Chapter XXI: Part 21

There is a particular class of antique gold ornaments, belonging to the Bronze Period, which is deserving of especial attention, from the circumstance that the British Isles is the only locality in which it has yet been discovered. These ornaments consist of a solid cylindrical gold bar, beat into a semicircle or segmental arc, most frequently tapering from the centre, and terminated at both ends with hollow cups, resembling the mouth of a trumpet, or the expanded calix of a flower. A remarkable example of these curious native relics is engraved in the "Archaeological Journal." The cups are formed merely by hollows in the slightly dilated ends; but it is further interesting from being decorated with the style of incised ornaments of most frequent occurrence on the primitive British pottery. It was dug up at Brahalish, near Bantry, county Cork, and weighs 3 oz. 5 dwts. 6 grs. In contrast to this, another is engraved in the same journal, found near the entrance lodge at Swinton Park, Yorkshire, scarcely two feet below the surface. In this beautiful specimen the terminal cups are so unusually large, that the solid bar of gold dwindles into a mere connecting-link between them. The annexed figure of a very fine example found by a labourer while cutting peats in the parish of Cromdale, Inverness-shire, somewhat resembles that of Swinton Park in the size of its cups. It is from a drawing by the late Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, and represents it about one-half the size of the original. Similar relics of more ordinary proportions have been brought to light, at different times, in various Scottish districts.

EXTRAORDINARY CRICKET MATCHES.

Every day in summer wagers are made at Lord's cricket ground, upon matches there to be played; but there have been more extraordinary matches elsewhere relative to this exercising game; for a cricket match was played on Blackheath, in the year 1766, between eleven Greenwich pensioners who had lost each an arm, and eleven others who had lost each a leg. The former won with ease. And again, on the 9th of August, 1796, a cricket match was played by eleven Greenwich pensioners with one leg, against eleven with one arm, for one thousand guineas, at the new cricket ground, Montpelier gardens, Walworth. At nine o'clock the men arrived in three Greenwich stages; about twelve the wickets were pitched, and they commenced. Those with but one leg had the first innings, and got 93 runs; those with but one arm got but 42 runs during their innings. The one-leg commenced their second innings, and six were bowled out after they had got 60 runs; so that they left off one hundred and eleven more than those with one arm. Next morning the match was played out; and the men with one leg beat the one-arms by one hundred and three runs. After the match was finished the eleven one-legged men ran a sweep-stakes of one hundred yards distance for twenty guineas, and the three first had prizes.

MUMMY CASES.

Mummy Cases.]

The annexed engraving represents a set of Egyptian mummy cases, several of which were used for the interment of one body, the smaller one being enclosed within the larger. On the death of a king in Egypt, "three score and ten days" was the period that intervened from his departure to the termination of the embalming operations; the earlier and more important of which, exclusive of the soaking in natron, occupied forty days. The coffin, or wooden case, in which the embalmed body of Joseph was preserved, till at the exodus it was carried from Egypt, was, doubtless, of such a form and appearance as those with which we are familiar at our museums. An account of some specimens of these, and of the internal shells which were considered requisite for persons of rank, will be read with interest.

Before the better kind of mummies were put into their wooden cases, they were placed in a shell in the following manner:--Nine thick layers of hempen or linen cloth were well gummed together, so as to make a strong flexible kind of board, something like a piece of papier mache. This was formed into the shape of the swathed mummy, which was inserted in it by means of a longitudinal aperture on the under side, reaching from the feet to the head. The two sides of this long aperture were then drawn together by a coarse kind of stitching, done with a large needle and thin hempen cord. The inside of this hempen case was covered with a thin coating of plaster, and the outside was also covered with a similar sort of plaster, on which were painted rude figures of beetles, ibides, &c., &c., apparently with ochrous earths tempered with water; they could be easily rubbed off with the finger, except where they were fixed by an outer coating of gum. On the upper part of this case a human face was represented, and for the purpose of giving additional strength and firmness to that part of the hempen covering, a considerable quantity of earth and plaster was stuck on the inside, so that it would be more easy to mould the material on the outside, while still flexible, into a resemblance of the human form. The face was covered with a strong varnish, to keep the colour fixed. The outer case was generally made of the Egyptian fig-sycamore wood, and the parts of it were fastened together with wooden pegs. This wood was used by the Egyptians for a variety of purposes, as we find even common domestic utensils made of it. The pegs of the sycamore cases were not always of the sycamore wood, which, when cut thin, would hardly be so suitable as some more closely-grained wood; the pegs, therefore, of the inner cases were of a different wood, generally of cedar. Bodies embalmed in the highest style of fashion, had, in addition to the inner coffin which we have described, an outer wooden box, such as Herodotus mentions, with a human face, male or female, painted on it. Some of these cases were plain, and others highly ornamented with figures of sacred animals, or with paintings representing mythological subjects.

The wooden case which contained the body was sometimes cut out of one piece of wood, and the inside was made smooth, and fit for the reception of the painted figures, by laying on it a thin coat of fine plaster. This plaster was also used as a lining for the wooden cases which were not made of a single piece. There was often a second wooden case, still more highly ornamented and covered with paintings secured by a strong varnish. These paintings were intended to embody the ideas of the Egyptians as to the state of death, the judgment or trial which preceded the admission into the regions below, and other matters connected with the ritual of the dead and the process of embalming.

