Chapter XX: Conclusion (3)

While these events were transpiring, the successors of Mohammed were not neglecting the advantages given them by the possession of so many fine maritime provinces, which taught them at once the importance of the control of the sea and furnished means for obtaining it. At this period the Turks were quite as well informed with reference to artillery and the military art in general as the Europeans. They reached the apex of their greatness under Solyman I., who besieged and captured Rhodes (1552) with an army stated to have reached the number of one hundred and forty thousand men,--which was still formidable even upon the supposition of its strength being exaggerated by one-half.

In 1565, Mustapha and the celebrated Dragut made a descent upon Malta, where the Knights of Rhodes had made a new establishment; they carried over thirty-two thousand Janissaries, with one hundred and forty ships. John of Valetta, as is well known, gained an enduring fame by repulsing them.

A more formidable expedition, consisting of two hundred vessels and fifty-five thousand men, was sent in 1527 to the isle of Cyprus, where Nicosia was taken and Famagosta besieged. The horrible cruelties practiced by Mustapha increased the alarm occasioned by his progress. Spain, Venice, Naples, and Malta united their naval forces to succor Cyprus; but Famagosta had already surrendered, notwithstanding the heroic defense of Bragadino, who was perfidiously flayed alive by Mustapha's order, to avenge the death of forty thousand Turks that had perished in the space of two years spent on the island.

The allied fleet, under the orders of two heroes, Don John of Austria, brother of Philip II., and Andrea Doria, attacked the Turkish fleet at the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto, near the promontory of Actium, where Antony and Augustus once fought for the empire of the world. The Turkish fleet was almost entirely destroyed: more than two hundred vessels and thirty thousand Turks were captured or perished, (1571.) This victory did not put an end to the supremacy of the Turks, but was a great check in their career of greatness. However, they made such vigorous efforts that as large a fleet as the former one was sent to sea during the next year. Peace terminated this contest, in which such enormous losses were sustained.

The bad fortune of Charles V. in his expedition against Algiers did not deter Sebastian of Portugal from wishing to attempt the conquest of Morocco, where he was invited by a Moorish prince who had been deprived of his estates. Having disembarked upon the shores of Morocco at the head of twenty thousand men, this young prince was killed and his army cut to pieces at the battle of Alcazar by Muley Abdulmalek, in 1578.

Philip II., whose pride had increased since the naval battle of Lepanto on account of the success he had gained in France by his diplomacy and by the folly of the adherents of the League, deemed his arms irresistible. He thought to bring England to his feet. The invincible Armada intended to produce this effect, which has been so famous, was composed of an expeditionary force proceeding from Cadiz, including, according to Hume's narrative, one hundred and thirty-seven vessels, armed with two thousand six hundred and thirty bronze cannon, and carrying twenty thousand soldiers, in addition to eleven thousand sailors. To these forces was to be added an army of twenty-five thousand men which the Duke of Parma was to bring up from the Netherlands by way of Ostend. A tempest and the efforts of the English caused the failure of this expedition, which, although of considerable magnitude for the period when it appeared, was by no means entitled to the high-sounding name it received: it lost thirteen thousand men and half the vessels before it even came near the English coast.

After this expedition comes in chronological order that of Gustavus Adolphus to Germany,(1630.) The army contained only from fifteen to eighteen thousand men: the fleet was quite large, and was manned by nine thousand sailors; M. Ancillon must, however, be mistaken in stating that it carried eight thousand cannon. The debarkation in Pomerania received little opposition from the Imperial troops, and the King of Sweden had a strong party among the German people. His successor was the leader of a very extraordinary expedition, which is resembled by only one other example mentioned in history: I refer to the march of Charles X. of Sweden across the Belt upon the ice, with a view of moving from Sleswick upon Copenhagen by way of the island of Funen,(1658.) He had twenty-five thousand men, of whom nine thousand were cavalry, and artillery in proportion. This undertaking was so much the more rash because the ice was unsafe, several pieces of artillery and even the king's own carriage having broken through and been lost.

After seventy-five years of peace, the war between Venice and the Turks recommenced in 1645. The latter transported an army of fifty-five thousand men, in three hundred and fifty vessels, to Candia, and gained possession of the important post of Canea before the republic thought of sending succor. Although the people of Venice began to lose the spirit which made her great, she still numbered among her citizens some noble souls: Morosini, Grimani, and Mocenigo struggled several years against the Turks, who derived great advantages from their numerical superiority and the possession of Canea. The Venetian fleet had, nevertheless, gained a marked ascendency under the orders of Grimani, when a third of it was destroyed by a frightful tempest, in which the admiral himself perished.

In 1648, the siege of Candia began. Jussuf attacked the city furiously at the head of thirty thousand men: after being repulsed in two assaults, he was encouraged to attempt a third by a large breach being made. The Turks entered the place: Mocenigo rushed to meet them, expecting to die in their midst. A brilliant victory was the reward of his heroic conduct: the enemy were repulsed and the ditches filled with their dead bodies.

Venice might have driven off the Turks by sending twenty thousand men to Candia; but Europe rendered her but feeble support, and she had already called into active service all the men fit for war she could produce.

