Chapter V: Part 5

Coral reefs are produced by innumerable small zoophytes, properly called _Coral-insects_. The Coral insect consists of a little oblong bag of jelly closed at one end, but having the other extremity open, and surrounded by tentacles or feelers, usually six or eight in number, set like the rays of a star. Multitudes of these diminutive animals unite to form a common stony skeleton called _Coral_, or _Madrepore_, in the minute openings of which they live, protruding their mouths and tentacles when under water; but suddenly drawing them into their holes when danger approaches. These animals cannot exist at a greater depth in the sea than about ten fathoms, and as the Coral Islands often rise with great steepness from a sea more than three hundred fathoms deep, it would seem that a great alteration must have taken place in the depth of the ocean since the time when these little architects commenced their labours. Throughout the whole range of the Polynesian and Australasian islands, there is scarcely a league of sea unoccupied by a coral reef, or a coral island; the former springing up to the surface of the water, perpendicularly from the fathomless bottom, "deeper than did ever plummet sound;" and the latter in various stages, from the low and naked rock, with the water rippling over it, to an uninterrupted forest of tall trees.

"Every one," says Mr. Darwin, "must be struck with astonishment when he first beholds one of these vast rings of coral rock, often many leagues in diameter, here and there surmounted by a low verdant island with dazzling white shores, bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers of the ocean, and on the inside surrounding a calm expanse of water, which, from reflection, is of a bright but pale green colour. The naturalist will feel this astonishment more deeply after having examined the soft and almost gelatinous bodies of these apparently insignificant creatures; and when he knows that the solid reef increases only on the outer edge, which, day and night, is lashed by the breakers of an ocean never at rest."

Coral Reefs.]

Coral being beautiful in form and colour, is sought after for purposes of ornament; and its fishery or gathering gives employment to many persons in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, and other places. In the Straits of Messina, the rocks which yield coral are from about 350 to 650 feet below the surface of the water. The coral here grows to about the height or length of twelve inches, and requires eight or ten years to come to perfection. In the general mode of fishing for coral, the instrument used consists of two heavy beams of wood, secured together at right angles, and loaded with stones to sink them.

MILITARY HATS IN OLDEN TIME.

No. 1, Charles I.
No. 2, William III.
No. 3, Nivernois.
No. 4, Kevenhuller.
No. 5, Ramilies.
No. 6, Wellington.]

WHY A MAN MEASURES MORE IN THE MORNING THAN IN THE EVENING, &c.

There is an odd phenomenon attending the human body, as singular as common: that a person is shorter standing than lying; and shorter in the evening when he goes to bed, than in the morning when he rises.

This remark was first made in England, and afterwards confirmed at Paris, by M. Morand, a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences in France, and by the Abbot Fontana likewise.

The last-mentioned person found, from a year's experience, that ordinarily in the night he gained five or six lines, and lost nearly as much in the day.

The cause of which effect, so ancient, so common, but so lately perceived, proceeds from the different state or condition of the intervertebral annular cartilages.

The vertebrae, or joints of the spine, are kept separate, though joined by particular cartilages, every one of which has a spring. These yield on all sides, without any inflexion on the spine, to the weight of the head and upper extremities; but this is done by very small and imperceptible degrees, and most of all when the upper parts of the body are loaded with any exterior weight. So that a man is really taller after lying some time, than after walking, or carrying a burthen a great while.

For this reason it is that, in the day and evening, while one is sitting or standing, the superior parts of the body that weigh or press upon the inferior, press those elastic annular cartilages, the bony jointed work is contracted, the superior parts of the body descend towards the inferior, and proportionably as one approaches the other, the height of the stature diminishes.

Hence it was, that a fellow enlisting for a soldier, by being measured over-night, was found deficient in height, and therefore refused; but by accident being gauged again the next morning, and coming up to the stature, he was admitted.

On the contrary, in the night-time, when the body is laid a-bed, as it is in an horizontal situation, or nearly so, the superior parts do not weigh, or but very little, upon the inferior; the spring of the cartilages is unbent, the vertebrae are removed from one another, the long jointed work of the spine is dilated, and the body thereby prolonged; so that a person finds himself about half an inch, or more, higher in stature in the morning than when going to bed. This is the most natural and simple reason that can be given, for the different heights of the same person at different times.

A SENSIBLE DOG REFUSING TO BAIT A CAT.

A dustman of the name of Samuel Butcher, residing at Mile-end, who kept a large dog, having taken it into his head to divert himself and others, a few days ago, by the cruel sport of cat baiting, which the dog refusing to perform to the satisfaction of his master, was beat by him in a most brutal manner, when the animal at length, in retaliation, flew at his unmerciful keeper, and inflicted very severe wounds about his face, limbs, and body, in some instances tearing large mouthfuls of his flesh quite clean out, and at one time clung so fast to the man, that before he disengaged from him the animal's throat was obliged to be cut. The man was promptly conveyed to the London Hospital, and there died of the injuries he received.

A HORSE GETTING HIMSELF SHOD.