The upper part of each of the wooden cases was made to represent a human figure, and the sex was clearly denoted by the character of the head-dress, and the presence or absence of the beard. Both the head-dress and the ornaments about the neck, as far as the bosom, were exactly of the same character as those which we see on the sculptures and paintings. The brief remark of Herodotus, that the friends put the swathed mummy "into a wooden figure made to resemble the human form," is amply borne out.

INSTINCT OF ANIMALS.

Gall and various observers of animals have fully ascertained that the attention of dogs is awakened by our conversation. He brought one of these intelligent creatures with him from Vienna to Paris, which perfectly understood French and German, of which he satisfied himself by repeating before it whole sentences in both languages. A recent anecdote has been related of an old ship-dog, that leaped overboard and swam to shore on hearing the captain exclaim, "Poor old Neptune! I fear we shall have to drown him!" and such was the horror which that threat inspired, that he never afterwards would approach the captain or any of the ship's company, to whom he had previously been fondly attached. It must, however, be observed that in the brute creation, as in ours (sometimes more brutal species), peculiar attributes, that do not belong to the race, distinguish individuals gifted with what in man we might call a superior intellect, but which in these animals shows a superiority of what we term instinct. Spurzheim relates an instance of a cow belonging to Mr. Dupont de Nemours, which, amongst the whole kindred herd, was the only one that could open the gate leading to their pastures; and her anxious comrades, when arriving at the wished-for spot, invariably lowed for their conductor. It is also related of a hound, who, unable to obtain a seat near the fire without the risk of quarrelling with the dozing occupants that crowded the hearth, was wont to run out into the court-yard barking an alarm that brought away his rivals in comfort, when he quietly re-entered the parlour, and selected an eligible stretching-place. This animal displayed as much ingenuity as the traveller who, according to the well-known story, ordered oysters for his horse for the purpose of clearing the fireside.

BELL OF ST. MURA.

Bell of St. Mura.]

This curious relic, engraved over leaf, two-thirds the size of the original, is remarkable as a work of art, as well as a genuine relic of the most venerable antiquity; it was formerly regarded with superstitious reverence in Ireland, and any liquid drunk from it was believed to have peculiar properties in alleviating human suffering; hence, the peasant women of the district in which it was long preserved, particularly used it in cases of child-birth, and a serious disturbance was excited on a former attempt to sell it by its owner. Its legendary history relates that it descended from the sky ringing loudly; but as it approached the concourse of people who had assembled at the miraculous warning, the tongue detached itself and returned towards the skies; hence it was concluded that the bell was never to be profaned by sounding on earth, but was to be kept for purposes more holy and beneficent. This is said to have happened on the spot where once stood the famous Abbey of Fahan, near Innishowen (County Donegal), founded in the seventh century by St. Mura, or Muranus, during the reign of Abodh Slaine. For centuries this abbey was noted as the depository of various valuable objects, which were held in especial veneration by the people. Amongst these were several curious manuscripts written by St. Mura, his crozier, and this bell; which ultimately came into the possession of a poor peasant residing at Innishowen, who parted with it to Mr. Brown, of Beaumaris, at whose sale in 1855 it was purchased by Lord Londesborough. The material of the bell is bronze, and its form quadrangular, resembling other ancient Irish bells, and leading to the conclusion that it is the genuine work of the seventh century. The extreme feeling of veneration shown towards it in various ages is proved by the ornament with which it is encased. By the accidental removal of one portion of the outer casing, a series of earlier enrichments were discovered beneath, which were most probably placed there in the ninth century. The portion disclosed (the lower right hand corner) consists of a tracery of Runic knots wrought in brass, and firmly attached to the bell by a thin plate of gold;--whether the remainder of these early decorations, now concealed, be similar, cannot be determined without removing the outer plates. These exterior ornaments consist of a series of detached silver plates of various sizes diversely embossed in the style known to have prevailed in the eleventh century. The centre is adorned with a large crystal, and smaller gems have once been set in other vacant sockets around it, only one of amber remaining. The two large spaces in front of the arched top were also most probably filled with precious stones, as the gold setting still remains entire. The best workmanship has been devoted to these decorations; the hook for suspending the bell is of brass, and has been covered with early bronze ornament which has been filled in with niello, the intervening space being occupied by silver plates ornamented like the rest of the later decorations which cover its surface. From the absence of any traces of rivets on the back or sides of the bell, the decoration it has received may have been restricted to the casing of the handle and the enrichment of the front of this venerated relic.

CURIOUSLY-SHAPED DRINKING CUP.

Drinking cups of a fantastic shape were very much in vogue in the sixteenth century. Sometimes they assumed the shape of birds, sometimes of animals. In general it is the head that takes off, and serves as a lid or cover; but sometimes the orifice is in another part of the body, as, for example, on the back. The specimen now before us is from Lord Londesborough's collection.

Drinking Cup in the Shape of a Stag.]

The stag is of silver, gilt all over; the collar set with a garnet. Silver bands encircle this curious figure, to which are appended many small silver escutcheons engraved with the arms and names of distinguished officers of the Court of Saxe Gotha, the latest being "Her Von Maagenheim, Camer Juncker und Regierung Assessor in Gotha, d. 15 Augusti, A{o} 1722." It has probably been a prize for shooting, successively won by those persons whose arms decorate it.

