

Wood fiber is made from fir or white spruce in great paper mills, where the logs are first reduced to pulp, then made into an extremely tough and continuous roll of a special type of kraft paper designed for twisting. These great rolls of kraft are cut into long strips of varying widths, then tightly twisted into strands of twine or yarn, the size of the strands depending upon _(a)_ the width of the strips and _(b)_ the tightness of the twist.

The better grades of fiber yarns are extremely tough and long wearing, giving the finished rug a tough, long-wearing surface. Also they are finer than the grass fibers, giving a thinner, less heavy feel, but increasing the cost because of the additional labor involved and the increased number of picks. Three basic weaves are used to give variety:

_The basket weave._--In this 2-, 3-, and 4-weft or filler, yarns are shuttled across the loom between each raising and lowering of the warp. This produces a weave resembling the broad, flat weave of a market basket.

_The twill weave._--More complicated because it requires additional loom equipment or "harnesses." While the basket weave requires only two such "harnesses" (one to go up while the other goes down) in twill, the addition of more "harnesses," and chains to operate them, produces interesting variations. In the twill weave, three harnesses are used. Each warp strand passes over two filler strands and under the next two, producing a diagonal, ribbed effect, giving a heavier feel to the rug, and resulting in maximum yardage.

_Jacquard weave._--This type requires a different loom, equipped with the jacquard mechanism described in connection with the Wilton process, but constructed to carry the much heavier fiber yarns. In this process each warp yarn has its own "harness" which is raised and lowered by the operation of the cards, punched like the rolls of a player piano, to produce the desired pattern. (See fig. 35.)

Color is introduced into fiber rugs both in the kraft as it is made, and by stenciling.

The ingenious use of contrasting fibers, such as sisal, cellophane, and fibers varying in color from dark to light and back again, are often employed to develop interesting weaves and patterns.

_Wool fiber types._--Still another variation is achieved by combining wool yarns with fiber. This type is woven with fiber warp tightly bound together with a cotton warp that appears on the surface. Filler yarns are of alternating fiber and wool carpet yarns, so woven that the fabric is reversible. Pattern is achieved by the coloring of the yarns and by stenciling. The amount of wool varies to secure the result desired. It gives to the fabric a softer feel underfoot.

Wide ranges of colors, weaves, and patterns are now available in fiber rugs to meet all decorative needs. For custom, room-size rugs larger than 9 × 12, many of the most popular patterns are offered in broadlooms, in widths up to 12 feet.

_Grass rugs._--Only in three localities in the world is produced the grass from which these useful rugs are constructed. It is the wire-like grass which grows wild in the marshes which dot the great prairies in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the vicinity of Winnipeg, Canada. It grows to a height of 2 feet without a joint, and in the spring is covered with water which gives it the waterproof characteristic. When dry it is cut and, after curing, bound into continuous strands.

Grass rugs employ the simplest of all weaves, the "over-and-under," the warp yarns being raised and lowered alternately as the weft or grass yarns are shot across the loom in the shuttle, to bind the fabric together.

Design usually is applied upon one side of grass rugs by painting by hand or sprays, through stencils, although introduction of different colored warp yarns achieve interesting pattern effects. The natural color of the grass is always a part of the design. Most rugs then are varnished to brighten colors and preserve the surface. The better qualities are bound on four sides. Grass rugs are reversible, usually plain on one side, patterned on the other.

_Sisal rugs._--From Yucatan, Central America, and the West Indies comes a tough, heavy, long-wearing fiber called sisal. Its largest use is in the making of twine and rope, but its great durability makes it an important fiber for floor coverings.

Sisal fiber is derived from the leaf of a plant, much as linen is made from the stem of the flax plant. Fibers remain after the pulp of the leaf is pressed out. They are twisted into strands of the desired thickness, then woven into floor coverings, as are the fiber rugs. Colors are introduced by dyeing the strands, by stenciling the woven fabric, or both.

Sisal fiber is often used with other fibers to widen the range of color and utility.

_Varied uses._--While the different types of grass and fiber rugs developed out of a demand for cool, colorful floor coverings that primarily could be used during the summer, their usefulness has been greatly widened as new methods evolved and new materials became available. They now comprise an essential part of every well-rounded showing of floor coverings. Their wide acceptance is an illustration of the way in which new types of fabrics are developed to meet new conditions. Insofar as their basic materials differ, the care of fiber rugs differs from those of other fabrics, as set forth in the discussion "Proper Care of Floor Coverings," page 169.

PROPER CARE OF FLOOR COVERINGS[24]

Frequent cleaning prevents the dirt from accumulating in the surface of pile fabrics. Unless it is removed, fine particles of grit become buried at the base of the pile. Sharp edges of this grit, grinding against the pile as the rug or carpet is walked upon, tend to sever the wool fibers. Cleanliness becomes the most important factor in care.

