Socialism: A Summary and Interpretation of Socialist Principles

Chapter X: The Means of Realization197

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You ask me how the goal I have described is to be attained: "The picture," you say, "is attractive, but we would like to know how we are to reach the Promised Land which it pictures. Show us the way!" The question is a fair one, and I shall try to answer it with candor, as it deserves. But I cannot promise to tell how the change will be brought about, to describe the exact process by which social property will supplant capitalist private property. The only conditions under which any honest thinker could give such an answer would necessitate a combination of circumstances which has never existed, and which no one seriously expects to develop. To answer in definite terms, saying, "This is the manner in which the change will be made," one would have to know the exact time of the change; precisely what things would be socialized; the thought of the people, their temper, their courage. In a word, omniscience would be necessary to enable one to make such a reply.

All that is possible in this connection for the candid Socialist is to point out those tendencies which he believes to be making for the Socialist ideal, those tendencies in society, whether political or economic, which are making for industrial democracy; to consider frankly the difficulties which must be overcome before the transition from capitalism can be effected, and to suggest such means of overcoming these as present themselves to the mind, always remembering that other means may be developed which we cannot now see, and that great storms of elemental human passion may sweep the current into channels unsuspected.

Those who are familiar with the writings of Marx know that, in strange contrast with the fundamental principles of that theory of social evolution which he so well developed, he lapsed at times into the Utopian habit of predicting the sudden transformation of society. Capitalism was to end in a great final "catastrophe" and the new order be born in the travail of a "social revolution." I remember that when I joined the Socialist movement, many years ago, the Social Revolution was a very real event, inevitable and nigh at hand, to most of us. The more enthusiastic of us dreamed of it; we sang songs in the spirit of the _Chansons Revolutionaires_, one of which, as I recall, told plainly enough what we would do--

"When the Revolution comes."

Some comrades actually wanted to have military drill at our business meetings, merely that we might be ready for the Revolution, which might occur any Monday morning or Friday afternoon. If this seems strange and comic as I relate it to-day, please remember that we were very few and very young, and, therefore, very sure that we were to redeem the world. We lived in a state of revolutionary ecstasy. Some of us, I think, must have gone regularly to sleep in the mental state of Tennyson's May Queen, with words equivalent to her childish admonition--

"If you're waking call me early,"

so fearful were we that the Revolution might start without us!

There can be no harm in these confessions to-day, for we have grown far enough beyond that period to laugh at it in retrospect. True, there is still a good deal of talk about the Social Revolution, and there may be a few Socialists here and there who use the term in the sense I have described; who believe that capitalism will come to a great crisis, that there will be a rising of millions in wrath, a night of fury and agony, and then the sunrise of Brotherhood above the blood-stained valley and the corpse-strewn plain. But most of us, when we use the old term, by sheer force of habit, or as an inherited tradition, think of the Social Revolution in no such spirit. We think only of the change that must come over society, transferring the control of its life from the few to the many, the change that is now going on all around us. When the time comes that men and women speak of the state in which they live as Socialism, and look back upon the life we live to-day with wonder and pity, they will speak of the period of revolution as including this very year, and, possibly, all the years included in the lives of the youngest persons present. At all events, no considerable body of Socialists anywhere in the world to-day, and no Socialist whose words have any influence in the movement, believe that there will be a sudden, violent change from capitalism to Socialism.

If it seemed necessary, abundant testimony to the truthfulness of this claim could be produced. But I shall content myself with two witnesses--chosen from the multitude of available witnesses for reasons which will unfold themselves. The first witness is Marx himself. I choose his testimony, mainly, because there is no other name so great as his, and, secondly, to show that his profoundest thought rejected the idea of sudden social transformations which at times he seemed to favor. It is 1850. Marx is in London, actively engaged in a German Communist movement with its Central Committee in that great metropolis. The majority are impatient, feverishly urging revolt; they are under the illusion that they can make the Social Revolution at once. Marx tells them, on the contrary, that it will take fifty years "not only to change existing conditions but to change yourselves and make yourselves worthy of political power." They, the majority, say on the other hand, "We ought to get power at once, or else give up the fight." Marx tries vainly to make them see this, and resigns when he fails, scornfully telling them that they "substitute revolutionary phrases for _revolutionary evolution_."[198] Mark well that term, "revolutionary evolution," for it bears out the description I have attempted of the sense in which we speak of revolution in the Socialist propaganda of to-day. And mark well, also, that Marx gave them fifty years simply to make themselves worthy of political power.

As the second witness, I choose Liebknecht, whose name must always be associated with those of Marx, Engels, and Lassalle, in Socialist history. Not alone because of the fact that Liebknecht, more than almost any other man, has influenced the tactics of the international Socialist movement, but for the additional reason that detached phrases of his are sometimes quoted in support of the opposite view. Words spoken in oratorical and forensic passion, or in the bravado of irresponsible youthfulness, and texts torn from their contexts, are used to show that Liebknecht anticipated the violent transformation of society. But heed this, one of many similar statements of his maturest and profoundest thought: "_But we are not going to attain Socialism at one bound. The transition is going on all the time_, and the important thing for us ... is not to paint a picture of the future--which in any case would be useless labor--_but to forecast a practical programme for the intermediate period, to formulate and justify measures that shall be applicable at once, and that will serve as aids to the new Socialist birth_."[199]

So much, then, for quotations from the mightiest of all our hosts. What I would make clear is not merely that the greatest of Socialist theorists and tacticians agree that the change will be brought about gradually, and not by one stroke of revolutionary action, but that, more important still, the Socialist Party of this country, and all the Socialist parties of the world, are based upon that idea. That is why they have their political programmes, aiming to make the conditions of life better now, in the transition period, and also to aid in the happy, peaceful birth of the new order.