BANQUETS TO QUEEN ELIZABETH.

Few English sovereigns were so well acquainted with their dominions as was Queen Elizabeth: she may be said to have visited every corner of her empire, and in these royal journeys or "progresses," as they are called, her loyal subjects strove to outvie each other in the splendour of their receptions. Nothing could surpass the magnificence of the entertainments thus planned for the queen's gratification, either as respects the splendour of show, or the costliness of the more substantial banquet. These occasions are too numerous to mention; and we can only notice one of the queen's visits to the palace at Greenwich, as described by a German, who travelled in England in 1598. It was Sunday, and after attending service in the chapel, the queen prepared for dinner. A gentleman entered the room bearing a rod, and with him another bearing a table-cloth, which, after they had both kneeled three times, he spread upon the table, and after kneeling again, they both retired: then came two others, one with the rod again, the other with a salt-cellar, a plate, and bread, which, after kneeling, they also placed on the table: then came an unmarried and a married lady, bearing a tasting-knife, and having stooped three times gracefully, they rubbed the table with bread and salt. Then came the yeomen of the guard, bringing in, at each time, a course of dishes, served in plate, most of it gilt; these dishes were received by a gentleman, and placed upon the table, while the lady-taster gave to each guard a mouthful to eat of the particular dish he had brought, for fear of any poison. During the time that this guard (which consisted of the tallest and stoutest men that could be found in all England, being carefully selected for this service) were bringing dinner, twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums made the hall ring for half an hour together. After this a number of unmarried ladies appeared, who lifted the meat from the table, and conveyed it to the queen's inner and more private chamber, where, after she had chosen for herself, the rest was sent to the ladies of the court. The queen dined and supped alone, with very few attendants.

THE GREAT FOG OF 1783.

It prevailed over the adjoining continent, and produced much fear that the end of all things was at hand. It appeared first at Copenhagen on the 29th of May, reached Dijon on the 14th June, and was perceived in Italy on the 16th. It was noticed at Spydberg, in Norway, on the 22nd, and at Stockholm two days later; the following day it reached Moscow. On the 23rd it was felt on the St. Gothard, and at Buda. By the close of that month it entered Syria; and on the 18th of July, reached the Altai Mountains. Before its appearance at these places the condition of the atmosphere was not similar; for in this country it followed continued rains; in Denmark it succeeded fine weather of some continuance; and in other places it was preceded by high winds. The sun at noon looked rusty-red, reminding one of the lines of Milton. The heat was intense during its continuance, and the atmosphere was highly electric. Lightnings were awfully vivid and destructive. In England many deaths arose from this cause, and a great amount of property was lost. In Germany public edifices were thrown down or consumed by it; and in Hungary one of the chief northern towns was destroyed by fires, caused by the electric fluid, which struck it in nine different places. In France there were hailstones and violent winds. In Silesia there were great inundations. The dry fogs of 1782-83 were accompanied by influenza; at St. Petersburgh 40,000 persons were immediately attacked by it, after the thermometer had suddenly risen 30 degrees. Calabria and Sicily were convulsed by earthquakes; in Iceland a volcano was active, and about the same time one sprung out of the sea off Norway. The co-existence of dry fogs with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions had been previously observed--_e.g._, in the years 526, 1348, 1721; and since then, in 1822 and 1834.

A somewhat similar fog overspread London before the cholera of 1831, and the influenza of 1847. Hecker ("Epidemics of the Middle Ages") has collected notices of various phenomena of this kind, which have preceded the great continental plagues, and have often been characterised by offensive odours.

MONKEYS DEMANDING THEIR DEAD.

Mr. Forbes tells a story of a female monkey (the Semnopithecus Entellus) who was shot by a friend of his, and carried to his tent. Forty or fifty of her tribe advanced with menacing gestures, but stood still when the gentleman presented his gun at them. One, however, who appeared to be the chief of the tribe, came forward, chattering and threatening in a furious manner. Nothing short of firing at him seemed likely to drive him away; but at length he approached the tent door with every sign of grief and supplication, as if he were begging for the body. It was given to him, he took it in his arms, carried it away, with actions expressive of affection, to his companions, and with them disappeared. It was not to be wondered at that the sportsman vowed never to shoot another monkey.

BARA.

Mr. Howel, in his descriptive travels through Sicily, gives a particular account of the magnificent manner in which the festival of the Assumption of the Virgin is kept by the Sicilians under the title of Bara, which, although expressive of the machine he describes, is also, it appears, generally applied as a name of the feast itself. An immense machine of about 50 feet high is constructed, designing to represent Heaven; and in the midst is placed a young female personating the Virgin, with an image of Jesus on her right hand; round the Virgin 12 little children turn vertically, representing so many Seraphim, and below them 12 more children turn horizontally, as Cherubim; lower down in the machine a sun turns vertically, with a child at the extremity of each of the four principal radii of his circle, who ascend and descend with his rotation, yet always in an erect posture; and still lower, reaching within about 7 feet of the ground, are placed 12 boys, who turn horizontally without intermission around the principal figure, designing thereby to exhibit the 12 apostles, who were collected from all corners of the earth, to be present at the decease of the Virgin, and witness her miraculous assumption. This huge machine is drawn about the principal streets by sturdy monks; and it is regarded as a particular favour to any family to admit their children in this divine exhibition.