A horse having been turned into a field by its owner, Mr. Joseph Lane, of Fascombe, in the parish of Ashelworth, was missed therefrom the next morning, and the usual inquiries set afoot, as to what could have become of him. He had, it seems, been shod (all fours) a few days before, and _as usual_ got pinched in a foot. Feeling, no doubt, a lively sense of proper shoeing, and desirous of relieving the cause of pain, he contrived to unhang the gate of his pasture with his mouth, and make the best of his way to the smithy, a distance of a mile and a half from Fascombe, waiting respectfully at the door until the bungling _artist_ got up. The smith relates that he found him there at opening his shed; that the horse advanced to the forge and held up his ailing foot; and that he himself, upon examination, discovered the injury, took off the shoe, and replaced it more carefully, which having done, the sagacious creature set off at a merry pace homewards. Soon after, Mr. Lane's servants passed by the forge in quest of the animal, and upon inquiry, received for answer--"Oh, he has been here and got shod, and is gone home again."

MAN WITHOUT HANDS.

The following account is extracted from a letter sent to the Rev. Mr. Wesley by a person named Walton, dated Bristol, October 14, 1788:--

"I went with a friend to visit this man, who highly entertained us at breakfast, by putting his half-naked foot upon the table as he sat, and carrying his tea and toast between his great and second toe to his mouth, with as much facility as if his foot had been a hand, and his toes fingers. I put half a sheet of paper upon the floor, with a pen and ink-horn: he threw off his shoes as he sat, took the ink-horn in the toes of his left foot, and held the pen in those of his right. He then wrote three lines, as well as most ordinary writers, and as swiftly. He writes out all his own bills, and other accounts. He then showed how he shaves himself with a razor in his toes, and how he combs his own hair. He can dress and undress himself, except buttoning his clothes. He feeds himself, and can bring both his meat or his broth to his mouth, by holding the fork or spoon in his toes. He cleans his own shoes; can clean the knives, light the fire, and do almost every other domestic business as well as any other man. He can make his hen-coops. He is a farmer by occupation; he can milk his own cows with his toes, and cut his own hay, bind it up in bundles, and carry it about the field for his cattle. Last winter he had eight heifers constantly to fodder. The last summer he made all his own hay-ricks. He can do all the business of the hay-field (except mowing), as fast and as well, with only his feet, as others can with rakes and forks. He goes to the field and catches his horse; he saddles and bridles him with his feet and toes. If he has a sheep among his flock that ails anything, he can separate it from the rest, drive it into a corner, and catch it when nobody else can. He then examines it, and applies a remedy to it. He is so strong in his teeth, that he can lift ten pecks of beans with them. He can throw a great sledge-hammer as far with his feet as other men can with their hands. In a word, he can nearly do as much without, as others can with, their arms. He began the world with a hen and chicken; with the profit of these he purchased an ewe; the sale of these procured him a ragged colt (as he expressed it) and then a better; after this he raised a few sheep, and now occupies a small farm."

THE THIEF CAUGHT IN HIS OWN TRAP.

A man having, some years since, stolen a sheep at Mitcham, in Surrey, tied its hind legs together, and put them over his forehead to carry it away, but in getting over a gate the sheep, it is thought, struggled, and, by a sudden spring, slipped its feet down to his throat; for they were found in that posture, the sheep hanging on one side of this gate and the man dead on the other.

COSTUME OF THE LADIES IN THE TIME OF THE PLANTAGENETS.

The ladies' costume may be seen to advantage in the annexed engraving from the Sloane MSS., No. 3983. A wimple or gorget is wrapped round the neck, and is fastened by pins at the sides of the face, which are covered above the ears; a gown of capacious size, unconfined at the waist and loose in the sleeves, trails far behind in the dirt. The under-garment, which is darker, has sleeves that fit closely; and it appears to be turned over, and pinned up round the bottom. The unnecessary amount of stuff that was used in ladies' robes rendered them obnoxious to the satirists of that period.

proud woman who wore a white dress.]

In Mr. Wright's collection of Latin stories, published by the Percy Society, there is one of the fourteenth century, which is so curious an instance of monkish satire, and is so apt an illustration of the cut before us, that I cannot resist presenting it to my readers. It runs thus:--

"_Of a Proud Woman._--I have heard of a proud woman who wore a white dress with a long train, which, trailing behind her, raised a dust as far as the altar and the crucifix. But, as she left the church, and lifted up her train on account of the dirt, a certain holy man saw a devil laughing; and having adjured him to tell why he laughed, the devil said, "A companion of mine was just now sitting on the train of that woman, using it as if it were his chariot, but when she lifted her train up, my companion was shaken off into the dirt: and that is why I was laughing."

CORPULENT MAN. NOTTINGHAM, 1819.

November 10.--Death of Mr. Henry Bucknall, confectioner, Chandlers-lane, aged forty-nine. He was excessively corpulent, weighing more than twenty-five stone, and died very suddenly, immediately after eating a hearty breakfast. In Lord Howe's memorable engagement, on the 1st of June, 1794, he had served as a marine on board the Brunswick. His interment, at St. Mary's New Burial-ground, on the 14th, drew together a large concourse of spectators. The coffin was of enormous size, and nearly equalled the body in weight. It was made of excellent oak, was 6 feet 8 inches in length, and 2 feet 11 inches across the breast; the bottom was 2-1/2 inches thick, the sides 1-1/2, and the lid 1. The whole, including the body, considerably exceeded five hundred-weight.

TAKING A MAN TO PIECES AND SETTING HIM UP AGAIN.