Having disposed of the notion that Socialists expect to realize their ideals by a single stroke, and thus swept away some of the greatest obstacles which rise before the imagination of the student of Socialism, we obtain a clearer vision of the problem. And that is no small advance toward its solution.

Concerning the political organization of the Socialist state, so far as the extension of political democracy is concerned, not much need be said. You can very readily comprehend that this may be done by legal, constitutional means. Step by step, just as we attain power enough to do so, we shall extend the power of the people until we have a complete political democracy. Where, as in some of the Southern States, there is virtually a property qualification for the franchise, where that remnant of feudalism, the poll tax, remains, Socialists, whenever they come into power in those states, or whenever they are strong enough to force the issue, will insist upon making the franchise free. And where, as in this state, there is a sex qualification for the franchise, women being denied the suffrage, they will work unceasingly to do away with that relic of barbarism. By means of such measures as the Initiative and Referendum, and election of judges by the people, the sovereignty of the people will be established. It may be that without some constitutional amendments it will be found impossible to make political democracy complete. In that case, moving along the line of least resistance, they will do all that they can within the limits of the Constitution as it is, changing it whenever by reason of their power they deem that practicable.

As to the organization of the industrial life of the Socialist state, bringing industry from private to public control, here, too, Socialists will work along the line of least resistance. First of all, it must be remembered that there are tendencies to that end within society at present. Every development of industry and commerce, from competition to monopoly, so far as it centers the control in few hands and organizes the industry or business, makes it possible to take it over without dislocation, and, at the same time, makes it the interest of a larger number to help in bringing about that transfer. In like manner every voluntary cooeperative organization of producers makes for the Socialist ideal. This is a far less important matter in the United States than in England and other European countries. Finally, we have the enormous extension of public functions developed already in capitalist society, and being constantly extended. Our postal system, public schools, state universities, libraries, museums, art galleries, parks, bureaus of research and information, hospitals, sanatoria, municipal ferries, water supply, fire departments, health boards, lighting systems, these, and a thousand other activities of our municipalities and states, and the nation, are so many forms created by capitalism to meet its own needs which belong, however, to Socialism and require only to be infused with the Socialist spirit. This will be done as they come under the influence of Socialists elected to various legislative and administrative bodies in ever increasing number as the movement grows.

All this is not difficult to comprehend. What is more likely to perplex the average man is the method by which Socialists propose to effect the transfer of individual or corporate property to the collectivity. Will it be confiscated, taken without recompense; and if so, will it not be necessary to take the bank savings of the poor widow as well as the millions of the millionaire? On the other hand, if compensation is given, will there not be still a privileged class, a wealthy class, that is, and a poorer class? These are the questions I see written upon your faces as I look down upon them and read the language of their strained interest. Every face seems a challenge to answer these questions. I shall try to answer them with perfect candor, as far as that is possible within the limits of our time. May I not ask you, then, to follow carefully a brief series of propositions, or postulates, which I shall, with your permission, lay before you?

_First:_ The act of transfer, whether it take the form of confiscation or otherwise, must be the will of a legal majority of the people. If the unit is the city, a legal majority of the citizens there; if the unit is the state, then a legal majority of the citizens of the state; if the unit is the nation, then a legal majority in the nation. I use the term "legal majority" to indicate my profound conviction that the process itself must be a legal, constitutional process. Of course, in the event of some great upheaval occurring, such as, for example, the rising of a suffering and desperate people in consequence of some terrific panic or period of depression, brought on by capitalist misrule, or by war, this might be swept away. Throughout the world's history such upheavals have occurred, when the people's wrath, or their desperation, has assumed the form of a cyclone, and in such times laws have been of no more resistance than straws in the pathway of the cyclone sweeping across the plain. Omitting such dire happenings from our calculations--for so we must wish to do--we may lay down this principle of the imperative necessity for a legal majority, acting in legal manner.

_Second:_ The process must be gradual. There will be no _coup de force_. No effort will be made to socialize those industries which have not been made ready by a degree of monopolization. This we can say with confidence, if for no other reason than that we cannot conceive a legal majority being stirred sufficiently to take action in the absence of some degree of oppression or danger, such as monopoly alone contains. Further, as a matter of hard, practical sense, it is not conceivable that any government will ever be able to deal with all the industries at one time. The railroads may be first to be taken, or it may be the mines in one state and the oil wells in another. The important point is to see that the process of socialization _must_ be piecemeal and gradual. This does not mean that it must be a _slow_ process, suggesting the slowness of geologic formations, but that it must be gradual, progressive, advancing from step to step, and giving opportunities for adjusting things. Otherwise there would be chaos and anarchy.

_Third:_ The manner of the acquisition must be determined by the people at the time, and not fixed by us in advance, according to some abstract principle. If the people decide to take any particular individual or corporate property without compensation, that will be done. And they will have great historic precedents for their action. The Socialists of Europe could point to the manner in which many of the feudal estates and rights were confiscated, while American Socialists could point to the manner in which, without indemnity or compensation, chattel slavery was abolished.

So much is said merely by way of explanation, first, that the manner of acquiring private and corporate property and making it social property is not to be decided in advance, and secondly, that there are historic precedents for confiscation. On the other hand, there is no good reason why compensation should not be paid for such properties. You start! You have been more shocked than if I had said we should seize the properties and cut the throats of the proprietors! Be assured: I am not forgetting my promise to be frank with you, nor am I expressing my personal opinion merely when I say that there is nothing in the theory of modern Socialism which precludes the possibility of compensation. There is no Socialist of repute and authority in the world, so far as my knowledge goes, who makes a contrary claim. I should regard it as unworthy to lay down as the Socialist position views which were my own, and which were not shared by the great body of Socialist thinkers throughout the world. It is not less nor more than the truth that all the leading Socialists of the world agree that compensation could be paid without doing violence to a single Socialist principle, and most of them favor it.[200]

Once more I shall appeal to the authority of Marx. Engels wrote in 1894: "We do not at all consider the indemnification of the proprietors as an impossibility, whatever may be the circumstances. How many times has not Karl Marx expressed to me the opinion that if we could buy up the whole crowd it would really be the cheapest way of relieving ourselves of them."[201] Not only Marx, then, in the most intimate of his discussions with Engels, his bosom friend, but Engels himself, in almost his last days, refused to admit the impossibility of paying indemnity for properties socialized, "_whatever may be the circumstances_."