CRADLE OF HENRY V.

Most of our readers have probably seen, in the illustrated newspapers of the day, sketches of the magnificently artistic cradles which have been made for the children of our good Queen, or for the Prince Imperial of France. It will be not a little curious to contrast with those elaborately beautiful articles the cradle of a Prince of Wales in the fourteenth century. We here give a sketch of it.

Cradle of Henry V.]

It was made for the use of Henry Prince of Wales, afterwards King Henry V, generally called Henry of Monmouth, because he was born in the castle there in the year 1388. He was the son of Henry IV of Bolingbroke, by his first wife Mary de Bohun. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, under the superintendence of his half uncle, the great Cardinal Henry Beaufort. On the accession of his father to the throne, he was created Prince of Wales, and, at the early age of sixteen, was present at the battle of Shrewsbury, where he was badly wounded in the face. After having greatly distinguished himself in the war against Owen Glendour, he spent some years idleness and dissipation, but on his coming to the throne, by the death of his father, April 20, 1413, he threw off his former habits and associates, chose his ministers from among those of tried integrity and wisdom in his father's cause, and seemed everywhere intent on justice, on victory over himself, and on the good of his subjects. After a short but glorious reign of ten years, in which the victory of Agincourt was the principal event, he expired at the Bois de Vincennes, near Paris, on the last day of August, 1422, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. He was engaged at the time in a war with the Dauphin of France. His heart was warm as his head was cool, and his courage equal to his wisdom, which emboldened him to encounter the greatest dangers, and surmount the greatest difficulties His virtues were not inferior to his abilities, being a dutiful son, a fond parent, an affectionate brother, a steady and generous friend, and an indulgent master. In a word, Henry V., though not without his failings, merits the character of an amiable and accomplished man, and a great and good king. Such was the sovereign, for whose infant years the plain, but still not tasteless, cradle was made, which we have here engraved, as it is preserved in the castle of Monmouth, his birthplace.

THE FONT AT KILCARN.

The venerable old church at Kilcarn, near Navan, in the county of Meath, contains a font of great rarity, and we have selected it as a fitting object for our work, inasmuch as it is a striking instance of the union of the beautiful with the curious.

Font at Kilcarn.]

Placed upon its shaft, as represented in the cut, it measures in height about three feet six inches; the basin is two feet ten inches in diameter, and thirteen inches deep. The heads of the niches, twelve in number, with which its sides are carved, are enriched with foliage of a graceful but uniform character, and the miniature buttresses which separate the niches are decorated with crockets, the bases resting upon heads, grotesque animals, or human figures, carved as brackets. The figures within the niches are executed with a wonderful degree of care, the drapery being represented with each minute crease or fold well expressed. They are evidently intended to represent Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the twelve apostles. All the figures are seated. Our Saviour, crowned as a King, and holding in his hand the globe and cross, is in the act of blessing the Virgin, who also is crowned, the "Queen of Heaven." The figures of most of the apostles can easily be identified: Saint Peter by his key; Saint Andrew by his cross of peculiar shape; and so on. They are represented barefooted, and each holds a book in one hand.

THE BLOOD-SUCKING VAMPIRE.

Captain Stedman, who travelled in Guiana, from 1772 to 1777, published an account of his adventures, and for several years afterwards it was the fashion to doubt the truth of his statements. In fact, it was a general feeling, up to a much later period than the above, that travellers were not to be believed. As our knowledge, however, has increased, and the works of God have been made more manifest, the reputation of many a calumniated traveller has been restored, and, among others, that of Captain Stedman. We shall, therefore, unhesitatingly quote his account of the bite of the vampire:--"On waking, about four o'clock this morning, in my hammock, I was extremely alarmed at finding myself weltering in congealed blood, and without feeling any pain whatever. Having started up and run to the surgeon, with a firebrand in one hand, and all over besmeared with gore, the mystery was found to be, that I had been bitten by the vampire or spectre of Guiana, which is also called the flying dog of New Spain. This is no other than a bat of monstrous size, that sucks the blood from men and cattle, sometimes even till they die; knowing, by instinct, that the person they intend to attack is in a sound slumber, they generally alight near the feet, where, while the creature continues fanning with his enormous wings, which keeps one cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of the great toe, so very small indeed, that the head, of a pin could scarcely be received into the wound, which is consequently not painful; yet, through this orifice he contrives to suck the blood until he is obliged to disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues mucking and disgorging till he is scarcely able to fly, and the sufferer has often been known to sleep from time into eternity. Cattle they generally bite in the ear, but always in those places where the blood flows spontaneously. Having applied tobacco-ashes as the best remedy, and washed the gore from myself and my hammock, I observed several small heaps of congealed blood all around the place where I had lain upon the ground; upon examining which, the surgeon judged that I had lost at least twelve or fourteen ounces during the night. Having measured this creature (one of the bats), I found it to be, between the tips of the wings, thirty-two inches and a-half; the colour was a dark brown, nearly black, but lighter underneath."

LUXURY IN 1562.