"Don John, of Austria," says Staveley, "Governor of the Netherlands for Philip the 2d of Spain, dying at his camp at Buge (Bouges, a mile from Namur), was carried from thence to the great church at Havre, where his funeral was solemnised, and a monument to posterity erected for him there by Alexander Farnese, the Prince of Parma. Afterwards his body was taken to pieces, and the bones, packed in mails, were privately carried into Spain, where being set together with small wires, the body was rejointed again, which being filled or stuffed with cotton, and richly habited, Don John was presented to the king entire, leaning on his commander's staff. Afterwards the corpse being carried to the church of St. Laurence, at the Escurial, was there buried near his father, Charles V., with a fitting monument for him."

ORNAMENTS OF FEMALE DRESS IN THE TIMES OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS.

Necklace of Beads.]

Fig. 1 is a necklace of beads, each bead being cut so as to represent a group of several, and give the effect of many small round beads to what are in reality long and narrow ones. Fig. 2 is a necklace of simpler construction, consisting of a row of rudely-shaped beads, its centre being remarkable for containing a rude attempt at representing a human face, the only thing of the kind Hoare discovered of so ancient a date in Britain. Fig. 3 is another necklace, consisting of a series of curious little shells, like the hirlas horn used by the Britons, which are perforated lengthways, and thus strung together. Fig. 4 is a pin of iron, supposed to have been used as a fastening for a mantle; it is ornamented with two movable rings. Fig. 5 is a small gold ornament, checkered like a chessboard, and suspended from a chain of beautiful workmanship, which, in taste and execution, bears a striking similarity to our modern curb-chains. Fig. 6 is an ear-ring, a bead suspended from a twisted wire of gold. Fig. 7 is a brass ornament, and Fig. 8 a similar one of gold: such ornaments are usually found upon the breasts of the exhumed skeletons of our barrows, and were probably fastened on their clothes as ornaments. Their cruciform character might lead to a doubt of their high antiquity, if we were not aware of the fact, that the symbol of the cross was worn, as an amulet or ornament, ages before the Christian era.

LARGE EEL.

Lately, near Malden, an eel was taken, measuring _five feet six inches in length, seventeen in girth_, and weighing _26 pounds_, the largest of the species ever caught, or described in natural history.

PERSEVERING DOG.

A boast being made of the obedience of a Newfoundland dog in fetching and carrying, the master put a marked shilling under a large square stone by the road side, and, having ridden on three miles, ordered the dog to go back and fetch it. The dog set off, but did not return the whole day. He had gone to the place, and being unable to turn the stone, sat howling by it. Two horsemen came by and saw his distress, and one of them alighting removed the stone, and finding the shilling, put it in his pocket, not supposing that the dog could possibly be looking for that. The dog followed the horses for upwards of twenty miles, stayed in the room where they supped, got into the bed-room, got the breeches in which the fatal shilling had been put, made his escape with them, and dragged them through mud and mire, hedge and ditch, to his master's house.

CURE FOR CORPULENCE.

A few years ago, a man of about forty years of age, hired himself as a labourer, in one of the most considerable ale-breweries in the City: at this time he was a personable man; stout, active, and not fatter than a moderate-sized man in high health should be. His chief occupation was to superintend the working of the new beer, and occasionally to set up at night to watch the sweet-wort, an employment not requiring either activity or labour; of course, at these times, he had an opportunity of tasting the liquor, of which, it appears, he always availed himself; besides this, he had constant access to the new beer. Thus leading a quiet inactive life, he began to increase in bulk, and continued to enlarge, until, in a very short time, he became of such an unwieldy size, as to be unable to move about, and was too big to pass up the brewhouse staircase; if by any accident he fell down, he was unable to get up again without help. The integuments of his face hung down to the shoulders and breast: the fat was not confined to any particular part, but diffused over the whole of his body, arms, legs, &c., making his appearance such as to attract the attention of all who saw him. He left this service to go into the country, being a burthen to himself, and totally useless to his employers. About two years afterwards he called upon his old masters in very different shape to that above described, being reduced in size nearly half, and weighing little more than ten stone. The account that he gave of himself was, that as soon as he had quitted the brewhouse he went into Bedfordshire, where having soon spent the money he had earned, and being unable to work, he was brought into such a state of poverty, as to be scarcely able to obtain the sustenance of life, often being a whole day without food; that he drank very little, and that was generally water. By this mode of living he began to diminish in size, so as to be able to walk about with tolerable ease. He then engaged himself to a farmer, with whom he stayed a considerable time, and in the latter part of his service he was able to go through very hard labour, being sometimes in the field ploughing and following various agricultural concerns, for a whole day, with no other food than a small pittance of bread and cheese. This was the history he gave of the means by which this extraordinary change was brought about. He added, his health had never been so good as it then was.

WORSHIP OF THE SUN AND MOON.

The Sun was first worshipped, probably, as a bright manifestation of God, but soon began to be regarded as the Deity himself. The Moon, in the absence of the Sun, and next in splendour, would succeed it in superstitious attention. And so we find the Romans, as well as the Saxons, dedicating the first and second days of the week respectively to these "great lights." Formerly, festivals were held on the appearance of a New Moon; and in some parts of England it is still customary to bless it, and in Scotland at the same time to drop a courtesy. And in times not long past, the influence of the Moon was considered to be so great as to regulate the growth of air, and the effect of medicine, and to cause steeples and other elevated buildings to bend from their upright positions.