Use of a vacuum cleaner is recommended for cleaning, both of new and old fabrics. Surface dirt may be removed daily with a carpet sweeper or soft-bristled broom, the former being preferred. After cleaning, the nap should be gently brushed so that the pile is all left lying in the same direction. Vigorous beating or shaking of rugs or carpets tends to loosen the pile tufts, and is condemned. Small rugs should never by cleaned by "snapping" them as this causes threads to break.

The bulletin of the Institute of Carpet Manufacturers states:

Under no consideration should an attempt be made to shampoo a rug
or carpet while on the floor. There is no shampoo method or device
which, while the carpet is on the floor, adequately cleans the
fabric to the base of the pile or effectively removes the soap and
detergent material. This residual soap and detergent material cause
rapid resoiling, development of crushed appearance, and may cause
the development of rancid odor or a gradual color change in the
dyestuff.

_Axminster, chenilles, velvets, and Wiltons._--These should not be swept hard at first and never against the nap. Sheared when finished, a little light woof or loose wool will come out for a time. Long ends should be cut even with the surface of the rug and never pulled out. Unequal crushing of the surface will produce light and dark patches on any cut-pile rug. Application of a hot iron on a damp cloth will allow pile to be brushed to normal position.

In a marked degree, carpets do not fade. Manufacturers employ strong, fast dyes and carpets will not fade except when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The simple preventative solution for sunlight fading is to use window blinds judiciously. But carpets do discolor or change in hue, because of infiltrated dust which is basically gray in color. It is not the dirt that may be swept away, but fine dust in the atmosphere that settles permanently in carpet, adding gray to the tone of the carpet, whatever its original color may have been. Therefore it is advisable when purchasing carpet to choose a shade a trifle stronger than the final floor color desired. In matching wall coloring, draperies, or upholstery fabrics, at the time of purchase, it is a wise expedient deliberately to soil a small cutting of the carpet so as to judge what its appearance will be for most of its life.

When subjected to severe wear, use of rug cushions beneath rug or carpet is advised. The plain or smooth surface of the cushion should be placed next to the rug.

SELLING COVERINGS FOR OTHER FLOORS[25]

Information gained in the discussion of the problems, plans, and thinking of the customer as to color likes and dislikes, and harmony in color and design, opens the way for discussion and possible sales of floor coverings for other rooms.

It may be accepted that every purchaser of a rug or carpet has definitely in mind plans for other rooms. She has cherished, if unexpressed, schemes for changes, improvements in all her rooms. The merchandise she has seen, rest assured, has stimulated interest anew in her other favorite decorative schemes. It is all very tempting and alluring. Importantly, also, she is in the buying mood. The occasion is made to order for following through with presentation of fabrics for additional rooms, preferably for an immediate, but, if not, for a future sale as soon as budget or circumstances permit.

Such a purchase may concern:

1. Rooms which adjoin, the rugs and carpets of which must be
harmonious in color and design to achieve most pleasing results.
Such are hall and living room; living room and sunroom; or

2. Those which essentially are units in themselves, in which great
expression of individuality in color and design is permissible.
Such are library, bedrooms, and nursery.

_The adjoining room._--The most common of house plans provide a central entrance hall, with rooms opening on either side, and stairway rising from it. This plan gives an air of spaciousness and, obviously, because two or more rooms are visible at once, calls for most harmonious floor treatment throughout. Rugs and carpets are extremely important in such a scheme. Properly chosen, they create a feeling of unity and pleasing color harmony. Lacking that unity and harmony, the result is far from pleasing, and may be a decidedly disturbing feature.

_Use of identical fabrics._--Adjoining rooms may be covered with the same fabric, alike in color and pattern. Wall-to-wall carpeting or identical rugs of correct size achieve the pleasing result of unity and harmony secured by alikeness.

_Use of fabrics harmonious but not identical in color._--Variation is pleasing as well as likeness; covering hall, for instance, in a strong color, and adjoining rooms in colors which harmonize through likeness or in the complementary ranges. This is, of course, more complicated, but an effect not difficult to achieve.

_Combining plain and figured fabrics._--The use of a figured pattern in one room, and in the adjoining room a plain fabric which picks up and repeats the dominant color in the ground color or in the figures of the pattern produces a lively result, pleasing and effective.

Stair carpeting is important in the decorative picture. Stairs properly carpeted are soft under foot, safer, quiet, more comfortable. They supply a fine note in the decorative scheme. The stair carpet should repeat the dominant color of the hall or room from which they ascend.

_For other rooms._--Rooms which may be considered as units in themselves permit of more individual treatment, an expression of the likes of the occupant or occupants. This group includes bedrooms which, statistics show, are the most sparely and poorly carpeted of rooms. Suggestions that consideration be given to bedroom floor coverings will appeal to a large percentage of customers.

During the showing of merchandise and discussion of the problems involved in the selection of the specific floor covering the customer comes to buy, remarks will often indicate the need for rugs or carpet for other rooms.