The siege, resumed some time after, lasted longer than that of Troy, and each campaign was marked by fresh attempts on the part of the Turks to carry succor to their army and by naval victories gained by the Venetians. The latter people had kept up with the advance of naval tactics in Europe, and thus were plainly superior to the Mussulmans, who adhered to the old customs, and were made to pay dearly for every attempt to issue from the Dardanelles. Three persons of the name of Morosini, and several Mocenigos, made themselves famous in this protracted struggle.

Finally, the celebrated Coprougli, placed by his merits at the head of the Ottoman ministry, resolved to take the personal direction of this war which had lasted so long: he accordingly proceeded to the island, where transports had landed fifty thousand men, at whose head he conducted the attack in a vigorous manner.(1667.)

In this memorable siege the Turks exhibited more skill than previously: their artillery, of very heavy caliber, was well served, and, for the first time, they made use of trenches, which were the invention of an Italian engineer.

The Venetians, on their side, greatly improved the methods of defense by mines. Never had there been seen such furious zeal exhibited in mutual destruction by combats, mines, and assaults. Their heroic resistance enabled the garrison to hold out during winter: in the spring, Venice sent reinforcements and the Duke of Feuillade brought a few hundreds of French volunteers.

The Turks had also received strong reinforcements, and redoubled their efforts. The siege was drawing to a close, when six thousand Frenchmen came to the assistance of the garrison under the leadership of the Duke of Beaufort and Navailles,(1669.) A badly-conducted sortie discouraged these presumptuous young men, and Navailles, disgusted with the sufferings endured in the siege, assumed the responsibility, at the end of two months, of carrying the remnant of his troops back to France. Morosini, having then but three thousand exhausted men to defend a place which was open on all sides, finally consented to evacuate it, and a truce was agreed upon, which led to a formal treaty of peace. Candia had cost the Turks twenty-five years of efforts and more than one hundred thousand men killed in eighteen assaults and several hundred sorties. It is estimated that thirty-five thousand Christians of different nations perished in the glorious defense of the place.

The struggle between Louis XIV., Holland, and England gives examples of great maritime operations, but no remarkable descents. That of James II. in Ireland (1690) was composed of only six thousand Frenchmen, although De Tourville's fleet contained seventy-three ships of the line, carrying five thousand eight hundred cannon and twenty-nine thousand sailors. A grave fault was committed in not throwing at least twenty thousand men into Ireland with such means as were disposable. Two years later, De Tourville had been conquered in the famous day of La Hogue, and the remains of the troops which had landed were enabled to return through the instrumentality of a treaty which required their evacuation of the island.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Swedes and Russians undertook two expeditions very different in character.

Charles XII., wishing to aid the Duke of Holstein, made a descent upon Denmark at the head of twenty thousand men, transported by two hundred vessels and protected by a strong squadron. He was really assisted by the English and Dutch navies, but the expedition was not for that reason the less remarkable in the details of the disembarkation. The same prince effected a descent into Livonia to aid Narva, but he landed his troops at a Swedish port.

Peter the Great, having some cause of complaint against the Persians, and wishing to take advantage of their dissensions, embarked (in 1722) upon the Volga: he entered the Caspian Sea with two hundred and seventy vessels, carrying twenty thousand foot-soldiers, and descended to Agrakhan, at the mouths of the Koisou, where he expected to meet his cavalry. This force, numbering nine thousand dragoons and five thousand Cossacks, joined him after a land-march by way of the Caucasus. The czar then seized Derbent, besieged Bakou, and finally made a treaty with one of the parties whose dissensions at that time filled with discord the empire of the Soofees: he procured the cession of Astrabad, the key of the Caspian Sea and, in some measure, of the whole Persian empire.

The time of Louis XV. furnished examples of none but secondary expeditions, unless we except that of Richelieu against Minorca, which was very glorious as an escalade, but less extraordinary as a descent.

[In 1762, an English fleet sailed from Portsmouth: this was joined by a portion of the squadron from Martinico. The whole amounted to nineteen ships of the line, eighteen smaller vessels of war, and one hundred and fifty transports, carrying ten thousand men. The expedition besieged and captured Havana.--TRS.]

The Spaniards, however, in 1775, made a descent with fifteen or sixteen thousand men upon Algiers, with a view of punishing those rovers of the sea for their bold piracies; but the expedition, for want of harmonious action between the squadron and the land-forces, was unsuccessful, on account of the murderous fire which the troops received from the Turkish and Arab musketeers dispersed among the undergrowth surrounding the city. The troops returned to their vessels after having two thousand men placed _hors de combat_.

The American war (1779) was the epoch of the greatest maritime efforts upon the part of the French. Europe was astonished to see this power send Count d'Estaing to America with twenty-five ships of the line, while at the same time M. Orvilliers, with a Franco-Spanish fleet of sixty-five ships of the line, was to cover a descent to be effected with three hundred transports and forty thousand men, assembled at Havre and St. Malo.

This new armada moved back and forth for several months, but accomplished nothing: the winds finally drove it back to port.

D'Estaing was more fortunate, as he succeeded in getting the superiority in the Antilles and in landing in the United States six thousand Frenchmen under Rochambeau, who were followed, at a later date, by another division, and assisted in investing the English army under Cornwallis at Yorktown, (1781:) the independence of America was thus secured. France would perhaps have gained a triumph over her implacable rival more lasting in its effects, had she, in addition to the display made in the English Channel, sent ten ships and seven or eight thousand men more to India with Admiral Suffren.