A SEA ABOVE THE SKY.

This belief is curiously illustrated by two legendary stories preserved by Gervase of Tilbury. "One Sunday," he says, "the people of a village in England were coming out of church on a thick cloudy day, when they saw the anchor of a ship hooked to one of the tombstones; the cable, which was tightly stretched, hanging down from the air. The people were astonished, and while they were consulting about it, suddenly they saw the rope move as though some one laboured to pull up the anchor. The anchor, however, still held fast by the stone, and a great noise was suddenly heard in the air, like the shouting of sailors. Presently a sailor was seen sliding down the cable for the purpose of unfixing the anchor; and when he had just loosened it, the villagers seized hold of him, and while in their hands he quickly died, just as though he had been drowned. About an hour after, the sailors above, hearing no more of their comrade, cut the cable and sailed away. In memory of this extraordinary event, the people of the village made the hinges of the church doors out of the iron of the anchor, and 'there they are still to be seen.'--At another time, a merchant of Bristol set sail with his cargo for Ireland. Some time after this, while his family were at supper, a knife suddenly fell in through the window on the table. When the husband returned, he saw the knife, declared it to be his own, and said that on such a day, at such an hour, while sailing in an unknown part of the sea, he dropped the knife overboard, and the day and hour were known to be exactly the time when it fell through the window. These accidents, Gervase thinks, are a clear proof of there being a sea above hanging over us."--_St. Patrick's Purgatory. By Thos. Wright._ 1844.

THE PAPYRUS.

Paper as we now have it, that is to say, paper made of the pulp of fibrous materials, pressed into thin sheets, dried, and, when intended for writing or printing purposes, sized, is of comparatively modern introduction to Europe and Western Asia; although the Chinese appear to have formed paper out of silk pulp, mixed with the inner pith of the bamboo, as early at least as 95 A.D.:--not from time immemorial, as some authors have stated, because the circumstance is well attested, that in the time of Confucius, the Chinese wrote with a style on the inner bark of trees.

Before the invention of paper, the surfaces employed for writing upon were numerous. Surfaces of lead or other metal; tables covered with wax, skins of animals,--(parchment in fact)--all were used; but no one of these was ever so extensively employed as the Egyptian papyrus, whenever the latter material could be obtained. So soon, however, as the Saracens in the seventh century conquered Egypt, the exportation of papyrus was at an end; and writing surfaces became so scarce in Europe that many ancient documents of great value were erased in order to render them adapted for being written on once more. Thus perished many treasures of antiquity.

As the Saracens closed the avenue of supply for the ancient papyrus, so they compensated to Europe for this deprivation by discovering the manufacture of ordinary paper--at least paper made in the ordinary modern fashion,--though the material was cotton, not linen. This discovery was made some time anterior to the year 706 A.D., for at that period a manufactory of paper existed at Samarcand. In the eighth century the Saracens conquered Spain, and introduced into the Peninsula, amongst other arts, that of the manufacture of paper, which art was a long time finding its way into other parts of Europe,--in Italy not until the eleventh or twelfth century. The vast amount of papyrus which must have been employed in Italy, may be inferred from the number of rolls or _scapi_ of this substance discovered in Herculaneum and Pompeii; also from a perusal of many existing documents bearing directly or indirectly on this branch of commerce. Even so late as the commencement of the sixth century, Cassiodorus congratulated the world on the abolition, by King Theodoric, of the high duty on papyrus from Egypt; and he spoke in high flown terms of the great utility of the material. The latest papyrus roll known is of the twelfth century, containing a brief of Pope Paschal II., in favour of the Archiepiscopal see of Ravenna.

The various species of papyrus plants belong to the natural order "Cyperaceae," or sedges, of botanists; a main characteristic of which is a certain triangularity of stem. The method of constructing a writing surface from these stems was as follows:--The available portion being cut off (it was seldom more than twelve inches in length), and split, or, more properly speaking, unfolded into thin sheets, which were glued together transversely in such a manner that the original length of the papyrus stem became the breadth of the future sheet; the length of which might be increased at the pleasure of the operator. Frequently the manufactured scrolls were more than thirty feet long. As different methods prevail in the manufacture of our ordinary paper, so in like manner there were different processes of fashioning the papyrus into shape. The rudest manufacture appears to have been that of Egypt, and the best papyrus sheets appear to have been made in Rome during the Augustine AEra. The preceding sketch represents a papyrus roll, copied from a specimen in the Egyptian Room of the British Museum.

Considering the numerous pieces entering into the composition of the roll, of which our illustration represents a portion, the lines of juncture are remarkably well concealed, only a sort of grain being visible. The surface, moreover, is smoothed, and its colour very much like that of India paper. The hieroglyphics are coloured as is usual, red is the predominant tint, and the colours are no less well demarcated and separate than they would have been on glazed paper.

Our preceding wood-cuts represent the Sicilian or Syrian papyrus, hitherto termed _cyperus papyrus_, in two states of development--one with flowers, the other without. In order that inflorescence may take place, the plant requires to be well supplied with water.