Now, as to the difficulties--especially as to the widow's savings. The socialization of non-productive wealth is not contemplated by any Socialist, no matter whether it consist of the widow's savings in a stocking or the treasures in the safe deposit vaults of the rich. Mere wealth, whether in money or precious gems and jewels, need not trouble us. Non-productive wealth is outside of our calculation. In the next place, as I have attempted to make clear, the petty business, the individual store, the small workshop, and the farm operated by its owner, would not, necessarily, nor probably, be disturbed. We have to consider only the great agencies of exploitation, industries operated by many producers of surplus-value for the benefit of the few. Let us, for example, take a conspicuous industrial organization, the so-called Steel Trust. Suppose the Socialists to be in power: there is a popular demand for the socialization of the steel industry. The government decides to take over the plant of the Steel Trust and all its affairs, and the support of the vast majority of the people is assured. First a valuation takes place, and then bonds, government bonds, are issued. Unlike what happens too often at the present time, the price fixed is not greatly in excess of the value the people acquire--one of the means by which the capitalists fasten their clutches on the popular throat. The Socialist _spirit_ enters into the business. Bonds are issued to all the shareholders in strict proportion to their holdings, and so the poor widow, concerning whose interests critics of Socialism are so solicitous, gets bonds for her share. She is therefore even more secure than before, since it is no longer possible for unscrupulous individuals to plunder her by nefarious stock transactions.

So far, good and well. But, you may rightly say, this will not eliminate the unearned incomes. The heavy stockholders will simply become rich bondholders. Temporarily, that is true. But when that has been accomplished in a few of the more important industries, they will find it difficult to invest their surplus incomes profitably. There will also be a surplus to the state over and above the amounts annually paid in redemption of the bonds. Finally, it will be possible to adopt measures for eliminating the unearned incomes entirely by means of taxation, such as the progressive income tax, property and inheritance taxes. Taxation is, of course, a form of confiscation, but it is a form which has become familiar, which is perfectly legal, and which enables the confiscatory process to be stretched out over a long enough period to make it comparatively easy, to reduce the hardship to a minimum. By means of a progressive income tax, a bond tax, and an inheritance tax, it would be possible to eliminate the unearned incomes of a class of bondholders from society within a reasonable period, without inflicting injury or hardship upon any human being.

I do not, let me again warn you, set this plan before you as one which Socialism depends upon, which must be adopted. I do not say that the Socialist parties of the world are pledged to this method, for they are not. The subject is not mentioned in any of our programmes, so far as I recall them at this moment. We are silent upon the subject, not because we fear to discuss it, but because we realize that the matter will be decided when the question is reached, and that each case will be decided upon its merits. Still, it is but fair to express my belief that it is to the interest of the workers, no less than of the rest of society, that the change to a Socialist state be made as easy and peaceable as possible. Socialists, being human beings and not monsters, naturally desire that the transition to Socialism shall be made with as little friction and pain as possible. Left to their own choice, I am confident that those upon whom the task of effecting the change falls will not choose the way of violence, if the way of peace is left open to them.

Within the limits of this opportunity, I have tried to be as frank as I am to myself in those constant self-questionings which are inseparable from the work of the serious propagandist and honest teacher. Further I cannot go. If I have not been able to tell definitely how the change _will_ be wrought, I have at least been able, I hope, to show that it _may_ be brought about peaceably and without bloodshed. If this has given any one a new view of Socialism--opened, as it were, a doorway through which you can get a glimpse of the City Beautiful, and the way leading to its gates--then my reward is infinitely precious.

FOOTNOTES:

[197] From the stenographic report of an address given to some students of Socialism in New York, October, 1907.

[198] Cf. Jaures, _Studies in Socialism_, page 44.

[199] Quoted by Jaures, _Studies in Socialism_, page 93.

[200] The reader is referred to Kautsky's books, _Das Erfurter Program_ and _The Social Revolution_, and to Vandervelde's admirable work, _Collectivism_, for confirmation of this statement.

[201] Quoted by Vandervelde, _Collectivism_, page 155.

INDEX

(Titles in Italics)

Abbe Lancellotti, quoted, 27-28.

_Abuses of Injunctions, The_, 196 n.

_A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy_, 93, 202, 206,
212, 245 n.

Adams, Mr. Brooks, 156.

Adler, G., 64 n.

AFRICA:
American investments in, 118;
cannibalism in, 78;
Moors in, 95;
slavery in, 26.

Agriculture, concentration in, 121, 131-137.

Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of sovereigns at, 49.

_A Lecture on Human Happiness_, 206.

_A Letter to Lord John Russell_, 206.

"Alfred" (Samuel Kydd), quoted, 23.

Alliance de la Democratie Socialiste, the, 69 n.

Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, the, 195.

Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, the, 197.

AMERICA:
class divisions and struggles in, 163-169, 176-178, 182-184, 192-197;
concentration of wealth in, 124-150;
discovery of, 94-97;
first cotton from, used in England, 30-31;
foreign capital invested in, 118;
Socialism in, 4, 167.
_See also_ UNITED STATES.

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 146.

_American Farmer, The_, 136 n., 168 n., 306 n.

_American Federationist, The_, 13 n.

American Federation of Labor, 183.

American Railway Union, the, 194.

American Revolution, the, 79.

_A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency_,
245.