USE OF ENSEMBLES IN SELLING[26]

Into selling in recent years has come a most efficient method of proving just how a specific rug or carpet will look in combination with other furnishing elements. This is the ensemble or group method, for the word "ensemble" means an assembling or grouping.

Whether it be the simplest kind of ensemble, displaying only the rug or carpet, with lengths of drapery and upholstery fabrics, and built by the salesman before the eyes of the customer; or the most complete and elaborate form, the model room, the ensemble method has these outstanding advantages:

1. _It develops interest._--The mere physical operation of building
the simpler display before the customer, arouses interest because
it involves action. Selection of items and addition of each
element in the group adds to the interest.

2. _It carries conviction._--Conversation as to combinations of
colors and designs, and resulting effects are interesting, but an
ensemble display of actual merchandise in the colors and designs
actually available, visualizes the accomplished effect for those
who cannot visualize them mentally. And few can.

3. _It concentrates attention_ upon the specific rug or carpet,
narrows down the possibilities of choice and tends to hasten
decisions.

4. _It stimulates action_ and tends to close the sale by
spot-lighting the specific fabrics favorably as the basis for
achieving the desired beauty of color, design, and harmony which
is the objective of the customer. It presents the solution to a
specific problem in terms of actual merchandise. The same factors
operate in pointing out the pleasing effects achieved in model
rooms.

American Furniture Mart Photograph.

Figure 36.--Living room grouping of upholstered and occasional pieces. Among the interesting details are the low relief carving on the apron of the upholstered chair, the black iron-type drawer pulls, the carving on the base of the desk, and the neatly turned desk chair. The hooked multicolor Axminster rug is worked in shades of beige, red, blue, and green. The brass, double-candle desk lamp is a practical accessory.]

Ensemble selling presupposes a knowledge of the way in which available materials may be used effectively. Various pleasing schemes should be worked out with the basic rug and carpet stock colors and designs as the foundation of the schemes. Lengths of drapery and upholstery fabrics and wall coverings suitable for use with each basic rug or carpet color may be selected to provide effective and pleasing results.

Ensemble units may be built over an easel which displays a standard-sized carpet sample; or may use a sample rug with a chair, table, or lamp, the drapery and other fabrics being thrown over the chair. The object is to bring the various elements together effectively so the customer may see them. The ensemble is to prove that these other factors will harmonize satisfactorily with the floor covering.

In the selection of elements for ensemble units, whether temporary or permanent, the advice of the decorating department of the store, if one exists, will be invaluable. Many manufacturers of rugs and carpets have established decorating services, the benefit of which is available to store as well as to consumer. Such services are much publicized, extremely popular, and influential with the public and widely used by consumers. Store and sales force alike will be wise to know what such potent sales influences are advising.

Another source of such data is the editorial pages of magazines, many of which publish decorative schemes in color. These influence the thinking and buying of many readers.

Let it be emphasized again that the ensemble, potent as is its influence should be employed only when the sale is not possible otherwise. And only after the possibilities of one grouping have been exhausted should another one be built. The customer must not be confused by much, but rather enlightened by a little.

QUESTIONS

_1. Under what conditions would it be good salesmanship to change arrangement of a suite on the display floor, or to bring in rug, draperies, table runner, glass, or silver as a means to closing a sale?_

_2. What technical information does a good salesman need to use in demonstrating concealed values in upholstered furniture?_

_3. How do you demonstrate values in floor coverings?_

_4. What procedure do you follow in seeking to produce the largest volume of sales from paid-up, inactive accounts?_

_5. What ideas or procedures are said to be most irritating to those who examine your stock as potential customers?_

_6. The high school graduating class this year is furnishing a faculty room as a gift to the school. Exactly what would you do to make the sale for your company?_

_7. What tests would you apply to demonstrate that a given new home reflects harmony in the home furnishings?_

_8. What are profitable uses for floor plans?_

_9. If a well-dressed woman, not known to you, asked to be shown an oriental rug, how would you go about it to make a sale?_

_10. Suppose you were showing inlaid linoleum to an elderly woman, that finally you found a pattern to please her, and that upon learning your price she stated positively that she could buy the same pattern much cheaper at Blank's. What would you say or do?_

SUGGESTED READING LIST

Americana, Encyclopedia, Textiles and Textile Manufacture.

Rugs, vol. 23, pp. 757-761.
Tapestries, vol. 26, pp. 252-254.
Many others in volumes 5, 6, 11, 17, 19.

BALDWIN, WILLIAM H. _The Shopping Book._ The Macmillan Co., New
York, N. Y. 1929.

Floor Coverings, II, pp. 35-54.

Britannica, Encyclopedia.

Carpet Manufacture, vol. 4, pp. 917-923.
Linoleum, vol. 14, pp. 165-166.
Interior Decoration, vol. 14.

BURROWS, THELMA M. _Successful Home Furnishing._ Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, Ill. 1938.

Rugs, II, pp. 45-55.
Upholstery Fabrics, IV, pp. 65-85.