The luxury of the present times does not equal, in one article at least, that of the sixteenth century. Sir Nicholas Throckmorton, the Queen's ambassador at Paris, in a letter to Sir Thomas Chaloner, the ambassador at Madrid, in June, 1562, says,

"I pray you good my Lord Ambassador sende me two paire of parfumed gloves, parfumed with orrange flowers and jacemin, th'one for my wives hand, the other for mine owne; and wherin soever I can pleasure you with any thing in this countrey, you shall have it in recompence thereof, or els so moche money as they shall coste you; provided alwaies that they be of the best choise, wherein your judgment is inferior to none."

SINGULAR PHENOMENON--PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA.

The sea has sometimes a luminous appearance, a phenomenon that has been observed by all sailors, who consider it the forerunner of windy weather. It is said to occur most frequently in the summer and autumn months, and varies so much in its character, as to induce a doubt whether it can always be attributed to the same cause. Sometimes the luminous appearance is seen over the whole surface of the water, and the vessel seems as though floating upon an ocean of light. At other times, the phosphorescence is only seen immediately around the ship. A portion of water taken from the sea does not necessarily retain its luminous appearance, but its brilliance will generally continue as long as the water is kept in a state of agitation. Some naturalists imagine the phosphorescence of the sea to arise from the diffusion of an immense number of animalculae through the medium, and others attribute it to electricity. Dr. Buchanan has given an account of a very remarkable appearance of the sea, observed by him during a voyage from Johanna to Bombay. About eight o'clock in the evening of the 31st of July, 1785, the sea had a milk-white colour, and upon it were floating a multitude of luminous bodies greatly resembling that combination of stars known as the milky way, the brightest of them representing the larger stars of a constellation. The whiteness, he says, was such as to prevent those on board from seeing either the break or swell of the sea, although, from the motion of the ship and the noise, they knew them to be violent, and the light was sufficiently intense to illuminate the ropes and rigging. This singular phenomenon continued till daylight appeared. Several buckets of water were drawn, and in them were found a great number of luminous bodies, from a quarter of an inch to an inch and a half in length, and these were seen to move about as worms in the water. There might be, he said to Dr. Buchanan, four hundred of these animals in a gallon of water. A similar appearance had been observed before in the same sea by several of the officers, and the gunner had seen it off Java Head, in a voyage to China.

MARRIAGE VOW.

The matrimonial ceremony, like many others, has undergone some variation in the progress of time. Upwards of three centuries ago, the husband, on taking his wife, as now, by the right hand, thus addressed her:--"I. N. _undersygne_ the N. for my wedded wyfe, for better, for worse, for richer, for porer, yn sickness, and in helthe, tyl dethe us departe, (not "do part," as we have erroneously rendered it, the ancient meaning of "departe," even in Wickliffe's time, being "separate") as holy churche hath ordeyned, and thereto I plygth the my trowthe." The wife replies in the same form, with an additional clause, "to be buxom to the, tyl dethe us departe." So it appears in the first edition of the "Missals for the use of the famous and celebrated Church of Hereford, 1502," fol. In what is called the "Salisbury Missal," the lady pronounced a more general obedience: "to be bonere and buxom in bedde and at the borde."

LOVE OF GARDENS.

Louis XVIII., on his restoration to France, made, in the park in Versailles, the _facsimile_ of the garden at Hartwell; and there was no more amiable trait in the life of that accomplished prince. Napoleon used to say that he should know his father's garden in Corsica blindfolded, by the smell of the earth! And the hanging-gardens of Babylon are said to have been raised by the Median Queen of Nebuchadnezzar on the flat and naked plains of her adopted country, to remind her of the hills and woods of her childhood. We need not speak of the plane-trees of Plato--Shakspeare's mulberry-tree--Pope's willow--Byron's elm? Why describe Cicero at his Tusculum--Evelyn at Wotton--Pitt at Ham Common--Walpole at Houghton--Grenville at Dropmere? Why dwell on Bacon's "little tufts of thyme," or Fox's geraniums? There is a spirit in the garden as well as in the wood, and the "lilies of the field" supply food for the imagination as well as materials for sermons.

ANCIENT DANISH SHIELD.

Ancient Danish Shield.]

In Asia, from whence the greater number, probably all, of the European nations have migrated, numerous implements and weapons of copper have been discovered in a particular class of graves; nay, in some of the old and long-abandoned mines in that country workmen's tools have been discovered, made of copper, and of very remote antiquity. We see, moreover, how at a later period attempts were made to harden copper, and to make it better suited for cutting implements by a slight intermixture, and principally of tin. Hence arose that mixed metal to which the name of "bronze" has been given. Of this metal, then, the Northmen of "the bronze period" formed their armour, and among numerous other articles, three shields have been discovered which are made wholly of bronze; and we here give a sketch of the smallest of them, which is about nineteen inches in diameter, the other two being twenty-four. These shields are formed of somewhat thin plates of bronze, the edge being turned over a thick wire metal to prevent the sword penetrating too deeply. The handle is formed of a cross-bar, placed at the reverse side of the centre boss, which is hollowed out for the purpose of admitting the hand.

SACRED GARDENS.