ANARCHISM:
Socialism and, 2;
weak where Socialism is strong, 181.

Anaximander, 232.

_Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress_, 97 n.,
102 n.

_An Inquiry concerning Political Justice_, 204.

_An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth_, 204.

Anstey, Mr., satire on Socialist regime, 281.

Anthracite coal strike, 1903, 174.

_Arena, The_, 196 n.

_A Report on Labor Disturbances in the State of Colorado_, etc., 174 n.

Argyles, relation of Mrs. Marx to the, 66.

Aristotle, 81.

Arkwright, English inventor, 19.

ASIA:
American capital invested in, 118;
savages in Central, 95;
supposed origin of feudalism in, 106.

Atheism, Marx and, 69, 70 n.

Athens, 104.

_A Treatise on Taxes and Constitutions_, 244 n.

_Aus dem literarischen Nachlass von Karl Marx, Friederich Engels,
und Ferdinand Lassalle_, 64 n.

Australia, American capital invested in, 118.

_Austrian Labor Almanac, The_, 66 n.

"Austrian" school of economists, the, 257.

Aveling, Edward, 93 n., 210 n.;
Eleanor Marx, 210 n., 212.

Bachofen, 101.

Baden, concentration of wealth in, 140-142.

Bakeshops, concentration of ownership of, 124.

Bakunin, Michael, 66, 69 n., 88.

Bantu tribes of Africa, 102.

Bax, E. Belfort, 61 n., 67 n., 93 n.

Beaulieu, Leroy, 141.

Beer, M., 87 n.

Bellamy, Edward, 9.

Bernstein, Edward, 139, 203, 204 n.

Bigelow, Melville, 156 n.

Bismarck, Marx and, 92.

"Blacklisting," 173.

Blanc, Louis, 12.

Bolte, letter from Marx to, 88 n.

Bookstaver, Justice, 196.

Bootblacks, 127.

Bray, John Francis, 203, 207.

_Briefe und Auszuege aus Briefen von Joh. Phil. Becker_, etc., 120.

Brisbane, Albert, 55.

British Museum, Marx and the, 209, 210, 213.

Brook Farm, 53.

Brooks, George, 69 n.

Buffalo _Express_ strike, 196.

Cabet, Etienne, 54, 57-60, 231.

California, cost of growing wheat in, 131.

Call, Henry Laurens, 146.

Campanella, 9.

Cannibalism, 78, 102, 103.

_Capital_:
dedication of, 208;
English character of, 213-214;
Liebknecht on, 209;
quoted, 28, 29, 87, 93 n., 115, 206, 228 n., 239, 274, 275;
relation of to Socialism, 119.

CAPITAL:
nature of, 236;
Socialists advocate abolition of, 237.

_Capitalist and Laborer_ (Spargo), 259 n., 284 n.

Capitalist income, the source of, 266 _et seq._

Carlyle, Thomas, quoted, 217, 302.

Cartwright, English inventor, 20.

Casalis, African missionary, quoted, 77.

_Case for the Factory Acts, The_, 310.

_Centralization and the Law: Scientific Legal Education_, 156 n.

_Chansons Revolutionaire_, 325.

_Charles Darwin and Karl Marx, A Comparison_, 93 n.

Chartism and Chartists, 53, 67, 203.

Chase, Salmon P., 45.

Chicago, trial of E. V. Debs at, 194.

Child Labor, 21-26, 31, 39.

Children, feeding of school, 321.

China, Socialism in, 71.

CHRISTIANITY:
embraced by Heinrich Marx, 63-65;
Marx and, 68-70;
Roman Empire and, 89;
Robert Owen and, 51.

_Christianity and the Social Crisis_, 86 n.

Cigar stores, concentration of ownership of, 124.

Civil War, the, 85.

_Claims of Labour and Capital Conciliated, The_, 204.

_Clansmen, The_, 158.

_Clarion, The_, 7 n.

Class consciousness, 151, 165;
President Roosevelt on, 151, 180;
Robert Owen and, 48-49;
Weitling and, 56.

CLASS DIVISIONS:
of capitalism, 157 _et seq._;
of feudalism, 156;
of slavery, 155;
of the United States, 163 _et seq._;
ultimate end of, by Socialism, 200.

Class environment, influence of, on beliefs, etc., 171-175.

Class struggle theory, the, 155 _et seq._

Cleveland, President, 194.

Clodd, Edward, quoted, 76, 82 n.

_Coal Mine Workers, The_, 160 n.

Coeur d'Alene, 183, 192.

Coleridge, Robert Owen and, 31.

_Collectivism_, 306 n.

Cologne assizes, Marx tried at, 208.

Colorado, labor troubles in, 174, 192.

Columbus and the discovery of America, 94-97.

_Coming Slavery, The_, 6, 282.

Commercial crisis in England, 1815, 39-41.

COMMODITY:
definition of a, 236, 239-241;
labor power as a, 263 _et seq._;
money as a, 255-256;
sunshine called a, 241 n.;
value of a, determined by labor, 243-254.

_Common Sense of Socialism, The_, (Spargo), 168.

Communism, political, 13, 14, 15, 54, 55;
primitive, 97, 101-102.

Communist League, the, 60, 61.

_Communist Manifesto, The_:
birth-cry of modern Socialism, 53;
joint authorship of, 62, 73-74;
publication of, 62;
quoted, 71, 72, 73, 153-154;
summary of, by Engels, 72;
taxation of land values advocated in, 268 n.

Compensation, Socialism and, _see_ CONFISCATION.

Competition, 98-101, 114, 115, 148, 149.

_Comrade, The_, 10 n., 68 n.

Concentration of capital and wealth, the, 115 _et seq._

_Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, The_, 67, 74.

Confiscation of property, Socialism and, 331, 333-337.

Constitution, the, and Socialism, 329-330.

Consumer, exploitation of the, 189.