DAVIS, M. J. "Principles of Window Curtaining." _Farmers Bulletin
No. 1516_, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.

FALES, WINNIFRED. _What's New in Home Decorating._ Dodd, Mead &
Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. 1936.

Textiles and Fabrics, III, pp. 42-71.
Beauty Under Foot, II, pp. 24-42.
Every Window Has Its Problem, V, pp. 85-120.

FARADAY, CORNELIA BATEMAN. The Dean Hicks Co., Grand Rapids, Mich.
1929.

History of Carpets and Rugs and Decorative Floor Coverings of all
Nations.

HEMPSTEAD, L. _The Selling Points of Drapery and Upholstery
Fabrics._ Fairchild Publications Co., New York, N. Y. 1931.

Institute of Carpet Manufacturers of America, Inc., New York, N. Y.
1937.

Carpet and Rug Industry, Survey, Style, and Color Trends.

JACKSON, ALICE _and_ BETTINA. _The Study of Interior Decoration._
Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y.

KELSEY, CLARK. _Furniture: Its Selection and Use._ National
Committee on Wood Utilization, United States Department of
Commerce. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1931.

Upholstered Furniture, II, 10, pp. 61-75.

KNAUFF, CARL G. B. _Refreshing the Home._ McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York, N. Y., 1938.

Rugs and Carpets, pp. 100-132.
Fabrics, pp. 242-269.
Curtains and Draperies, pp. 269-289.
Linoleum, pp. 53, 73, 80, 126-129.
Tapestries, pp. 254-255, 302.
Upholstering, pp. 223-226.
Lamps, pp. 290-299.
Glass Curtains, pp. 276, 282.

KOUES, HELEN. _How to Beautify Your Home._ Good Housekeeping, New
York, N. Y. 1930.

How to Make Curtains and Draperies, XII, pp. 147-167.
New Fashions in Draperies, XI, pp. 131-147.

National Retail Dry Goods Association, New York, N. Y.

Manual for Selling Curtains and Draperies, October 1936.

PRIESTMAN, MABEL TUKE. _Art and Economy in Home Decoration._ John
Lane (The Bodley Head, Ltd., London).

When Buying Carpets and Rugs, V, pp. 49-86.

REYBURN, SAMUEL W. _Selling Draperies and Upholstery Successfully._
Prentice Hall, Inc., New York, N. Y.

SEAL, ETHEL DAVIS. _Furnishing the Little House._ Century Co., New
York, N. Y., 1924.

Floors of Dignity and Beauty, II, pp. 23-41.

STEWART, ROSS _and_ GERALD, JOHN. _Home Decoration._ Garden City
Publishing Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y. 1938.

Floor Covering, VI, pp. 96-113.
Fabrics and Their Uses, VII, pp. 113-127.

WHITON, SHERILL. _Elements of Interior Decoration._ J. B.
Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

Decorative Textiles and Tapestries, X, pp. 337-393.
Floor Coverings, XII, pp. 409-441.

FOOTNOTES:

[21] Stipulation 2851 of the Federal Trade Commission, Washington, released June 24, 1940, requires a respondent firm to agree to cease using the words "Persian," "Chinese," "oriental," "Kashmir," "Mandalay," "Baghdad," "Baristan," "Persiatana," "India," or other distinctively oriental appellation in connection with any rug which does not contain all the inherent qualities and properties of an oriental rug; unless, if properly used to describe the design or pattern only, such words of oriental appellation shall be immediately accompanied by a word such as "design" or "pattern" printed in equally conspicuous type, so as to indicate clearly that only the form delineated on the surface of the rug is a likeness of the type named; for example, "Persian design," "Chinese pattern."

The respondent corporation also agreed to discontinue use of the word "guaranteed" unless clear disclosure is made of exactly what is offered by way of security; as for example, refund of purchase price.

[22] For an illustrated technical account of chenille manufacture, see Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition; vol. 4: Carpet manufacture.

[23] For an illustrated explanation of the Wilton and other techniques, see the Encyclopedia Britannica, place cited. The name Wilton comes from the old English town, an early seat of carpet making.

[24] Ideas reproduced from "Rugs and Carpets of America," pp. 41-42, The Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.

[25] Rugs and Carpets of America, pp. 57-58, Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y. (1940.)

[26] Reproduced by permission of Floor Covering Advertising Club, Institute of Carpet Manufacturers: Rugs and Carpets of America, p. 55.

Unit IX

FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM, HALL, AND DINING ROOM

Furnishing the Living Room

Distinctive Hall Furniture

Securing Hospitable Dining Room Atmosphere

Ensemble Selling

Courtesy American Walnut Manufacturers Association.

Figure 37.--Designed by Gilbert Rhode, this many-purpose grouping of modern pieces can be arranged to fit the individual room and taste. Use of hairline stripe of natural inlay at regular intervals gives an unusual fabric like effect to this modern design.]