During the French Revolution, there were few examples of descents: the fire at Toulon, emigration, and the battle of Ushant had greatly injured the French navy.

Hoche's expedition against Ireland with twenty-five thousand men was scattered by the winds, and no further attempts in that quarter were made. (1796.)

At a later date, Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt, consisting of twenty-three thousand men, thirteen ships, seventeen frigates, and four hundred transports, obtained great successes at first, which were followed by sad reverses. The Turks, in hopes of expelling him, landed fifteen thousand men at Aboukir, but were all captured or driven into the sea, notwithstanding the advantages this peninsula gave them of intrenching themselves and waiting for reinforcements. This is an excellent example for imitation by the party on the defensive under similar circumstances.

The expedition of considerable magnitude which was sent out in 1802 to St. Domingo was remarkable as a descent, but failed on account of the ravages of yellow fever.

Since their success against Louis XIV., the English have given their attention more to the destruction of rival fleets and the subjugation of colonies than to great descents. The attempts made in the eighteenth century against Brest and Cherbourg with bodies of ten or twelve thousand men amounted to nothing in the heart of a powerful state like France. The remarkable conquests which procured them their Indian empire occurred in succession. Having obtained possession of Calcutta, and then of Bengal, they strengthened themselves gradually by the arrival of troops in small bodies and by using the Sepoys, whom they disciplined to the number of one hundred and fifty thousand.

The Anglo-Russian expedition to Holland in 1799 was composed of forty thousand men, but they were not all landed at once: the study of the details of the operations is, however, quite interesting.

In 1801, Abercrombie, after threatening Ferrol and Cadiz, effected a descent into Egypt with twenty thousand Englishmen. The results of this expedition are well known.

General Stuart's expedition to Calabria, (1806,) after some successes at Maida, was for the purpose of regaining possession of Sicily. That against Buenos Ayres was more unfortunate in its results, and was terminated by a capitulation.

In 1807, Lord Cathcart attacked Copenhagen with twenty-five thousand men, besieged and bombarded the city, and gained possession of the Danish fleet, which was his object.

In 1808, Wellington appeared in Portugal with fifteen thousand men. After gaining the victory of Vimeira, and assisted by the general rising of the Portuguese, he forced Junot to evacuate the kingdom. The same army, increased in numbers to twenty-five thousand and placed under Moore's command, while making an effort to penetrate into Spain with a view of relieving Madrid, was forced to retreat to Corunna and there re-embark, after suffering severe losses. Wellington, having effected another landing in Portugal with reinforcements, collected an army of thirty thousand Englishmen and as many Portuguese, with which he avenged Moore's misfortunes by surprising Soult at Oporto, (May, 1809,) and then beating Joseph at Talavera, under the very gates of his capital.

The expedition to Antwerp in the same year was one of the largest England has undertaken since the time of Henry V. It was composed of not less than seventy thousand men in all,--forty thousand land-forces and thirty thousand sailors. It did not succeed, on account of the incapacity of the leader.

A descent entirely similar in character to that of Charles X. of Sweden was effected by thirty Russian battalions passing the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice in five columns, with their artillery. Their object was to take possession of the islands of Aland and spread a feeling of apprehension to the very gates of Stockholm. Another division passed the gulf to Umeå, (March, 1809.)

General Murray succeeded in effecting a well-planned descent in the neighborhood of Tarragona in 1813, with the intention of cutting Suchet off from Valencia: however, after some successful operations, he thought best to re-embark.

The expedition set on foot by England against Napoleon after his return from Elba in 1815 was remarkable on account of the great mass of _matériel_ landed at Ostend and Antwerp. The Anglo-Hanoverian army contained sixty thousand men, but some came by land and others were disembarked at a friendly port.

The English engaged in an undertaking in the same year which may be regarded as very extraordinary: I refer to the attack on the capital of the United States. The world was astonished to see a handful of seven or eight thousand Englishmen making their appearance in the midst of a state embracing ten millions of people, taking possession of its capital, and destroying all the public buildings,--results unparalleled in history. We would be tempted to despise the republican and unmilitary spirit of the inhabitants of those states if the same militia had not risen, like those of Greece, Rome, and Switzerland, to defend their homes against still more powerful attacks, and if, in the same year, an English expedition more extensive than the other had not been entirely defeated by the militia of Louisiana and other states under the orders of General Jackson.

If the somewhat fabulous numbers engaged in the irruption of Xerxes and the Crusades be excepted, no undertaking of this kind which has been actually carried out, especially since fleets have been armed with powerful artillery, can at all be compared with the gigantic project and proportionate preparations made by Napoleon for throwing one hundred and fifty thousand veterans upon the shores of England by the use of three thousand launches or large gun-boats, protected by sixty ships of the line[59].

From the preceding narrative the reader will perceive what a difference there is in point of difficulty and probability of success between descents attempted across a narrow arm of the sea, a few miles only in width, and those in which the troops and _matériel_ are to be transported long distances over the open sea. This fact gives the reason why so many operations of this kind have been executed by way of the Bosporus.

* * * * *

[The following paragraphs have been compiled from authentic data:--

In 1830, the French government sent an expedition to Algiers, composed of an army of thirty-seven thousand five hundred men and one hundred and eighty pieces of artillery. More than five hundred vessels of war and transports were employed. The fleet sailed from Toulon.