Cooke-Taylor, R. W., 23 n., 24.

Cooeperation, among animals, 98, 99;
Owen and, 45;
under Socialism, 299, 300, 305.

_Corn-Law Rhymes, The_, 1.

Cossa, Luigi, quoted, 215.

Cotton manufacture in England, 29 _et seq._;
Engels and, 67.

Credit functions in Socialist regime, 300-302.

Crimean War, the, 36-38, 232.

Cripple Creek, 174 n., 183.

_Criticism of the Gotha Programme_, 205, 224.

Crompton, English inventor, 19.

Cromwellian Commonwealth, the, 114.

Dale, David, 24.

Dante, Marx and, 68.

DARWIN, CHARLES:
appreciation of his work by Marx, 93;
compared to Marx, 73, 93;
letter from, to Marx, 93;
on the struggle for existence, 98;
quoted, 98.

_Das Erfurter Program_, 279 n., 305 n., 315 n.

_Das junge Deutschland in der Schweiz_, 70 n.

Davenay, M., letter from Herbert Spencer to, 6.

Debs, E. V., 193, 194.

DEMOCRACY:
application of principles of, to industry in Socialist regime, 287,
302-305;
only approximately attainable, 288-289;
Socialism and, 287-290, 302-305, 329-330.

_Descent of Man, The_, 98.

Deville, Gabriel, quoted, 237.

Diary of Mrs. Marx quoted, 211-212.

_Die Agrarfrage_, 168 n., 297 n., 306 n.

_Die Bauernfrage in Frankreich und Deutschland_, 306.

_Die Grundlagen der Karl Marx'schen Kritik der bestehenden
Volkswirthschaft_, 64.

_Die Neue Zeit_, 64 n.

_Die Voraussetzungen des Socializmus_, 139.

Directive ability, 228 n., 273-275.

Direct legislation, 289, 329-330.

_Directory of Directors, The_, 117.

_Disclosures about the Communists' Process_, 61.

Drinkwater, partner of Robert Owen, 29-31.

_Eastern Question, The_, 210 n., 212 n.

_Economic Foundations of Society, The_, 87 n.

_Economic Interpretation of History, The_ (Rogers), 94 n., 95 n.

_Economic Interpretation of History, The_ (Seligman), 81 n., 82 n.,
83 n., 85 n., 91 n.

_Economic Journal, The_, 198 n.

_Economics of Socialism, The_, 38 n., 257 n.

_Economic Writings of Sir William Petty, The_, 215 n.

Edison, 227.

_Effects of Civilization on the People of the European States, The_,
203.

_Eighteenth Brumaire, The_, 90.

_Elements of Political Economy_ (Nicholson), 241 n.

Elliott, Ebenezer, quoted, 1.

Ely, Professor R. T., 46, 115, 132, 140;
quoted, 79, 138, 148.

Emerson, R. W., on Robert Owen, 50-52.

ENGELS, FRIEDERICH:
birth and early training, 66-67;
collaboration with Marx in authorship of _Manifesto_, 62;
first meeting with Marx, 67;
friendship with O'Connor and Owen, 67;
his _Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844_, 67;
joins International Alliance with Marx, 61;
life in England, 67;
linguistic abilities, 67;
journalistic work, 67;
poem on, 74;
quoted, 17, 54, 73-74, 91, 105, 120, 153-154, 186, 306 n., 334-335;
share in authorship of _Manifesto_, 73;
views upon confiscation of capitalist property, 335.

England, industrial revolution in, 19 _et seq._;
Social Democratic Federation of, 283-284;
trade unions in, 45, 197-199.

Ensor, R. C. K., 283, 306 n.

Equality, Socialists and, 2, 312, 316.

Eskimos, the, 102.

_Essai sur la repartition des richesses et sur la tendance a une moindre
inegalite des conditions_, 141 n.

_Essay on Robert Owen_, 50 n.

_Essays on the Formation of Human Character_, 34.

_Ethics and the Materialistic Conception of History_, 171 n.

Europe, growth of Socialism in, 4.

Everet's wool-dressing machine, 27.

_Fabian Tracts, The_, 124 n., 144 n.

_Factory System and the Factory Acts, The_, 24.

Family, _see_ Marriage.

Farmers, class interests of, 164, 166-169.

Farms, mortgages and ownership of, 133-134;
number of, in United States, 133;
permanence of small, 134;
under Socialism, 128 n.

Ferdinand and Isabella, 95.

_Ferdinand Lassalle as a Social Reformer_, 204 n.

Ferri, Enrico, 78, 93 n.

Feudalism, duration of, 107;
nature of, 108-110;
origin of, 106-107;
theory of, 108.

Feuerbach, Ludwig, 89.

_Feuerbach, the Roots of the Socialist Philosophy_, 86 n., 89 n.

_Figaro, The_, 6.

"Final Utility" theory of value, the, 257.

Fourier, Charles, 32, 46, 48, 50, 54, 231.

Foxwell, Professor, 206, 207 n.;
quoted, 206.

France, concentration of wealth in, 141.

Franklin, Benjamin, 244, 245, 307;
estimate of, by Marx, 245 n.;
his views upon value, 245;
quoted, 245.

Freeman, Justice, 195.

"Free Soil" movement, the, 57.

Freiligrath, F., 208.

_French and German Socialism_, 46 n.

Garrison, W. Lloyd, 85.

Garwood, John, poem by, quoted, 35.

Gentz, M., 49.

George, Henry, 268 n.

German Socialists in America, F. Engels on, 120.

GERMANY:
Anarchism weak in, 181;
ribbon loom invented in, 27;
Socialism in, 167;
use of loom in, forbidden, 28.

_Geschichte der deutschen Sozialdemokratie_, 64 n.

Ghent, W. J., 32, 83, 124, 171 n., 178;
quoted, 175.