Unit IX.--FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM,
HALL, AND DINING ROOM

FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM

The living room is the heart of the home. It is here that members of the family meet and spend a great part of their time; here that friends and guests are entertained; here that "memories are made." The woman is rare who does not recognize the importance of her living room both as a factor in family life and as an index of her own position, taste, and skill. Since the family living room is the show window of the home it is well to convey to the customers' mind that the personality of herself and her family should be reflected in this room. (See fig. 31, page 142.)

OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT EVERYWHERE

Comparatively few living rooms are genuinely attractive. It is safe to say that 9 living rooms out of every 10 could be improved enormously, and often at little cost. Some are merely shabby or out of date. Many are colorless, depressing, uncomfortable, commonplace, and unlovely. Nearly all lack important elements, and are in some respect underfurnished. In innumerable cases their owners are more or less clearly aware of these defects, deplore them, and would like to correct them.

This means that always there are possibilities for new and replacement sales of living room merchandise. Moreover, it means that any woman who today asks for any article for living-room use, however unimportant or inexpensive, may be at the point where she can be influenced to consider the purchase of additional articles. A systematic effort to explore and develop these latent possibilities infallibly will result in larger sales.

ARCHITECTURAL AND DECORATIVE STYLE

Comparatively few houses are designed throughout in an architectural style so well defined as to demand adherence to the same or closely related styles in furniture. Even in the case of many houses so designed we find that the owners prefer to equip their rooms with furniture of styles more pleasing to their fancy. Often this practice results in bad decoration, but after all there is little that can be done about it. Your job is to equip yourself to be a competent adviser and to give sound advice when it is wanted.

Under ordinary circumstances, do not ask your customer the style of her living room. If she doesn't know, or if the room has no style, she may be embarrassed or vaguely displeased by the question. On the other hand, if she regards the style of the room as in any way important she will in all likelihood volunteer the information.

LIVING-ROOM WALL TREATMENTS

The walls of the living room constitute its largest and most important single element, and form the background against which all other elements must be seen. The lighter the tone of the walls, and the smoother their texture, the greater will be the reflection and diffusion of light throughout the room and the larger its apparent size.

Painted or Plastered Walls.

Calcimine and water paint are effective in simple and unpretentious living rooms of any size, but should not be used in rooms intended to be sumptuous, elegant, or formal in effect. They are most pleasant in colors, belonging to the yellow-to-orange family, such as buff, maize, putty, or in light pastels.

Walls covered with canvas and painted in oil, without paneling, and with or without effects of stippled modeling or glazing, can be used in living rooms of any type, and with furniture of any style.

Paneling, because of the severely balanced distribution of wall spaces and the effect of dignity produced by long, straight lines, tends to give a room a quality of formality and dignity which is reflected in the style and distribution of the furniture and relieved by a free use of color and ornament in the other elements of the room.

Rough plaster and compo walls, varying in unevenness of texture and depth of tone according to the scale and style of the room itself and the furniture to be used in it, are effective with houses of the cottage, Early English, and Mediterranean types and with Early Spanish, Italian, and English furniture and the cruder and heavier examples of French Provincial, Early American, and unstyled furniture.

Patterns in Papered Walls.

Wallpapers are made in an extremely wide range of variation in texture, coloring, and pattern. Properly chosen, wallpaper is a suitable wall finish for practically any style of room, and a suitable background for practically any style of furniture.

Since personal preference has a great deal to do with the selection of wallpaper, the salesman's job should be merely to assist the customer on color and appropriateness of design. Studying the papers you will note that some have formalized motifs, others simple, repeated patterns. When in doubt, stay to the simpler patterns. However, there is no set rule on the types of wallpaper to be used, good taste and personal preference being the main factors.

FLOOR COVERINGS FOR THE LIVING ROOM

The floor may be treated with a single, room-size rug, several small rugs, or linoleum.

A room-size rug usually is preferred where practicable in a small room because it causes the room to appear a little larger than when small rugs are used.

Linoleum when used in a living room may carry an inlaid design in keeping with the room or may be used as the basic floor covering with small, soft-surface rugs.

Rug Must Dominate Floor Area.

There is no rule to govern the proper width of margins, other than the general requirement for a dominant element in every composition, which means that in the case of a single large rug the effect will be unpleasant if the rug is so small that it seems to the mind less important than the total uncarpeted space. Ordinarily the side margin should not exceed one fourth of its length.

Several small rugs used together should be sufficiently alike in coloring, type of pattern, tone, and texture to ensure the unity of the floor treatment, but not identical, which would make the effect monotonous. This requirement would forbid the use together, for example, of characteristic Persian and Chinese designs, because of too sharp differences in pattern; or of pile and pileless rugs, because of too sharp differences in texture; or of light and dark rugs, because of great differences in tone.

It is never necessary, and rarely desirable, to have all of the rugs closely alike in color; but there must be pronounced elements of likeness. In general it is best to have at least one, and preferably two or three colors appear in varying degrees of importance in each rug.