EXECUTION IN 1733.

_Friday, March 9_--Was executed at Northampton, William Alcock, for the murder of his wife. He never own'd the fact, nor was at all concerned at his approaching death; refusing the prayers and assistance of any persons. In the morning he drank more than was sufficient, yet sent and paid for a pint of wine, which being deny'd him, he would not enter the cart before he had his money return'd. On his way to the gallows he sung part of an old song of "Robin Hood," with the chorus, "Derry, derry, down," &c., and swore, kick'd, and spurn'd at every person that laid hold of the cart; and before he was turn'd off, took off his shoes, to avoid a well known proverb; and being told by a person in the cart with him, it was more proper for him to read, or hear somebody read to him, than so vilely to swear and sing, he struck the book out of the person's hands, and went on damning the spectators and calling for wine. Whilst psalms and prayers were performing at the tree he did little but talk to one or other, desiring some to remember him, others to drink to his good journey, and to the last moment declared the injustice of his case.

DOG FRIENDSHIP.

At Bishops Stortford there were two dogs, which belonged to nobody, and lived upon the quay of the river or canal there. They took the greatest delight in rat hunting, and when the maltsters went about at night to see that all was safe, these dogs invariably followed them. Their mode of proceeding was very ingenious. As soon as the door of the malt-house was unlocked, one rushed in and coursed round the warehouse, not chasing any rat which might start, but pursuing its way among the malt. The other stood at the door and snapped at the rats as they endeavoured to escape. The one standing at the door was known to kill six rats, all of which had rushed to the door at the same time. The next room they came to, they would change posts; the one which hunted before, now standing at the door and seizing the prey. By this means the dogs killed in the malting-houses of one maltster alone, upwards of 2,000 rats in the course of one year. One of them on one occasion killed sixty-seven in less than five minutes. They seemed to pursue the sport simply for their amusement.

ALL HUMBUGS.

Just as a strolling actor at Newcastle had advertised his benefit, a remarkable stranger, no less than the _Prince Annamaboo_, arrived, and placarded the town that he granted audiences at a shilling a-head. The stroller, without delay, waited on the proprietor of the _Prince_, and for a good round sum prevailed on him to command his Serene Highness to exhibit his august person on his benefit night. The bills of the day announced that between the acts of the comedy _Prince Annamaboo_ would give a lively representation of the _scalping operation_, sound the _Indian war-whoop_ in all its melodious tones, practice the tomahawk exercise, and dine _a la cannibal_. An intelligent mob were collected to witness these interesting exploits. At the conclusion of the third act, his _Highness_ marched forward flourishing his tomahawk, and shouting, "_Ha, ha!--ho, ho!_" Next entered a man with his face blacked, and a piece of bladder fastened to his head with gum; the _Prince_, with an enormous carving-knife, began the scalping part of the entertainment, which he performed in a truly _imperial_ style, holding up the piece of bladder as a token of triumph. Next came the war-whoop, an unearthly combination of discordant sounds; and lastly, the banquet, consisting of raw beef-steaks, which he rolled up into rouleaus, and devoured with right royal avidity. Having finished his delicate repast, he wielded his tomahawk in an exulting manner, bellowed "_Ha, ha!--ho, ho!_" and made his exit. The _beneficiaire_ strolling through the market-place the following-day, spied the most puissant _Prince Annamaboo_ selling penknives, scissors, and quills, in the character of a Jew pedlar. "What!" said the astonished _Lord Townley_, "my _Prince_, is it you? Are you not a pretty circumcised little scoundrel to impose upon us in this manner?" Moses turned round, and with an arch look, replied, "_Princh_ be d--d! I _vash_ no Princh; I _vash_ acting like you. Your troop _vash_ Lords and Ladies last night; and to-night dey vil be Kings, _Prinches_, and Emperor! I _vash humpugs_, you _vash humpugs_, all _vash humpugs_!"

REDUCING WEIGHT.

A gentleman, of great respectability in the mercantile world, who weighed thirty-two stone nine pounds, put himself upon a strict diet of _four ounces of animal food_, _six ounces_ of bread, and _two pounds of liquid_, in twenty-four hours. In one week he lost thirty pounds weight, and in six months he was diminished the astonishing quantity of one hundred and thirty-four pounds. His health and spirits were much improved, and considering his remaining size of twenty-three stone, he was very active.

ANECDOTE OF A SERPENT.

Lord Monboddo relates the following singular anecdote of a serpent:--"I am well informed of a tame serpent in the East Indies, which belonged to the late Dr. Vigot, once kept by him in the suburbs of Madras. This serpent was taken by the French, when they invested Madras, and was carried to Pondicherry in a close carriage. But from thence, he found his way back again to his old quarters, though Madras was above one hundred miles distant from Pondicherry."

ENGLAND BEFORE THE ROMANS.

Shoes of Raw Cow-Hide.]