Gibbins, H. de B., quoted, 21, 22, 26.

Giddings, Professor F. H., quoted, 310.

Giffen, Sir Robert, 143.

Gildersleeve, Justice, 196.

Glasgow, conference of manufacturers in, 39.

_God's England or the Devil's?_ 69 n.

Godwin, William, 203, 204.

Gompers, Samuel, quoted, 13 n.

Gossen, 257 n.

Gotha Programme of German Socialist Party, 205, 224, 229.

Gray, John, 203, 206.

Green, J. Richard, 79.

_Growth of Monopoly in English Industry, The_, 124 n.

_Guaranties of Harmony and Freedom, The_, 55.

_Guide to the Study of Political Economy_, 215.

Hall, Charles, 203.

Hall, Professor Thomas C., 89 n.

Hamburg, loom publicly burned in, 28.

Hanna, Marcus A., 183.

Hargreaves, English inventor, 19.

Harrington, 82.

Hazelton and Homestead, 183.

Heath, Frederic, 55 n.

Hebrews, religious conceptions of the, 86.

Heine, Heinrich, 66.

_Herr Vogt_, 61.

Hillquit, Morris, 46 n., 228 n.;
quoted, 55-57.

_History and Criticism of the Labor Theory of Value_, 205 n.

_History of Socialism_, 46 n.

_History of Socialism in the United States_, 46 n., 55 n.

_History of the Factory System_, 23.

Hobbes, 261.

Hodgskin, Thomas, 203, 207.

Hull, Henry, 215 n.

Huxley, Professor, 77, 98.

Hyndman, H. M., 38 n., 257 n.

Ibsen, 15.

Icaria, 59.

Idaho, class struggle in, 183, 192.

Immigration, 127 n.

Individualism, Socialism and, 280.

_Industrial History of England, The_, 21 n., 22 n., 26 n.

Industrial revolution in England, the, 19 _et seq._

Ingalls, Senator John J., 148.

Initiative and Referendum, the, 289, 329-330.

Injunctions in labor disputes, 193 _et seq._

International Alliance, the, 61.

International Cigarmakers' Union, 195.

_International Socialist Review, The_, 11, 88 n., 224 n.

International Typographical Union, 196.

Iron Law of Wages, the, 262-265.

Isaiah, quoted, 9.

Jaures, Jean, 306 n., 327 n., 328 n.

_Jesus Christ and the Social Question_, 69 n.

Jevons, Professor W. S., 257 n.

Jones, Lloyd, biographer of Owen, 19.

Jones, Owen's first partner, 29.

_Justice_ (London), 61 n., 67 n.

_Karl Marx: Biographical Memoirs_, 17 n., 64 n., 66 n., 93 n., 209 n.,
212 n.

_Karl Marx's Nationaloekonomische Irrlehren_, 92 n.

Karl Marx on Sectarianism and Dogmatism, 88 n.

Kautsky, Karl, 66 n., 171 n., 297 n., 305 n., 306 n., 324 n.;
quoted, 128, 168.

Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 96.

Kirkup, Thomas, 46 n.

Kropotkin, Peter, 99, 100, 285, 286 n.

Kydd, Samuel ("Alfred"), 23 n.

Labor, defined by Mallock, 228-229;
by Marx, 228.

_Labor Defended against the Claims of Capital_, 206.

_Labor History of the Cripple Creek District_, 174 n.

Labor Notes, 314.

Labor-power, a commodity, 263 _et seq._;
determines value, 243-254.

_Labour and Capital; a Letter to a Labour Friend_, 284 n.

_Labour's Wrongs and Labour's Remedy_, 207.

_La Conquete du pain_, 286 n.

Lafargue, Paul, 128 n., 297 n.

Lamarck, 72.

_La Misere de la Philosophie_, 201, 203 n.

Land, ownership of, under Socialism, 297;
under tribal communism, 72, 97.

_La Philosophie de la Misere_, 201.

Lassalle, Ferdinand, 64 n., 204 n., 225, 262-263, 264, 265.

Lauderdale, Lord, 49, 257.

_Lectures on the Nature and Use of Money_, 206.

Lee, Algernon, quoted, 172, 275.

Leibnitz, 64, 77;
quoted, 76.

Leslie, John ("J. L."), quoted, 74 n.

_L'Etat Socialiste_, 315.

Liebknecht, W., 64 n., 66 n., 212 n.;
quoted, 17, 93, 209, 327-328.

_Life of Francis Place_, 207 n.

_Life of Robert Owen_ (anonymous), 30 n.

Lincoln, Abraham, 43-44.

Lloyd, W. F., 257 n.

Locke, 64.

Lockwood, George Browning, 39 n., 41 n.

London, Jack, 182 n.

Lothrop, Harriet E., 224 n.

Lovejoy, 85.

Lubbock, Sir John, 101.

Luddites, the, 26, 36.

Luther, Martin, 80, 88.

Lyell, 77.

Macdonald, J. R., 225.

Machinery, introduction of, 19, 20, 26-29.

Machinists' Union sued, 198.

McMaster, 79.

Macrosty, H. W., 124.

Maine, Sir Henry, 101.

Mallock, W. H., 119, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 230, 274, 275.

Malthus, 98.

Marr, Wilhelm, 70 n.

Marriage, Socialism and, 292-293.