The origin of sacred gardens among the heathen nations may be traced up to the garden of Eden. The gardens of the Hesperides, of Adonis, of Flora, were famous among the Greeks and Romans. "The garden of Flora," says Mr. Spence (Polymetis, p. 251), "I take to have been the Paradise in the Roman mythology. The traditions and traces of Paradise among the ancients must be expected to have grown fainter and fainter in every transfusion from one people to another. The Romans probably derived their notions of it from the Greeks, among whom this idea seems to have been shadowed out under the stories of the gardens of Alcinous. In Africa they had the gardens of the Hesperides, and in the East those of Adonis, or the _Horti Adonis_, as Pliny calls them. The term _Horti Adonides_ was used by the ancients to signify gardens of pleasure, which answers to the very name of Paradise, or the garden of Eden, as _Horti Adonis_ does to the garden of the Lord."

ANCIENT CHAIR OF DAGOBERT.

Chair of Dagobert.]

The chair which we here engrave claims to be regarded as a great curiosity, on two separate grounds: it is the work of an artist who was afterwards canonized, and it was used by Napoleon I. on a most important occasion. Towards the close of the sixth century the artists of France were highly successful in goldsmith's work, and Limoges appears to have been the principal centre of this industry. It was at this time that Abbon flourished--a goldsmith and mint-master, with whom was placed the young Eloy, who rose from a simple artizan to be the most remarkable man of his century, and whose virtues were rewarded by canonization. The apprentice soon excelled his master, and his fame caused him to be summoned to the throne of Clotaire II., for whom he made two thrones of gold, enriched with precious stones, from a model made by the king himself, who had not been able to find workmen sufficiently skilful to execute it. The talents and probity of St. Eloy also gained him the affection of Dagobert I., who entrusted him with many important works, and among them, with the construction of the throne, or chair of state which is the subject of this article. It is made of bronze, carved and gilded, and is a beautiful specimen of workmanship. The occupant of the chair would sit upon a cloth of gold suspended from the two side bars. For a long time it was preserved in the sacristy of the royal church of St. Denis, at Paris; but it was subsequently removed to the Great Library, where it now is. It was upon this chair that Napoleon I., in August, 1804, distributed the crosses of the Legion of Honour to the soldiers of the army assembled at Boulogne for the invasion of England. Napoleon caused the chair to be brought from Paris for the express purpose.

ST GEORGE'S CAVERN.

Near the town of Moldavia, on the Danube, is shown the cavern where St. George slew the Dragon, from which, at certain periods, issue myriads of small flies, which tradition reports to proceed from the carcass of the dragon. They respect neither man nor beast, and are so destructive that oxen and horses have been killed by them. They are called the Golubacz's fly. It is thought when the Danube rises, as it does in the early part of the summer, the caverns are flooded, and the water remaining in them, and becoming putrid, produces this noxious fly. But this supposition appears to be worthless, because, some years ago, the natives closed up the caverns, and still they were annoyed with the flies. They nearly resemble mosquitoes. In summer they appear in such swarms as to look like a volume of smoke; and they sometimes cover a space of six or seven miles. Covered with these insects, horses not unfrequently gallop about until death puts an end to their sufferings. Shepherds anoint their hands with a decoction of wormwood, and keep large fires burning to protect themselves from them. Upon any material change in the weather the whole swarm is destroyed thereby.

ENGLISH LETTER BY VOLTAIRE.

The subjoined letter is copied literally from the autograph of Voltaire, formerly in the possession of the Rev. Mr. Sim, the editor of Mickle's Poems:--

"Sir,

"j wish you good health, a quick sale of y{r} burgundy, much latin, and greeke to one of y{r} Children, much Law, much of cooke, and littleton, to the other. quiet and joy to mistress brinsden, money to all. when you'll drink y{r} burgundy with m{r} furneze pray tell him j'll never forget his favours.

But dear john be so kind as to let me know how does my lady Bollingbroke. as to my lord j left him so well j dont doubt he is so still. but j am very uneasie about my lady. if she might have as much health as she has Spirit and witt, sure She would be the strongest body in england. pray dear s{r} write me Something of her, of my lord, and of you. direct y{r} letter by the penny post at m{r} Cavalier, Belitery Square by the R. exchange. j am sincerely and heartily y{r} most humble most obedient rambling friend

"VOLTAIRE.

"to
"john Brinsden, esq.
"durham's yard
"by charing cross."

THE GOLDEN CHALICE OF IONA.

A chalice, as used in sacred ceremonies, is figured on various early Scottish ecclesiastical seals, as well as on sepulchral slabs and other medieval sculptures. But an original Scottish chalice, a relic of the venerable abbey of St. Columba, presented, till a very few years since, an older example of the sacred vessels of the altar than is indicated in any existing memorial of the medieval Church. The later history of this venerable relic is replete with interest. It was of fine gold, of a very simple form, and ornamented in a style that gave evidence of its belonging to a very early period. It was transferred from the possession of Sir Lauchlan MacLean to the Glengarry family, in the time of AEneas, afterwards created by Charles II. Lord Macdonell and Arross, under the circumstances narrated in the following letter from a cousin of the celebrated Marshal Macdonald, Duke of Tarentum, and communicated by a clergyman (Rev. AEneas M'Donell Dawson), who obtained it from the family of the gentleman to whom it was originally addressed:--

"The following anecdote I heard from the late bishop, John Chisholm, and from Mr. John M'Eachan, uncle to the Duke of Tarentum, who died at my house at Irin Moidart, aged upwards of one hundred years:--