Before the Roman invasion, the dress of its chieftains consisted of a close coat or covering for the body, called by Dio a tunic, and described as checkered with various colours in divisions. It was open before, and had long close sleeves to the wrist. Below were loose pantaloons, called by the Irish _brigis_, and by the Romans _brages_ and _bracae_; whence the modern term "breeches." Over their shoulders was thrown the mantle or cloak, called by the Romans _sagum_, and derived from the Celtic word _saic_, which signified a skin or hide, and which was the original cloak of the country. Diodorus tells us that it was of one uniform colour, generally either blue or black, the predominating tint in the checkered trousers and tunic being red. On their heads they wore a conical cap, which derived its name from the "cab," or hut of the Briton, which was of similar form. On their feet were shoes made of raw cow-hide, that had the hair turned outward, and which reached to the ankles. Shoes so constructed were worn within the last few years in Ireland; and we engrave two from specimens in the Royal Irish Academy. One is of cow-hide, and drawn together by a string over the foot; and the other has a leather thong, which is fastened beneath the heel inside, and, passing over the instep, draws the shoe like a purse over the foot. It is of untanned leather.

ROMANS IN BRITAIN--DRESS OF NATIVE FEMALES AT THAT PERIOD.

Female Roman Shoes.]

The British _gwn_, from whence comes the modern "gown," descended to the middle of the thigh, the sleeves barely reaching to the elbows: it was sometimes confined by a girdle. Beneath this a longer dress reached to the ancles. The hair was trimmed after the Roman fashion; and upon the feet, when covered, were sometimes worn shoes of a costly character, of which we know the Romans themselves to have been fond. An extremely beautiful pair was discovered upon opening a Roman burial-place at Southfleet in Kent, in 1802. They were placed in a stone sarcophagus, between two large glass urns or vases, each containing a considerable quantity of burnt bones. They were of superb and expensive workmanship, being made of fine purple leather, reticulated in the form of hexagons all over, and each hexagonal division worked with gold, in an elaborate and beautiful manner.

Amid the ruins of stately temples, and numerous remains of the "Eternal City," there are no objects which have such great and general interest as the subterranean churches, dwellings, and places of sepulchre of the early Christians, which perforate, by a network of excavations, the neighbourhood of Rome.

The great increase in the extent and magnificence of Rome during the times of the Republic, led to the formation of quarries in the surrounding parts. The peculiar nature of the soil has caused the excavations to be made in a manner similar to that used in the working of coal, iron, stone, lime, &c. The useful material has, in fact, been cleared away, leaving long ranges of dark caves and passages. After the stone had been removed from these underground quarries, it was, for many centuries, customary to work out the sand for the purpose of making cement. Vitruvius has stated that the sand obtained from the Esquiline pits was preferable to any other. Ultimately the quarries and sandpits extended to a distance of upwards of fifteen miles on one side of Rome. Parts of this large range of excavations were from time to time used as burial-grounds by such of the Romans as could not afford the cost of burning the bodies of their dead relations. And, in addition, the Esquiline hills became infested by banditti, and was from these various causes rendered almost impassable.

In these excavations, it is said, that not only persons, but cattle, contrived to support existence; and although it was well known that large numbers were lodged in these dismal dwellings, their intricacy and numberless entrances rendered them a comparatively secure retreat. It is related that attempts were made to cover the galleries with earth, in order to destroy those who were concealed within.

Inscription in the Catacombs.]

In course of time the catacombs became, with the exception of one or two, neglected and filled up with rubbish, and remained for a period of upwards of one thousand years untouched and almost unknown. In the sixteenth century the whole range of the catacombs were reopened, and numerous inscriptions and other matters connected with the struggles and hardships of the early Christians brought to light. The annexed brief memorial will show the general style of the lettering.

OBSOLETE MODES OF PUNISHMENT.

Ante page 60, we gave representations of some ancient instruments of punishment and torture, all more or less terrible in their character, the use of which, for many a long year, has been happily abandoned. As a companion to this group, we have engraved a few of the instruments of punishment by which criminals of a vulgar character were sought to be reformed. The first of these is the felon's brand, the mark of which rendered a man infamous for life. Figure 1, p. 90 represents the instrument itself. Figure 2, the mark branded in, which latter has been engraved the exact size. The device, which is deeply cut into the metal, is a gallows, such as was used before the invention of the Drop and the Wheel for Execution and torture.

The Stocks and Whipping-post, although long since removed from London Bridge, may be met with in retired country places. We have noticed some characteristic examples in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, where some of the may-poles, day-wheels, and other curious relics, may still be seen.[2] In some instances the Stocks and Whipping-posts were richly carved, and clamped with iron work of an ornamental character. We remember seeing the stocks used within the last thirty years, once at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and once at Gateshead, the adjoining town. The culprit in the one instance was an elector, who, in the excess of zeal and beer, during an old-fashioned contested election, rushed into one of the churches during the Sunday's service, and shouted out, "Bell (one of the candidates) for ever." He was speedily taken hold of, and placed for several hours in the stocks in the churchyard; and, as the stimulating effect of the strong drink passed away, he looked a deplorable object, decked as he was with numerous cockades, the "favours" of the candidate, whose cause he so indiscreetly supported.

[2] A good specimen was demolished at Tottenham not long ago.

The punishment of the barrel we should think to have been adapted for drunkards who could preserve a perpendicular position.

In the histories of London, it is mentioned that bakers and other dealers caught giving false weight, or in any other ways cheating the poor, were exhibited occasionally in this manner; but more frequently they were placed in the parish dung-cart, and slowly drawn through the streets of the district.