MARX, KARL:
birth and early life, 63-65;
_Capital_ written in London, 209;
collaborates with Engels, 62, 73;
conversion to Socialism, 68-70;
correspondent for New York _Tribune_, 210;
death, 213;
domestic felicity, 212-213;
edits _Rhenish Gazette_, 65, 67;
expelled from different countries, 209;
finds refuge in England, 209;
first meeting with F. Engels, 67;
his attacks upon Proudhon, 201-202;
his obligations to the Ricardians, 203;
his surplus value theory, 203, 205, 206, 266-270;
in German revolution of 1848, 208;
Jewish ancestry, 63-64;
marriage, 65-66;
mastery of art of definition, 217;
misrepresentation by Mallock of his views, 221-230;
opposes Bakunin, 69-70;
parents' religious beliefs, 64-65;
poverty, 210-212;
quoted, 27, 28, 29, 61, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93, 115, 191, 202, 217, 236,
239, 245 n., 263, 274, 275, 327, 334-335;
related to Argyles through marriage, 66;
scientific methods of, 231-234;
spiritual nature of, 68-70;
starts _New Rhenish Gazette_, 208;
views on confiscation of capitalist property, 334-335;
views on Social Revolution, 326-327.

_Mass and Class_, 83 n., 171 n., 175 n., 178 n.

Massey, Gerald, quoted, 52 n.

Mayo-Smith, Richmond, 142, 143.

Mazzini, G., 60.

Mehring, Franz, 64 n., 224 n.

Menger, Dr. Anton, 203, 205, 206 n., 207 n.

_Message to Congress_, 177.

Methodism, 89.

Middle Ages, the, 107.

Mill, John Stuart, 216, 217, 227, 242.

Mitchell, John, 183;
quoted, 193.

_Modern Socialism_ (Ensor), 306 n.

_Modern Socialism_ (Spargo), 259 n.

Money, as a commodity, 255-256;
various articles used as, 255.

Money, Chiozza, M.P., 144.

Monopoly, 115, 116, 149, 258, 259.

More, Sir Thomas, 9, 58, 59.

Morgan, J. P., 179.

Morgan, Lewis H., 97, 101, 102 n.

Morris, William, quoted, 2, 20.

_Mutual Aid a Factor of Evolution_, 99 n., 100 n.

Napoleon, 114, 250.

National Association of Manufacturers, the, 183.

National Civic Federation, the, 183, 222 n.

_Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted, The_, 206-207.

"New Christianity" of Saint-Simon, the, 68.

New Harmony, 43, 44, 45, 51.

_New Harmony Communities, The_, 39 n., 41 n.

New Lanark, 31-34, 41, 50.

_New Moral World, The_, 11.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 152.

Newton, Wales, 45.

New York _Sun_, the, 196.

Nicholson, Professor J. S., 241 n.

_Northern Star, The_, 67.

Norway, 2.

_Notes on Feuerbach_, 86 n.

_Oceana_, 82.

_Organized Labor_, 183 n.

_Origin of Species, The_, 72.

_Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, The_, 105.

_Our Benevolent Feudalism_, 124.

OWEN, ROBERT:
advises Cabet, 60;
as cotton manufacturer, 29-34;
at Aix-la-Chapelle, 49;
Autobiography of, 24 n.;
becomes Socialist, 41;
begins agitation for factory legislation, 31;
biography of, 19;
dying words of, 50;
Emerson's view of, 50-52;
Engels' estimate of, 17;
establishes infant schools, 32;
first to use word "Socialism," 11;
founder of cooeperative movement, 45;
his failure, 45;
improves spinning machinery, 30;
Liebknecht on, 17;
Lincoln and, 43-44;
New Harmony, 43-45;
New Lanark, 31-34;
presides over first Trade Union Congress, 45;
proposes establishment of communistic villages, 41;
quoted, 24, 25, 34, 35, 37-38, 39-41;
scepticism of, 18;
speech to manufacturers, 39-41;
views on crisis of 1815, 37;
views of Fourier's ideas, 50.

Owen, Robert Dale, letter of, to Lincoln, 44.

Owenism, synonymous with Socialism, 11.

Peabody, Professor, 69 n.

Peel, Sir Robert, 31.

Petty, Sir William, 214, 215, 242, 244;
quoted, 215, 216, 243-244.

_Pioneers of Evolution from Thales to Huxley_, 76 n., 82 n.

Place, Francis, 207.

Plato, 9.

Podmore, Frank, 19 n.

_Political Economy_ (Senior), 214 n.

_Poverty of Philosophy, The_, 201 n.

_Present Distribution of Wealth in the United States, The_, 144 n.

Price, an approximation of value, 254 _et seq._

Prices and Wages, 189.

_Principles of Economics_ (Seligman), 259 n.

_Principles of Political Economy and Taxation_, 246 n., 249 n., 262 n.

_Principles of Sociology, The_, 286 n., 313-314 n.

Private property, origin of, 97, 102-103;
transformation to social, 331-337;
under the Socialist regime, 128, 296-300, 316-317.

Protestant Reformation, the, 80, 114.

Proudhon, P. J., 66, 201, 202.

Pullman Strike, the, 193-194.

_Quarterly Journal of Economics, The_, 15.

Quelch, II., 201 n.

Rappites, the, 45.

Rastall, Benjamin McKie, 174 n.

Rauschenbusch, Professor, 86.

Referendum, the, 289, 329-330.

_Reformateurs Modernes_, 11.

_Remarks and Facts relative to the American Paper Currency_, 245 n.

_Reminiscences of Karl Marx_, 68 n.

Rent of Ability, the, 273-275.

_Report of the Royal Commission on Labour_, 70 n.

_Republic, The_, 12.

Republican Party, the, 2, 312 n.

Revisionism, 132.

_Revolution and Counter-Revolution_, 210, 212 n.

_Revolution in Mind and Practice, The_, 49 n.

Revolution of 1848, 208.

_Revue Politique et Parliamentaire_, 128, 297 n.

Reybaud, L., 11.

Ricardians, the, 202-208, 229, 242.

Ricardo, David, 205, 214, 215, 216, 217, 227, 242, 245, 246, 247, 248,
250;
quoted, 245-246, 262.

_Riches and Poverty_, 144.

_Right to the Whole Produce of Labour, The_, 205 n., 206 n., 207 n.

Riley, W. Harrison, 68 n.