Small rugs should be placed so as to be closely related to the fireplace, door, and principal pieces or groups of furniture. They are distracting and meaningless when scattered with no reference to this relationship.

Don't Place Rugs at Angle.

Small rugs should be placed straight in the room; that is, so that their edges parallel either the side or end walls. To scatter them at angles destroys the organic unity of the room.

The floor coverings should be darker in tone than the walls, but not so much darker as to contrast harshly, and so impair the harmony and restfulness of the room.

In general the scale of the floor covering design should vary directly with the size of the room. Small rugs appear inartistic with large scale designs which might seem perfectly appropriate on larger rugs. The vigor of drawing and coloring in the floor covering also should increase with the size, or rather the effect of weight and massiveness, of the furniture.

LIVING ROOM WINDOW TREATMENTS

Venetian blinds have become increasingly important as a treatment for windows in all parts of the house. Venetian blinds permit the user to control the light and add a decorative note to a room regardless of its period. Tapes of the blind should match the floor covering, the walls, or harmonize with the color scheme of the room. Although the off-white, cream, and buff blinds are most popular, colored blinds in keeping with the color scheme of the room also are in good taste. Other window treatments are roller window shades, glass curtains, and draperies.

_Venetian blinds._--Most blinds are custom made and ordered to the customer's specific window size. Measurements should be taken within the molding. Venetian blinds may be used alone, with draperies, or with glass curtains and draperies. Venetian blinds harmonize with any period or setting and may be used on hall doors, kitchen, and bathroom windows as well as all other rooms of the house. Waxing maintains the slats most of which may be kept clean by washing with a bland soap and dusting regularly.

_Roller window shades._--Roller window shades offer an inexpensive and easy means of controlling light and vary widely in quality, appearance, and price. Roller shades should be fairly close in hue and tone to the walls. It is necessary that the shades harmonize pleasantly with the house as seen from the outside.

_Glass curtains_, or the thin transparent curtains which in ordinary houses hang next to the windows, are necessary to soften the light by day; to cover what would otherwise be the bleak bare rectangle presented by an uncurtained window by night; and to provide the decorative interest of soft texture, flowing line, and soft color.

When desirable, glass curtains can be stiffened at the top and mounted on small movable rings to permit pushing back in the interest of morning sunshine or a fine view. They never should be made conspicuous by reason of striking pattern or sharp contrast with the walls. Pure white curtains can be used only in living rooms of the most delicate type, having light walls and woodwork. In most rooms use cream or light or dark ecru. Glass curtains require ample fullness of material (from 1½ to 2½ times the width of the window, depending upon fineness of mesh), and in ordinary houses should be hung either to the sill or to the bottom of the apron.

_Outer hangings_, or draperies, serve to subdue or control the lighting of the living room; to ensure a subtle sense of privacy and intimacy to its occupants; to soften while emphasizing the structural lines of its openings; and to add the charm of color, texture, and pattern.

The draperies should be plain if used with strikingly figured walls; figured, if used with plain walls; and either plain or figured if used with walls covered with a pattern of simple and inconspicuous design and coloring, according to personal taste or the amount of ornament in the other surfaces of the room. Figured draperies may be used with figured rugs when (1) both patterns are in the same style of design, as Chinese chintz with Chinese rugs; or (2) both patterns make a free use of the same type of line, as in an Italian damask with a Persian rug; or (3) one pattern is of marked individuality while the other is small, simple, or lacking in individuality.

In general the draperies, whether plain or figured, will repeat one of the colors important in the rug. When used with a plain neutral floor covering (as warm gray, fawn, or rose-taupe) the draperies may be unrelated to the rug in color. In this case some of the color of the draperies should appear on or near the floor, in the form of upholstery or pottery in order to ensure the repetitions essential to harmony. The tone of the draperies may be and generally should be somewhat darker than that of the walls; but never so much so as to overemphasize the draperies at the cost of the other decorative elements of the room.

The draperies usually will be run to the floor in the more formal and more sumptuously furnished rooms; and to the apron in the more informal and simply furnished rooms. The heavy materials, like silk and cotton reps, damasks, brocades, brocatelles, satins, velvets, thick taffetas, and richly colored printed linens and hand-blocked cretonnes should be hung to the floor; the very light and thin materials, like silk or rayon gauze, silk tissues and small-figured prints, voiles, organdies, thin casement cloths, whether plain, striped, or broché, should be hung to the sill or apron; while the medium-weight fabrics, like broché silks, poplins, chintzes, and the thinner taffetas, cretonnes, and linens, may be hung either way, according to decorative requirements or personal preference.

Some architectural defects may be covered up by the clever use of draperies. Oftentimes windows may be made to look larger by extended draperies across the wall.

FURNITURE AND FURNITURE GROUPINGS

Every living room is made up of groups of furniture. What these groups are depend on the size of the family, the size of the home, the number of guests who may be expected under normal conditions, and the interests of the family. The architecture will determine placement of furniture to a considerable extent. There are several possible "centers of interest." A fireplace is one of these. A long wall, with windows, may be the logical spot for the sofa. In a musical family, the piano or radio may be a focal point.