In 1838, France sent a fleet of twenty-two vessels to Vera Cruz. The castle of San Juan d'Ulloa fell into their hands after a short bombardment. A small force of about one thousand men, in three columns, took the city of Vera Cruz by assault: the resistance was slight.

In 1847, the United States caused a descent to be made upon the coast of Mexico, at Vera Cruz, with an army of thirteen thousand men, under the command of General Scott. One hundred and fifty vessels were employed, including men-of-war and transports. The city of Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa speedily fell into the possession of the forces of the United States. This important post became the secondary base of operations for the brilliant campaign which terminated with the capture of the city of Mexico.

In 1854 commenced the memorable and gigantic contest between Russia on the one side and England, France, Sardinia, and Turkey on the other. Several descents were made by the allied forces at different points of the Russian coast: of these the first was in the Baltic Sea. An English fleet sailed from Spithead, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, on the 12th of March, and a French fleet from Brest, under the command of Vice-Admiral Parseval Deschênes, on the 19th of April. They effected a junction in the Bay of Barosund on the 11th of June. The allied fleet numbered thirty ships and fifty frigates, corvettes, and other vessels. The naval commanders wished to attack the defenses of Bomarsund, on one of the Aland Isles, but, after a reconnoissance, they came to the conclusion that it was necessary to have land-forces. A French corps of ten thousand men was at once dispatched to Bomarsund under General Baraguay-d'Hilliers, and the place was speedily reduced.

Later in the same year, the great expedition to the Crimea was executed; and with reference to it the following facts are mentioned, in order to give an idea of its magnitude:--

September 14, 1854, an army of fifty-eight thousand five hundred men and two hundred pieces of artillery was landed near Eupatoria, composed of thirty thousand French, twenty-one thousand five hundred English, and seven thousand Turks. They were transported from Varna to the place of landing by three hundred and eighty-nine ships, steamers, and transports. This force fought and gained the battle of the Alma, (September 20,) and thence proceeded to Sebastopol. The English took possession of the harbor of Balaklava and the French of Kamiesch: these were the points to which subsequent reinforcements and supplies for the army in the Crimea were sent.

November 5, at the battle of Inkermann, the allied army numbered seventy-one thousand men.

At the end of January, 1855, the French force was seventy-five thousand men and ten thousand horses. Up to the same time, the English had sent fifty-four thousand men to the Crimea, but only fifteen thousand were alive, present, and fit for duty.

February 4, the French numbered eighty-five thousand; the English, twenty-five thousand fit for duty; the Turks, twenty-five thousand.

May 8, 1855, General La Marmora arrived at Balaklava with fifteen thousand Sardinians.

In the latter part of May, an expedition of sixteen thousand men was sent to Kertch.

In August, the French force at Sebastopol had risen to one hundred and twenty thousand men.

September 8, the final assault took place, which resulted in the evacuation of the place by the Russians. The allies had then in battery more than eight hundred pieces of artillery.

The fleet which co-operated with the land-forces in the artillery attack of October 17, 1854, consisted of twenty-five ships. There were present and prepared to attack in September, 1855, thirty-four ships.

October, 1855, an expeditionary force of nine thousand men was sent to Kinburn, which place was captured.

Marshal Vaillant, in his report, as Minister of War, to the French emperor, says there were sent from France and Algeria three hundred and ten thousand men and forty thousand horses, of which two hundred and twenty-seven thousand men returned to France and Algeria.

The marshal's report gives the following striking facts, (he refers only to French operations:-)

The artillery _matériel_ at the disposal of the Army of the East comprised one thousand seven hundred guns, two thousand gun-carriages, two thousand seven hundred wagons, two millions of projectiles, and nine million pounds of powder. There were sent to the army three thousand tons of powder, seventy millions of infantry-cartridges, two hundred and seventy thousand rounds of fixed ammunition, and eight thousand war-rockets.

On the day of the final assault there were one hundred and eighteen batteries, which during the siege had consumed seven million pounds of powder. They required one million sand-bags and fifty thousand gabions.

Of engineer materials, fourteen thousand tons were sent. The engineers executed fifty miles of trenches, using eighty thousand gabions, sixty thousand fascines, and one million sand-bags.

Of subsistence, fuel, and forage, five hundred thousand tons were sent.

Of clothing, camp-equipage, and harness, twelve thousand tons.

Hospital stores, six thousand five hundred tons.

Provision-wagons, ambulances, carts, forges, &c, eight thousand tons.

In all, about six hundred thousand tons.

It is not thought necessary to add similar facts for the English, Sardinian, and Turkish armies.

In 1859, the Spaniards made a descent upon Morocco with a force of forty thousand infantry, eleven squadrons of cavalry, and eighty pieces of artillery, using twenty-one vessels of war with three hundred and twenty-seven guns, besides twenty-four gun-boats and numerous transports.

In 1860, a force of English and French was landed on the coast of China, whence they marched to Pekin and dictated terms of peace. This expedition is remarkable for the smallness of the numbers which ventured, at such a great distance from their sources of supply and succor, to land upon a hostile shore and penetrate into the midst of the most populous empire in the world.

The French expedition to Syria in 1860 was small in numbers, and presented no remarkable features.