The Whirligig, a circular cage which could be moved swiftly round on a pivot, was, in bygone days, in use for offenders in the English army. There was another instrument used for the same purpose called the Horse, which was made in rude resemblance of the animal whose name it bore. The body was composed of planks of wood, which formed a sharp angle along the back. On this the soldier was seated, and his legs fastened below to several heavy muskets. This is said to have been a very severe and dangerous punishment. In addition to the above, and flogging, imprisonment, &c., there were three ancient methods of punishment in the English army--viz., beheading, hanging, and drowning. The latter of these, according to Grose, was in use only in the reign of Richard I. This author observes that, some centuries ago, capital punishment was rare in our army, the men having generally property, which was confiscated in case of ill conduct. He, however, refers to some terrible means which were resorted to for the purpose of preserving discipline. Hanging was chiefly confined to spies; who were taken to a tree in sight of the camp, and yet sufficiently distant, and there hung up. In many instances, when a corps or a considerable body of men were guilty of crime, for which the established punishment was death, to prevent too great a weakening of the army, the delinquents, Grose says, "were decimated, that is, only every tenth man was taken. A number of billets, equal to that of the body to be decimated, were put into a helmet, every tenth billet being marked with the letter D, or some other character signifying death; the helmet was then shaken, in order to mix them, and the soldiers, filing off singly from the right, passed by the commanding officers, before whom, on a table, stood the helmet; as they passed, each drew a billet and presented it to an officer placed to receive them. If the billet had the fatal mark; the soldier was seized and marched into the rear."

This wholesale method of capital punishment must have been a solemn affair. At times, it was customary to punish the man at the right hand of companies; without giving them the chance of the billet--on the principal that these were the most influential persons, and must, from their companionship with the others, have been acquainted with and have possessed the means of checking or giving information, which would prevent dangerous offences.

The regulations of the English army during the time of Henry VIII., and previous reigns, may be met with in "Grose's Military Antiquities."

ORIGIN OF THE TERM "HUMBUG."

This, now, common expression, is a corruption of the word Hamburgh, and originated in the following manner:--During a period when war prevailed on the Continent, so many false reports and lying bulletins were fabricated at Hamburgh, that at length, when any one would signify his disbelief of a statement, he would say, "You had that from Hamburgh;" and thus, "That is Hamburgh," or Humbug, became a common expression of incredulity.

MARRIAGE LOTTERY.

It has often been said figuratively that marriage is a lottery; but we do not recollect to have met with a practical illustration of the truth of the simile, before the following, which is a free translation of an advertisement in the Louisiana Gazette:--"A young man of good figure and disposition, unable, though desirous to procure a wife, without the preliminary trouble of amassing a fortune, proposes the following expedient to attain the object of his wishes. He offers himself as the prize of a lottery to all widows and virgins under 32. The number of tickets to be 600, at 50 dollars each. But one number to be drawn from the wheel, the fortunate proprietor of which is to be entitled to himself and the 30,000 dollars."

CHINESE DAINTIES.

The common people of the country seem to fare hardly and sparingly enough, but one of our envoys praises much of the good cheer he found at the tables of the great men. They had pork, fish, and poultry, prepared in a great variety of ways, and very nice confectionery in abundance. The feasts, moreover, were served up in a very neat and cleanly manner. But there was one dainty which much offended their nostrils, and nearly turned their stomachs when it was named to them. It was not stewed dog or fricaseed pup. No; it consisted of three bowls of _hatched eggs_! When the Englishmen expressed some surprise at the appearance of this portion of the repast, one of the native attendants observed that hatched eggs formed a delicacy beyond the reach of the poor--a delicacy adapted only for persons of distinction! On inquiry, it was found that they cost in the market some thirty per cent. more than fresh eggs. It seems that they always form a distinguished part of every great entertainment, and that it is the practice, when invitations are sent out, to set the hens to hatch. The feast takes place about the tenth or twelfth day from the issuing the invitations,--the eggs being then considered as ripe, and exactly in the state most agreeable and pleasant to the palate of a Chinese epicure.

RECEIPTS FROM ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

"Bubo a shrick owle, is a byrd wel inough knowen, which is called Magis of the Chaldes, and Hysopus of the Greekes. There bee maruaylous vertues of this Fowle, for if the hart and ryght foote of it be put upon a man sleeping, hee shall saye anone to thee whatsoever thou shalt aske of him. And thys hath beene prooued of late tyme of our brethren. And if any man put thys onder his arme hole, no Dog wyll barke at hym, but keepe silence. And yf these thynges aforesayde ioyned together with a wyng of it be hanged up to a tree, byrdes wyl gather together to that tree."

"When thou wylt that thy wyfe or wenche shewe to thee all that shee hath done, take the hart of a Doove, and the heade of a Frog, and drye them both, and braie them vnto poulder, and lay them vpon the brest of her sleeping, and shee shall shew to thee all that shee hath done, but when shee shall wake, wipe it awaye from her brest, that it bee not lifted vp."

"Take an Adders skyn, and Auri pigmentum, and greeke pitch of Reuponticum, and the waxe of newe Bees, and the fat or greace of an Asse, and breake them all, and put them all in a dull seething pot full of water, and make it to seeth at a slowe fire, and after let it waxe cold, and make a taper, and euery man that shall see light of it shall seeme headlesse."--_The Secreetes of Nature, set foorth by Albertus Magnus in Latine, newlye translated into English._ Imprinted at London by me Wyllyam Copland. No date. _Black letter_, very old.