Rockefeller, John D., 179.

Rogers, Thorold, 83, 84, 94 n., 95 n.

Roosevelt, President, 151, 180, 312 n.;
quoted, 177.

Ruge, Arnold, 66.

Russell, Lord John, 206.

Sadler, Michael, 26 n.

Saint-Simon, 7, 9, 12, 46, 48, 231, 232.

Salt, H. S., 26 n.

San Francisco, disaster in, 158-159.

Sanial, Lucien, 129, 145.

Saxony, concentration of wealth in, 143.

Scarcity values, 249-250.

Schiller, quoted, 85.

Seabury, Judge, 196 n.

Seligman, Professor E. R. A., 81 n., 82, 83, 84, 85 n., 91, 259.

Senior, Nassau, 214.

_Shall the Unions go into Politics?_ 184 n.

Simons, A. M., 136, 168 n., 306 n.

Slonimski, Ludwig, 92 n.

Smith, Adam, 160, 206, 214, 215, 227, 242, 247;
quoted, 161-162, 244.

Smith, Professor J. Allen, 289 n.

Smith, Professor Goldwin, 284.

_Social Democracy Red Book_, 55 n.

_Social Meaning of Modern Religious Movements in England, The_, 89 n.

SOCIALISM:
and assassination, 1, 3;
cooeperation under, 299, 300, 305;
credit functions under, 300-302;
definition of the word, 9;
democracy essential to, 287-289;
education under, 318-320;
first use of the word, 10-11;
freedom in religious, scientific, and philosophical matters under,
291-292;
freedom of the individual under, 284-287;
in Europe, 4;
in Germany, 4, 167, 181;
in United States, 4, 167;
inheritance of wealth under, 316-317;
justice under, 318;
labor and its reward under, 311-316;
monopolies and, 115, 128, 148-150, 332-333;
not opposed to individualism, 280 _et seq._;
private property and industry under, 295-300, 335;
realization of, 323 _et seq._;
relation of the sexes under, 293;
religion and, 291-292, 319;
religious training of children and, 319-320;
scientific character of, 231-234;
Utopian and scientific compared, 42;
wages under, 313-315;
wealth under, 316-317, 335;
women's suffrage and, 288, 329.

_Socialism_ (Macdonald), 225 n.

_Socialism_ (Mallock), 221 n.

_Socialism and Social Democracy_, 10 n.

_Socialism Inevitable_, 130, 131.

_Socialism Utopian and Scientific_, 35 n., 47 n., 48.

Socialist Party organizations among farmers, 167.

Social Revolution, the, 324-328.

_Social Revolution, The_, 128 n., 306 n., 315 n., 334 n.

Sombart, Professor Werner, 132.

_Some Neglected British Economists_, 257 n.

_Songs of Freedom_, 26 n.

Sorge, F. A., 120.

Spahr, Charles B., 144.

Spargo, John, 10, 168.

Spencer, Herbert, 6, 8, 282, 313-314 n.;
quoted, 7, 286.

_Spirit of American Government, The_, 289 n.

Standard Oil group, the, 117.

_Statistics and Economics_, 142-143.

Stone, N. I., 245 n.

_Studies in Socialism_, 306 n., 327 n., 328 n.

_Studies in the Evolution of Industrial Society_, 79 n., 115 n., 138 n.,
140 n., 148.

_Sun_, New York, the, 196.

SURPLUS VALUE:
early uses of the term, 205, 206;
the theory developed by Marx, 206, 266;
the theory explained, 266-270;
various theories of, 271-275.

Symonds, J. Addington, 322 n.

"Taff Vale law," 197-199.

Taxation as a means of achieving Socialism, 336-337.

Taxation of land values, 268 n.

Tendencies to socialization within existing state, 279, 330-331.

Texas, Cabet advised to experiment in, 60.

_The People's Marx_, 237 n.

_The Social System, a Treatise on the Principles of Exchange_, 206.

Thompson, William, 203, 204, 205.

Tolstoy, 15, 222.

TRUSTS, _see_ CONCENTRATION OF CAPITAL _and_ MONOPOLY.

Unionism, principles of labor, 184 _et seq._

United Mine Workers' Union, the, 159-160.

UNITED STATES:
classes in, 164-169, 176-179;
concentration of wealth and capital in, 124-150;
farms and farm mortgages in, 133-134;
millionaires in, 146-148;
Socialism in, 4, 167;
strikes in, 182.

United States Steel Corporation, 138.

VALUE:
and price, 254-259;
early labor theory of, 242-252;
Marxian theory of, 250-254;
other theories of, 259.

_Value, Price, and Profit_, 263 n.

Vandervelde, Emile, 306 n., 315 n., 334 n., 335 n.

Vasco de Gama, 96.

Veblen, Professor Thorstein, quoted, 15.

_Volkstribun_, the, 57.

Wallace, Alfred Russell, 77, 81.

Wallas, G., 207.

_War of the Classes, The_, 182 n.

Warne, Frank Julian, 160 n.

Watt, James, 20, 227.

Wealth, defined, 217-221;
inheritance of, under Socialism, 316-317, 335.

_Wealth of Nations, The_, 160, 162 n., 206 n., 213, 244 n., 249 n.

Webb, Mrs. Sidney, 310.

Weitling, Wilhelm, 14, 54, 55, 56, 57.

Whitaker, Dr. A. C., 205 n.

Wilshire, Gaylord, 130 n., 131 n.

Wolf, Wilhelm, 208.

_Worker, The_, 172, 275.

_World as it is, and as it might be, The_, 55.

Wright, Carroll D., 174 n.

_Writings and Speeches of John J. Ingalls_, 148 n.

Youmans, Professor, 77.

Zola, Emile, 15.

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Socialism: A Summary and Interpretation of Socialist PrinciplesChapter X: The Means of Realization197

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