Toward the close of the year 1861, the government of the United States sent an expedition of thirteen thousand men to Port Royal, on the coast of South Carolina, one of the seceding States. The fleet of war-vessels and transports sailed from Hampton Roads, under command of Captain Dupont, and was dispersed by a violent gale: the losses of men and _matériel_ were small, however, and the fleet finally reached the rendezvous. The defenses of the harbor having been silenced by the naval forces, the disembarkation of the land-troops took place, General Sherman being in command.

England, France, and Spain are now (January 16, 1862) engaged in an expedition directed against Mexico. The first operations were the capture, by the Spanish forces, of Vera Cruz and its defenses: the Mexicans offered no resistance at that point. The future will develop the plans of the allies; but the ultimate result of a struggle (if, indeed, one be attempted by the Mexicans) cannot be doubted, when three of the most powerful states of Europe are arrayed against the feeble and tottering republic of Mexico.]

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 58: Richard sailed from England with twenty thousand foot and five thousand horsemen, and landed in Normandy, whence he proceeded by land to Marseilles. We do not know what fleet he employed to transport his troops to Asia. Philip embarked at Genoa on Italian ships, and with a force at least as large as that of Richard.]

[Footnote 59: See the account of the expedition to the Crimea.--TRANSLATORS.]

INDEX

A.

Abercrombie's descent on Egypt, 384.

Accidental lines, 103.

Action, concert of, how secured, 259.

Active armies and sieges, relation between, 152.

Advanced guard, 261, 262.
attack of the enemy's, in retreats, 243.
in armies meeting unexpectedly, 208.
in battle, 288, 289.

Advance, line of, how determined, 71.

Advantages of awaiting invasion, 17.
of elevated points for observation, 276.

Aggressive wars for conquest, 22.

Agincourt, order of battle at, 192.

Albis, position of, 181.

Alcazar, battle of, 378.

Alexander the Great, 173, 362.

Alfred the Great, 369.

Algiers, French descent on, in 1830, 386.
Spanish descent on, 382.

Alise, investment of, by Cæsar, 153.

Allies, at Bautzen, 187.
defeat of, at Zurich, 112.
error of, in 1793, 107, 108.
failure of diversion of, in 1805, 219.
in war, 18.
march of, upon Leipsic, 123.

Alps, passage of, by Francis I., 168.

American Revolution, French maritime efforts during, 383.

Anglo-Russian expedition to Holland, 384.

Angoulême, Duke of, expedition of, 28.

Antony, retreat of, from Media, 233.

Antwerp, English expedition to, 385.

Archduke Charles, 294.
concentric retreat of, in 1796,238.
interior lines of, 136.
opinion of, as to small-column formation, 350.
opinion of, as to the valley of the Danube, 162.
success of, 110, 111.

Archduke Ferdinand, 53.

Armada, Spanish, 249, 378, 379.

Armament, French, at Eylau and Marengo, 47.
superior, importance of, 47, 48.

Armies, auxiliary, 170.
central, observations on, 126.
command of, 52.
French, in the Revolution, 135.
how to act, 75.
in intrenchments, 154.
in peace, how preserved, 47.
large, fitness of central lines for, 125.
large, organization of, 286.
meeting unexpectedly, advanced guard in, 208.
morale of, 60, 178, 322.
movements of, points to be attended to in, 254-256.
of French Revolution, how subsisted, 142.
of Louis XIV. and Frederick II., how subsisted, 142.
of Napoleon, operations of, 136.
promotions in, 47.
standing, effect of, on distant invasions, 171.
surprises of, 209.
two, on interior lines, 117.
two, on the same frontier, 116.
unexpected meeting of two, 207.

Armor, defensive, for cavalry, 308.

Arms and organization of cavalry, 307, 308.

Arms for irregular cavalry, 313.

Army, best means of organizing the command of, 59.

Army corps, system of, 279.

Army, defensive, proper course for, 324.
defensive, when it has the advantage, 202.
head-quarters of, when the most important point, 107.
how perfected, 43.
importance of a good, 44.
number of men in, often determines battle-formation for, 285.

Army of Boulogne, 280.
of four corps, 281.
of seven corps, 281.
offensive, proper course for, 324.
of invasion, line of defense important to, 99.
of the Rhine in 1800, 115.
permanent, necessary condition of, 49.
proportion of cavalry in, 304.
pursuing, has the advantage, 241.

Artillerists, directions for, in battle, 317.

Artillery, concentration of fire of,
in offensive line of battle, 290.
employment of, 315-318.
heavy, in defensive line of battle, 290.
importance of, to infantry, 290.
matériel of the French army in the Crimea, 388.
Napoleon's, at Wagrani, 289, 316.
post of, in line of battle, 289.
proportion of, 318.
protection of infantry from the enemy's, 303.
rules for use of, in battle, 316-318.
use of, in the offensive, 316.
who should command, 318.

Art of war, definition of, 13.
principal parts of, 66.

Assailant, advantages of, 186.

Assailant's best means of victory, 202.

Assault, beat formation of infantry for, 298.
of field-works, instances of well-arranged, 212.

Athens, naval power of, 361.

Attack, cavalry column of, 310.
close, formation for, 301.
column of, in two lines, 292.
columns of, 293, 356.
columns of, of single battalions, 298.
five methods of forming troops for, 292.
formation for, at Turin, 213.
in columns, order of, 194.
in front, 201.
in rear, 207.
of field-works, directions for, 211, 212.
of fortified places, 210.
of intrenched lines, 214.
on flank, 203.
on Sank, cavalry, 310.
when order in squares suitable for, 297.