THE MAGPIE STONING A TOAD.

There is a story told of a tame magpie, which was seen busily employed in a garden, gathering pebbles, and with much solemnity, and a studied air, dropping them in a hole, about eighteen inches deep, made to receive a post. After dropping each stone, it cried, Currack! triumphantly, and set off for another. On examining the spot a poor toad was found in the hole, which the magpie was stoning for his amusement.

ADAPTATION OF BONES TO AGE IN THE HUMAN FRAME.

Growth produces in the species a somewhat remarkable change in the mechanical qualities of the bones. This important part of our organism consists of three constituents--fibre, cartilage, and the earthy matter already mentioned called _phosphate of lime_. From the fibre they derive their toughness; from the cartilage their elasticity; and from the lime their hardness and firmness. Nothing can be more admirable in the economy of our body than the manner in which the proportion of these constituents adapts itself to the habitudes of age. The helpless infant, exposed by a thousand incidents to external shocks, has bones, the chief constituents of which being gristly and cartilaginous, are yielding and elastic, and incur little danger of fracture. Those of the youth, whose augmented weight and increased activity demand greater strength, have a larger proportion of the calcareous and fibrous elements, but still enough of the cartilaginous to confer upon the solid framework of his body the greatest firmness, toughness, and elasticity. As age advances, prudence and tranquil habits increasing, as well as the weight which the bones have to sustain, the proportion of the calcareous constituent increases, giving the requisite hardness and strength, but diminishing the toughness and elasticity.

While the bones thus change their mechanical qualities as age advances, they diminish in number, the frame consequently having fewer joints and less flexibility. The bones of a child, whose habits require greater bodily pliability, are more numerous than those of an adult, several of the articulations becoming ossified between infancy and maturity. In like manner, the bones at maturity are more numerous than in advanced age, the same progressive ossification of the joints being continued.

It has been ascertained by anatomists that, on attaining the adult state, the number of bones constituting the framework of the human body is 198; of which 52 belong to the trunk, 22 to the head, 64 to the arms, and 60 to the legs.

TOWER OF THE THUNDERING WINDS.

Tower of the Thundering Winds.]

The Great Wall is certainly a wonderful monument of ancient times; but it is almost the only one that we read of in China, except a famous Temple, or Tower, partly in ruins, which stands on an eminence in the neighbourhood of Hang-chow-foo. It is called the "Tower of the Thundering Winds," and is supposed to have been built about 2,500 years ago.

DR. MONSEY BEQUEATHS HIS OWN BODY.

This eccentric person died at the great age of 96, and was for half a century, physician to Chelsea Hospital. He left his body for dissection, and a few days before he died, wrote to Mr. Cruikshanks, the Anatomist, begging him to know, whether it would suit his convenience to do it, as he felt he could not live many hours, and Mr. Forster, his surgeon, was then out of town. He died as he predicted, and his wishes with respect to his body, were strictly attended to.

TEA.

A folio sheet of the time of Charles II. entitled "An Exact Description of the Growth, Quality, and Virtues of the Leaf Tea, by Thomas Garway, in Exchange Alley, near the Royal Exchange, in London, Tobacconist, and Seller and Retailer of Tea and Coffee," informs us that "in England it hath been sold in the leaf for six pounds, and sometimes for ten pounds the pound weight; and in respect of its former scarceness and dearness, it hath been only used as a regalia in high treatments, and entertainments, and presents made thereof to princes and grandees till the year 1657. The said Thomas Garway did purchase a quantity thereof, and first publikely sold the said Tea in leaf and drink, made according to the direction of the most knowing merchants and travellers in those eastern countries: and upon knowledge and experience of the said Garway's continued care and industry, in obtaining the best Tea, and making drink thereof, very many noblemen, physicians, merchants, and gentlemen of quality, have ever since sent to him for the said leaf, and daily resort to his house, in Exchange Alley, to drink the drink thereof."

IT'S MUCH THE SAME NOW.

The following lines, from the _Gentleman's Magazine_ of 1733, will give us some idea of what fashionable life was at that period:--

_The Town Lady's Answer to_,--"_What tho' I am a Country Lass_."

What tho' I am a London dame,
And lofty looks I bear, a?
I carry, sure, as good a name,
As those who russet wear, a.

What tho' my cloaths are rich brocades?
My skin it is more white, a
Than any of the country maids
That in the fields delight, a.

What tho' I to assemblies go,
And at the Opera's shine, a?
It is a thing all girls must do,
That will be ladies fine, a:

And while I hear Faustina sing,
Before the king and queen, a
By Eyes they are upon the wing,
To see, if I am seen, a.

My Peko and Imperial Tea
Are brought me in the Morn, a.
At Noon Champaign and rich Tokay
My table do adorn, a.

The Evening then does me invite
To play at dear Quadrille, a:
And sure in this there's more delight,
Than in a purling rill, a.

Then since my Fortune does allow
Me to live as I please, a;
I'll never milk my father's cow
Nor press his coming cheese, a.

But take my swing both night and day,
I'm sure it is no sin, a:
And as for what the grave ones say,
I value not a pin, a.

BARBERS.