Courtesy American Furniture Mart.

Figure 38.--Outgrowth of the platform rocker is this smart spring base chair designed by Alfons Bach and upholstered in beige and brown tapestry. The open bookshelves and desks are in a new, rubbed, fawn-colored finish. The swinging arm bridge lamp has a brass base and together with the clipper ship pictures and accessories adds a dignified note. The Axminster rug is in a sand tone.]

Every grouping opens the possibility of selling "add-on" items. The _conversational_ group--sofa and at least two chairs requires at least two tables and two lamps. The _reading_ group implies a chair--or two chairs--at least one lamp, and a piece to hold books and magazines. Usually this would be a table, but it easily could include a bookcase. (See figs. 37 and 38.) The _writing_ group takes in desk, chair, and lamp. A well-arranged "business corner" for the living room (see fig. 36), or an attractive alcove off this room, or for the "den," may become the center of interest of the home. There, for efficient operation, may be grouped the telephone, writing desk, and typewriter, with drawers and cupboards for stationery supplies and budget records, bookshelves for reference books, and a floor lamp. From this one place all the business of the home can be carried out efficiently: Ordering, corresponding, telephoning, and check writing.

In combination, whatever the style, the seeming "weight" of each end and each side of the room must balance the opposing side, and the corners joining sides and ends must "flow" together naturally. The reading group and the conversational group may include some of the same pieces, and the desk chair may be used as an auxiliary conversation piece.

In the arrangement of furniture it must be remembered that:

1. Furniture should be so arranged as to make the most of the light
(as in placing desks, reading tables, and chairs), and also to
satisfy the personal habits and tastes of the members of the
family.

2. In general, the center of the room should be kept clear, which
gives an effect of spaciousness, facilitates easy movements and
regrouping when the room is full of persons, and affords a better
view of its interesting features.

In the interest of beauty and distinction, it is important to avoid:

1. Too exclusive employment of large and heavy pieces, which make
a room stiff, spotty, and uninteresting when used without small
tables, chairs, and cabinets.

2. Monotony in the height, color, and texture of the furniture.

AVOID REPETITION OF UPHOLSTERY PATTERNS

Living-room furniture should not be covered throughout in the same material, or even in the same pattern, coloring, or texture, because the effect would be tiresome. On the other hand, the degree of diversity must not be so great as to make the room inharmonious and confusing. Coverings of large and important pieces should fit closely into the general color scheme, while those of small chair seats, benches, or stools may serve as piquant contrasting elements. Coverings should not contrast so strongly with the floor covering as to cause the pieces to stand out like spots, and thus to mar the repose and harmony of the room. In general, plain or self-toned coverings will be used with highly figured walls or floor coverings in the case of the larger pieces, while marked emphasis upon pattern is desirable when both walls and floor covering, or hangings and floor covering are plain.

DISTINCTIVE HALL FURNITURE

The hall really sounds the keynote for the whole house, and does much to make or mar its beauty; it is the place in which strangers and guests form their first and last impressions of the home and the ideals and tastes of the household.

In most houses the decorative importance of the hall is undervalued and the room itself is underfurnished and far less inviting and attractive than it could and should be. In order to expand sales of hall furniture by the suggestion and sale of related merchandise, or by influencing home owners to refurnish, you will require some knowledge of the individual rooms and their present furnishings, and a fair knowledge of the principles, processes, and materials involved in hall decoration.

Just how much information you consider essential, and when and how to ask for it, will of course depend upon your judgment of your customer's taste, intelligence, and disposition. Taking retail practice as a whole, it is certain that more time is wasted and more potential sales lost by failure to secure adequate preliminary information than by unnecessary or unsuccessful attempts to do so.

HALL DECORATIONS: PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, AND MATERIALS

The hall should have an atmosphere of warmth and hospitable welcome, a note of rich but quiet dignity, and a real quality of interest and charm. Its hospitableness can be insured by emphasis upon warm color and properly shaded light. Richness of effect is produced by emphasis upon ornamented as opposed to plain surfaces, particularly in the floor covering, walls, furniture, and accessories. Dignity results from the use of long lines in the interior trim, border lines of the rugs, and length or height in the furniture where practicable, and also of formal balance in furniture arrangement. Interest and charm are secured by a free use of color and texture, and a measure of distinction in the design of furniture and accessories.

Relation of the Hall to Adjoining Rooms.

The hall must announce or suggest some of the decorative elements of connecting rooms, and accordingly must have many points of resemblance and harmony in coloring, line, and texture. In choice of the "key" pieces of furniture, which give distinction and smartness to the hall, there should be similarity in outline and proportion to the "key" living room pieces, but identity in period style is wholly unnecessary. High-backed seventeenth century chairs of the more slenderly proportioned types could be used in the hall opening into a Sheraton dining room without marring the sense of harmony in the suite.