Attacks and marches, arrangements of, 258.
in half-deep order, 302.

Audenarde, battle of, 53.

Augustus, armament of, 365.

Aulic Council, 59.

Austerlitz, 170, 179, 206.
Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.

Austria, course of, in the French Revolution, 106.
force of, in the French Revolution, 106.
fortresses of, 149.
interest of, in the French Revolution, 105.
intervention of, in 1813, 21.

Austrian army, situation of, in 1800, 112.
camp before Mayence, 157.
order at Essling and Fleurus, 200.

Austrians, surprise of, by Turenne, 246.
why victorious in 1753, 107.

Austria's adaptation to parallel retreats, 240.

Authority of counselors, 53.

B.

Balloons, difficulties in use of, 275, 276.
how they might be useful, 275.
used at Fleurus, 275.

Barbarossa, 373.

Bard, fort of, 152, 167.
importance of defile of, 87.

Base of operations, where to be established, 84.

Bases of operations, definition of, 77
of operations, how to be chosen, 79, 80.
of operations, plurality of, 78.
on the sea, 83, 84.
temporary or eventual, 84.
temporary, when necessary, 132.
with two faces, 83.

Bassano, Napoleon's march on, 131.

Battalions, deployed, in checkerwise order, 301.

Battalion squares, 296.

Batteries, 317.

Battle, advanced guard in, 288, 289.
calculation of distances in, 334.
classification of orders of, useful, 197.
combinations of, 187.
concave order of, 191.
convex order of, 192.
critical moment of, 203.
decisive moment of, 334.
defensive arrangements for, 201.

Battle-field, decisive point of, how determined, 186.
decisive point of, 187.
strategic point of, when important, 187.

Battle-formation in small columns, 350.
influence of topography upon, 299.

Battle, formation of troops for, 347-360.
influence of orders of, on result of engagements, 197.
line of, arrangement of cavalry in, 288.
line of, before the French Revolution, 277.
line of, definition of, 179.
line of, distribution of troops in, 287.
line of, post of artillery in, 289.
lines of, for two infantry corps, different formations of, 282-284.
oblique order of, 190.
of Agincourt, 192.
of Alcazar, 378.
of Audenarde, 53.
of Austerlitz, 170, 179, 198, 206.
of Bautzen, 187, 196, 317.
of Blenheim, 303.
of Cannæ, 191.
of Crécy, 192.
of Ecnomos, 363.
of Essling, 192, 193, 200, 350.
of Fossano, 168.
of Jena, 90, 198, 305.
of Leipsic, 158, 192, 193, 198, 267, 305.
of Lepanto, 378.
of Leuthen, 140, 190, 229, 342.
of Millesimo, 111.
of Mollwitz, 348.
of Prague, 189, 205.
of Ramillies, 312.
of Rivoli, 179, 198, 205.
of Torgau, 205.
of Turin, 53.
of Ulm, 53, 90.
of Ulm, won by strategy, 198.
of Waterloo, 127, 129, 130, 181, 182, 183, 196, 198, 206, 294, 295,
303-306, 354, 358, 359.
offensive, object of, 188.
offensive order of, 200.
order of, 186.
order of, at Leipsic, 193.
order of, definition of, 180.
orders of, 188.
parallel order of, 188.
reinforced, 189.
when suitable, 189.
with crotchet, 189.
perpendicular order of, 190.
position for, 341.
posting troops in line of, 277.
results of, depend on what, 178.
rules for use of artillery in, 316-318.

Battle-order for cavalry, 312.

Battle-orders, various, 349.

Battles, 178.
defensive, 179.
elements of uncertainty regarding, 197.
great difficulty of tactics of, 196.
influence of musketry-fire in, 348.
offensive, 186.
of Napoleon, orders of, 198.
rules for scientific, 200.
success in, depends on maneuvering, 360.
three kinds of, 179.
what may interfere with success of, 196.

Bautzen, battle of, 187, 317.
French at, 196.

Bellegarde, 166.

Benningsen, movement of, in 1807, 109.

Benningsen's artillery reserve at Eylau, 289.
base on Königsberg in 1807, 152.
position in 1807, 171.
mixed system at Eylau, 352.

Beresina, passage of, 226, 245.

Berg-op-Zoom, assault of, 212.

Berthier at Leipsic, 267.

Berthier's error at Wagram, 267.
error in campaign of 1809, 265.

Blenheim, battle of, 303.

Blücher, 53, 130.

"Boar's head" of the ancients, 194.

Bonaparte's career in Italy, 111.
expedition to Egypt, 383.

Borodino, Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.

Boulogne, army of, 280.
camp of, 279.

Bravery, first requisite for a leader, 345.

Bridges, how to secure, against fire-ships, &c., 245.
in retreats, 244.
means of destroying, 245.
protection of, after passage, 229.

Bridge-trains, importance of, 121.

Brienne, Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.

Buntzelwitz, camp of, 154.

Burgundy, Duke of, 53.

C.

Cæsar's investment of Alise, 153.
maritime expeditions, 365.

Campaign, Napoleon's, of 1800, 137.
of 1793, 107.
of 1799, 111.
of 1800, 112.
of 1812, Napoleon's error in, 172.
of the Spaniards in Flanders, 171.
of the Swedes in Germany, 171.