"Maclean of Duart, expecting an invasion of his lands in Mull, by his powerful neighbour the Earl of Argyll, applied to Glengarry for assistance. AEneas of Glengarry marched at the head of five hundred men to Ardtornish, nearly opposite to Duart Castle, and crossing with a few of his officers to arrange the passage of the men across the Sound of Mull, Maclean, rejoicing at the arrival of such a friend, offered some choice wine in a golden chalice, part of the plunder of Iona. Glengarry was struck with horror, and said, folding his handkerchief about the chalice, 'Maclean, I came here to defend you against mortal enemies, but since, by sacrilege and profanation, you have made God your enemy, no human means can serve you.' Glengarry returned to his men, and Maclean sent the chalice and some other pieces of plate belonging to the service of the altar, with a deputation of his friends, to persuade him to join him; but he marched home. His example was followed by several other chiefs, and poor Maclean was left to compete, single-handed, with his powerful enemy."

Such was the last historical incident connected with the golden chalice of Iona, perhaps, without exception, the most interesting ecclesiastical relic which Scotland possessed. Unfortunately its later history only finds a parallel in that of the celebrated Danish golden horns. It was preserved in the charter-chest of Glengarry, until it was presented by the late Chief to Bishop Ronald M'Donald, on whose demise it came into the possession of his successor, Dr. Scott, Bishop of Glasgow. Only a few years since the sacristy of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church in that city, where it was preserved was broken into, and before the police could obtain a clue to the depredators, the golden relic of Iona was no longer a chalice. Thus perished, by the hands of a common felon, a memorial of the spot consecrated by the labours of some of the earliest Christian missionaries to the Pagan Caledonians, and which had probably survived the vicissitudes of upwards of ten centuries. In reply to inquiries made as to the existence of any drawing of the chalice, or even the possibility of a trustworthy sketch being executed from memory, a gentleman in Glasgow writes:--"I have no means of getting even a sketch from which to make a drawing. Were I a good hand myself, I could easily furnish one, having often examined it. It was a chalice that no one could look on without being convinced of its very great antiquity. The workmanship was rude, the ornamental drawings or engravings even more hard than medieval ones in their outlines, and the cup bore marks of the original hammering which had beaten it into shape."

NEW MODE OF REVENGE.

Monkeys in India are more or less objects of superstitious reverence, and are, consequently, seldom or ever destroyed. In some places they are even fed, encouraged, and allowed to live on the roofs of the houses. If a man wish to revenge himself for any injury committed upon him, he has only to sprinkle some rice or corn upon the top of his enemy's house, or granary, just before the rains set in, and the monkeys will assemble upon it, eat all they can find outside, and then pull off the tiles to get at that which falls through the crevices. This, of course, gives access to the torrents which fall in such countries, and house, furniture, and stores are all ruined.

CURIOUS SUPERSTITION.

The ring of which we here give a sketch has been selected by us as a subject for engraving and comment, because it embodies a curious superstition which was very prevalent in England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Fifteenth Century Ring.]

The setting is of silver, and the jewel which it carries is called a toadstone. This stone was popularly believed to be formed in the heads of very old toads, and it was eagerly coveted by sovereigns, and by all persons in high office, because it was supposed to have the power of indicating to the person who wore it the proximity of poison, by perspiring and changing colour. Fenton, who wrote in 1569, says--"There is to be found in the heads of old and great toads a stone they call borax or stelon;" and he adds--"They, being used as rings, give forewarning against venom." Their composition is not actually known; by some they are thought to be a stone--by others, a shell; but of whatever they may be formed, there is to be seen in them, as may be noticed in the engraving, a figure resembling that of a toad, but whether produced accidentally or by artificial means is not known, though, according to Albertus Magnus, the stone always bore the figure on its surface, at the time it was taken out of the toad's head. Lupton, in his "1000 Notable Things," says--"A toadstone, called crepaudina, touching any part envenomed, hurt, or stung with rat, spider, wasp, or any other venomous beast, ceases the pain or swelling thereof." The well known lines in Shakespeare are doubtless in allusion to the virtue which Lupton says it possesses:--

"Sweet are the uses of adversity;
Which like a toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head."

Ben Jonson also in the _Fox_, has,--

"Were you enamoured on his copper rings,
His saffron jewel, with the loadstone in't?"

And Lyly, in his _Euphues_--

"The foule toad hath a faire stone in his head."

The ring we have engraved is a work of the fifteenth century; it forms one of the many rare curiosities of the Londesborough Collection, and is considered to be a very perfect specimen.

ANCIENT ARMLET.

In May, 1840, some workmen were employed at Everdale, near Preston, in carrying earth to replace the soil which had been washed away from behind a wall formerly built to protect the banks of the river Ribble. In digging for this purpose, they discovered, at a distance of about forty yards from the banks, a great number of articles, consisting of ingots of silver, a few ornaments, some silver armlets, and a large quantity of coins. An attentive examination of all these, and especially of the coins, leads to the conclusion that this mass of treasure was deposited about the year 910, and the articles must be considered such as were worn at the time of King Alfred, or perhaps somewhat earlier.

Ancient Armlet.]