Courtesy American Furniture Mart.

Figure 39.--Ideal for the hall is a cedar chest which serves the duo-purpose of providing valuable storage space as well as being decorative. This mahogany chest, built to resemble a chest of drawers, has a cedar lined bottom drawer. The chest proper is the depth of the first and second sham drawers. The oval mirror, a fitting accessory, has a gold-leaf frame.]

Wall Treatments for the Hall.

When the walls are of plain or ornamental plaster, calcimined, or painted in oil, they should match the adjoining room if either is small or both rooms are small, in order to gain an effect of spaciousness. Where the hall and the adjoining room both are large, the walls may differ in hue; but marked difference in tone is unpleasant. For example, light stone walls in the hall and medium light green in the living room will be agreeable; dark stone and pale green, disagreeable.

When the walls are papered, the effect will be more interesting if the hall paper is different from that of adjoining rooms. If the hall is small, its paper should match that in the adjoining rooms rather closely in hue and tone, differing in texture or pattern, or in the fact that one paper is figured and the other plain. Small halls are high in proportion to their width. A figured paper helps to correct the proportions, whereas a stripe would raise the apparent height of the ceiling.

When the walls are plain, sufficient ornament to enrich the room and relieve it from any effect of thinness must be supplied by floor coverings, draperies, furniture, and accessories.

Floor Coverings for the Hall.

In a decorative sense, floor coverings are more important in the hall than in any other room, because the floor area is smaller in proportion to wall area, and there are fewer interesting pieces of furniture, and relatively fewer accessories. Here are some practical suggestions:

Linoleum is increasingly used for the hall since it permits the user to express her originality and good taste in many interesting forms. Plain or mottled linoleum with an attractive motif or monogram set into the center is both decorative and practical. A border or trim, in keeping with the architectural style of the room, also adds to the decoration. The linoleum may harmonize in color with the floor covering of the room adjoining or may carry out its own color scheme in keeping with the theme of the hall.

If the hall adjoins the living room it is well to use the same floor covering as in the living room since this has a tendency to make both the hall and the living room appear larger. If small rugs are used in the hall they may be of contrasting tone to the living room rug or may blend with the general color scheme.

Stair carpets are desirable for the following reasons:

They are more comfortable, less noisy and easier to keep in
condition than bare treads.

They are safer, especially for children and old people.

They make the hall far more hospitable and inviting.

They add a much needed note of color to the room.

They serve to unite lower and upper floors artistically by a
sweeping line of color.

Draperies for the Hall.

Except in the case of doors with a metal grille, or recessed doors, Venetian blinds, or curtains, or both, are desirable on the doors and sidelight of a hall of ordinary size and architectural character, because they ensure a sense of privacy, temper the light, add the interest of color and texture and help to invest the hall with a quality of intimacy and hospitality.

HALL FURNITURE MUST BE DISTINCTIVE

Hall furniture must fit the room in scale. Avoid pieces so small and thin as to seem poor, weak, and inadequate, or so large as to crowd the room and destroy its decorative balance. In general, use furniture of slender proportions against light smooth walls, and thicker or more massive furniture against darker and rougher walls.

It is highly important to use distinctive pieces in the hall; partly because it is from this room that the visitor receives his first impression of the house, and partly because the room can use but few pieces, which are seen against such relatively large wall spaces that they must be of unusual interest in order to redeem the room from bareness and a commonplace quality.

Hall furniture should reveal as much variety as is consistent with the necessary harmony. Matched pieces usually are to be avoided. Even in the case of console table and mirror, a mahogany table, for example, usually will be more pleasing with a gold or lacquer mirror of harmonious shape than with a matched piece in mahogany. Differences in woods, finishes, ornamental detail, and height add interest to the room through variety.

As minimum equipment, the hall should have a table or cabinet with a mirror, and something on which to sit. Table and mirror constitute the dominant element; the mirror adds desirable spaciousness, and the charm of reflected vistas, and both are necessary for practical as well as artistic reasons. (See fig. 39.) A seat of some kind is necessary to ensure a sense of hospitality, and as a courtesy to the stranger who enters the home, but is not immediately admitted to its inner rooms. A chair, preferably of the straight high-backed type, a bench, or a low chest with cushion will meet this requirement.

STRENGTHEN DOMINANT ELEMENT

As the dominant element, table and mirror should not be dwarfed by the wall behind them. If for any reason a small table is placed against a wide wall space, a long wall banner or panel should be placed on the wall behind the mirror in order to build up the group at eye level. It may be built up at the base by a chair at one or both sides, torcheres, etc. Never use a mirror wider than the piece that stands below it, or a narrow mirror with a wide table, unless a wall panel also is used to supply the necessary width. Modern hand-woven tapestries often are used for hall walls when their cost is not prohibitive. Other devices for the purpose include panels made from damask, brocade, brocatelle, plain or figured velvet, real or imitation crewel, Indian or Persian calico prints. A panel often is used on the wall behind a low chest.