Campaigns in mountains, instances of, 169.
in winter, 68.
of 1799 and 1800, 162.

Camp at Kehl, 167.
intrenched, influence of, 155.
intrenched, on which side of a river, 157.
intrenched, on river, 156.
of Boulogne, 279.
of Drissa, 157.

Camps and lines, intrenched, defense of, 215.
fortified, 154.
intrenched, connection of, with strategy, 154.
intrenched, instances of, 210, 211.
intrenched, maxims on, 155, 156.
intrenched, Prussian system of, 158.
intrenched, use of, 156.
intrenched, where to be established, 155.
strategic square for, 99.

Candia, siege of, 380, 381.
Turkish descent on, 379.

Cannæ, order of battle at, 191.

Cantonment of Napoleon on the Passarge, 247.

Cantonments, 246.
duty of staff officers in, 256.
rules for establishing, 246.
selection of positions for, 247.

Canute, 370.

Capitals as strategic points, 87.

Capital, when the center of power, 107.

Capture of posts, means for, 216.
when important, 216.

Carbine, in cavalry-charges, 306.

Carnot, 59.
operations of, 136.

Carthage, destruction of, 364.

Carthaginians, expeditions of, 361, 362.

Cavalry, 303.
advantages of large corps of, 309.
arms and organization of, 307, 308.
arrangement of, in line of battle, 288.
at Ramillies, 312.
battle-order for, 312.
best formation of infantry against, 294.
charge at Hohenfriedberg, 305.
charge, general, 305.
charges, four kinds of, 306.
charges of the Turks, 307.
defensive armor for, 308.
divisions of five regiments, 311.
duties of, 304.
encounters of, against cavalry, 311.
flank charges of, 307.
formations of, 309-311.
importance of, in retreats, 243.
importance of, to infantry, 290.
influence of, in a war, 313, 314.
in the defensive, 306.
irregular, 313.
light, advantages of, 314.
militia as, 314, 315.
morale of, 312.
must be supported by infantry, 304.
proportion of, in an army, 304.
reserves, 288, 311.
when it should charge a line of infantry, 305.

Center, when proper point of attack, 187.

Central armies, 126.
line of Napoleon in Saxony, 124.
lines, application of, to large masses, 125.
position, when untenable, 331.

Chæronea, 365.

Charges, irregular cavalry, 313.

Charles V. of Spain, expedition of, 377.
VIII., retreat of, to Naples, 233.
X. of Sweden, expedition of, 379.
XII. of Sweden, descent of, on Denmark, 382.

Checkerwise formation of cavalry, 310.
order, infantry, 301.

Chief of staff, 57, 253.

China, English and French expedition to, 389.

Choice of objective points, 90.

Circumvallation, lines of, 152.

Civil wars, 35.

Clairfayt, victories of, 110.

Clausewitz, erroneous assertion of, 178.
opinion of, as to movements in mountainous countries, 166.

Coalition against France in 1793, 37.
Frederick the Great, 36, 37.
Louis XIV., 36.

Coasts, influence of, on descents, 251.

Coblentz, fortification of, 157, 158.
towers of, 159.

Coburg, Prince of, 109, 193.

Column of attack, cavalry, 310.
of attack in two lines, 292.

Columns of attack, 293, 294, 356.
of attack of single battalions, 298.
of four divisions in three ranks, 294.

Combinations of battle, 187.
strategic, 72.

Combined use of the three arms, 203, 319, 320.

Commander, difficulty of selecting, 55.
essential qualities for a, 55.
importance of, 54.

Commander, first care of, on taking the field, 66.
of artillery, duties of, 319.

Command of an army, best means of organizing, 59.
of armies, 52.

Commissariat, connection of, with system of marches, 141.
of Louis XIV. and Frederick II., 142.
the, and strategy, 141.

Committee of Public Safety, 136.

Concave order of battle, 191.

Concentration of artillery-fire, 290.
in retreat, advantages of, 238.

Concentric lines, 102.
retreats, instances of, 238, 239.
system, 126.

Concert of action, how secured, 259.
in action, importance of, 42.

Conquest, difficulties of, in national wars, 31-34.
wars for, instances of, 22.

Conrad III., Crusade of, 372.

Constantinople, expeditions against, by the Russians, 368.
siege of, by the Crusaders, 373.
siege of, by Mohammed II., 375.

Contempt for the enemy, 63.

Contravallation, lines of, 152.

Control of operations, 52.

Convergent operations, 126.

Converging lines more advantageous than divergent, 118.

Continuous intrenched lines, 213.

Control of the sea, importance of, in an invasion, 30.

Convex order of battle, 192.

Copenhagen, siege of, 384.

Cordon system, 165.

Corps, organization by, likely to be permanent, 287.
organization of an army in four, 281.
organization of an army in seven, 281.
system of, 279.
two, one behind the other, 285.

Cossacks, 272, 273, 313, 314.

Council of war at seat of government, 59.

Councils of war, value of, 58.

Counselors, authority of, 53.

Coup-d'oeil, strategic, 337-345.

Coups de main, 215.
instances of, 216, 223.

Crécy, order of battle at, 192.

Crimea, details of the allied expedition to, 387-389.

Crimean War, 387.

Critical moment of battles, 203.

Crossing a river in presence of an enemy, 120.

Crotchet, parallel order of battle with, 189.