The armlets, which were all of silver, vary in breadth from a quarter of an inch to an inch and a quarter, and perhaps more. They are generally ornamented, and almost all the ornaments are produced by punching with tools of various forms. The patterns are numerous, but the forms of the punches are very few, the variations being produced by combining the forms of more punches than one, or by placing the same or differently-formed punches at a greater or less distance from each other, or by varying their direction. In the specimen which we have here engraved the punch has had a small square end, and the ornament is formed by a series of blows in transverse or oblique lines. Patterns of the period and localities to which these ornaments belong are scarcely ever found finished by casting or chasing. It would appear, also that the use of solder to unite the various parts of objects was either little known or little practised; for the ends of these ornaments are tied together, and, upon other occasions where union is necessary, rivets are employed.

CHINESE MIRRORS.

There is a puzzling property in many of the Chinese mirrors which deserves particular notice, and we may give it, together with the solution furnished by Sir David Brewster:--"The mirror has a knob in the centre of the back, by which it can be held, and on the rest of the back are stamped in relief certain circles with a kind of Grecian border. Its polished surface has that degree of convexity which gives an image of the face half its natural size; and its remarkable property is, that, when you reflect the rays of the sun from the polished surface, the image of the ornamental border and circles stamped upon the back, is seen distinctly reflected on the wall," or on a sheet of paper. The metal of which the mirror is made appears to be what is called Chinese silver, a composition of tin and copper, like the metal for the specula of reflecting telescopes. The metal is very sonorous. The mirror has a rim (at the back) of about 1-4th or 1-6th of an inch broad, and the inner part, upon which the figures are stamped, is considerably thinner.

"Like all other conjurors (says Sir David Brewster), the artist has contrived to make the observer deceive himself. The stamped figures on the back are used for this purpose. The spectrum in the luminous area _is not an image of the figures on the back_. The figures are a copy of the picture which the artist has _drawn on the face of the mirror_, and so concealed by polishing, that it is invisible in ordinary lights, and can be brought out only in the sun's rays. Let it be required, for example, to produce the dragon as exhibited by one of the Chinese mirrors. When the surface of the mirror is ready for polishing, the figure of the dragon may be delineated upon it in extremely shallow lines, or it may be eaten out by an acid much diluted, so as to remove the smallest possible portion of the metal. The surface must then be highly polished, not upon pitch, like glass and specula, because this would polish away the figure, but upon cloth, in the way that lenses are sometimes polished. In this way the sunk part of the shallow lines will be as highly polished as the rest, and the figure will only be visible in very strong lights, by reflecting the sun's rays from the metallic surface."

THE CADENHAM OAK.

Amongst the many remarkable trees in the New Forest in Hampshire, is one called the Cadenham Oak, which buds every year in the depth of winter. Gilpin says, "Having often heard of this oak, I took a ride to see it on the 29th of December, 1781. It was pointed out to me among several other oaks, surrounded by a little forest stream, winding round a knoll on which they stood. It is a tall straight plant, of no great age, and apparently vigorous, except that its top has been injured, from which several branches issue in the form of pollard shoots. It was entirely bare of leaves, as far as I could discern, when I saw it, and undistinguishable from the other oaks in its neighbourhood, except that its bark seemed rather smoother, occasioned, I apprehended, only by frequent climbing. Having had the account of its early budding confirmed on the spot, I engaged one Michael Lawrence, who kept the White Hart, a small alehouse in the neighbourhood, to send me some of the leaves to Vicar's Hill, as soon as they should appear. The man, who had not the least doubt about the matter, kept his word, and sent me several twigs on the morning of the 5th of January, 1782, a few hours after they had been gathered. The leaves were fairly expanded, and about an inch in length. From some of the buds two leaves had unsheathed themselves, but in general only one. One of its progeny, which grew in the gardens at Bulstrode, had its flower buds perfectly formed so early as the 21st of December, 1781.

"This early spring, however, of the Cadenham oak, is of very short duration. The buds, after unfolding themselves, make no further progress, but immediately shrink from the season and die. The tree continues torpid, like other deciduous trees, during the remainder of the winter, and vegetates again in the spring, at the usual season. I have seen it in full leaf in the middle of the summer, when it appeared, both in its form and foliage, exactly like other oaks."

Dean Wren, speaking of this tree, says, "King James could not be induced to believe the [Greek: to toi] (_reason_) of this, till Bishop Andrewes, in whose diocese the tree grew, caused one of his own chaplaines, a man of known integritye, to give a true information of itt, which he did; for upon the eve of the Nativitye he gathered about a hundred slips, with the leaves newly opened, which he stuck in claye in the bottom of long white boxes, and soe sent them post to the courte, where they deservedly raised not only admiration, but stopt the mouth of infidelitye and contradiction for ever. Of this I was both an eye-witness, and did distribute many of them to the great persons of both sexes in court and others, ecclesiastical persons. But in these last troublesome times a divelish fellow (of Herostratus humour) having hewen itt round at the roote, made his last stroke on his own legg, whereof he died, together with the old wondrous tree; which now sproutes up againe, and may renew his oakye age againe, iff some such envious chance doe not hinder or prevent itt; from which the example of the former villaine may perchance deterr the attempt. This I thought to testifie to all future times, and therefore subscribe with the same hand through which those little oakye slips past."

SCHOOL EXPENSES IN THE OLDEN TIME.