Crotchets, danger of, 182.

Crusade of 1203, 373.

Crusades, 25, 371-375.

Cuirass, 47, 308.

Cuirassiers, 308.

Culm, 221.

Cyprus, Turkish expedition against, 377.

D.

Danes, incursions of, 368, 369.

Danger of two wars at once, 36.

Dangers of auxiliary armies, 170.

Danube, Napoleon's passage of, 226.
valley of, key of Southern Germany, 162.

Decisive direction, 328.
moment of battle, 334.
point at Bautzen, 187.
point, how affected by arrangement of forces, 187.
point of battle-field, 187.
point of battle-field, how determined, 88, 186.
points, 337.
points, defiles as, 87.
points of the theater of war, 85.

Deep columns, 356.
at Waterloo, 359.
masses, 298, 302.
order, disadvantages of, 298.

Defeat, 68.
of the French at Waterloo, causes of, 359.

Defense, in mountainous countries, 163.
line of, important to an army of invasion, 99.
line of, should be short, 98.
of frontiers, 146.
of intrenched camps and lines, 215.
rivers, mountains, and defiles as eventual lines of, 96.
second lines of, 147.
should not be passive, 185.
tactical, of Switzerland, 169.
maxims for frontier, 148, 149.

Defensive armor for cavalry, 308.
army has the advantage, when, 202.
army, proper course for, 324.
arrangements for battle, 201.
battles, 179.
best formation of infantry for, 298.
cavalry in, 306.
characteristics of infantry formation for, 297.
in descents, duty of, 251.
line of battle, heavy artillery in, 290.

Defensive movements, when advised, 124.
-offensive war, 74.
or offensive system, either may be employed, 185.
the, in a level country, 164.
war, 72, 73.

Defiles as decisive points, 87.
as eventual lines of defense, 96.
in retreats, 243.

Definitive lines, 103.

Dennewitz, Ney's error at, 130.

Deployed battalions in checkerwise order, 301.
lines in two ranks, 294.
lines, two, formation of infantry in, 292.

Depots, establishment of, on march, 262.
command of, 263.
lines of, 263.
of supplies, 141.
of supplies, general maxims, 143.
secondary, 262, 263.

Descents, 248.
cases where made, 250.
difficulties of, 250.
duty of defensive in, 251.
effect of modern inventions on, 248.
more extensive in ancient times, 248.
precautions after landing, 252.
rules for conducting, 251.

D'Estaing's fleet, 383.

Detached orders of Napoleon, 259.
works, importance of, 154.

Detachments, field of operations of, should be large, 220.
four kinds of, 217.
great, 217, 219, 334.
great, instances of, 221, 222.
great, why made, 220, 221.
multiplication of, must be avoided, 221.
necessary when there is a double strategic front, 220.
of Napoleon in 1805, 222.
precise rules for, cannot be laid down, 222.
requisites in officers of, 224.
small, how useful, 224.

Detachment to form strategic reserve, illustration of, 219.

Détours, 197, 204.

Difficulty of applying theories in war, 269.

Diplomacy in invasions, 24.

Direction, lines of, their importance illustrated, 116.
of lines of operations, 115.

Discipline, importance of, 42.
importance of, in retreats, 242.

Distances in battle, calculation of, 334.

Distant expeditions, 169.
invasions across extensive territories, 171.
invasions, maxim for, 173.
invasions to aid an ally, 170.

Distribution of troops in line of battle, 287.

Divergent lines, 103.

Duke of York's expedition to Dunkirk, 91.
to Holland in 1799, 91.

Dumouriez, errors of, in 1792, 106, 107.

Dunkirk, expedition to, 91.

Duties of cavalry, 304.
of staff officers, 254-256.

Duty of a general, 324.
of statesmen in offensive wars, 17.

Diversions in zone of operations, when advantageous, 222.

Division, improper use of the term, 351.

Divisions, cavalry, of five regiments, 311.
defects of system of, 278.
remedied by Napoleon, 278.
formation by, when preferable, 286.
organization of, 279, 280.
system of, 278.

Doctoroff, warning given to, in 1812, by Seslawin, 273.

Double line of operations, when applicable, 117.
when necessary, 116.
lines of operations, 102, 110.
when advantageous, 123.
lines to be avoided, 330.
passages of rivers, 230.
strategic front, 95.
wars, 36.
wars of Napoleon, 37.

Dragoons, 308.
concentration of, by Emperor
Nicholas, 309.

Drepanum, 363.

Dresden, 305.
intrenched camp at, 155, 211.
Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.
victory at, 124.

Drissa, camp of, 155, 157.

Divergent lines, when advantageous, 118.
operations, 126.
retreats, when admissible, 239.

Diversions, 218.
instances of, 218.
when useful, 218.

E.

Eccentric lines, 237.
retreat. Bulow's use of the term,
237.

Eccentric system, 126.

Echelon, order of battle by, 193.

Echelons, order in, 193.
squares in, 297.

Ecnomos, victory of, 363.

Edward III. of England, 376.

Egypt, expedition of John of Brienne against, 374.

Ehrenbreitstein, 158.

Elchingen, Ney at, 182.

Elective governments, weakness of, 46.

Elevated points, advantage of, for observation, 276.

Elongated squares, 296, 297.

Employment of artillery, 315-318.

Encounters of cavalry against cavalry, 311.

Enemy, bodies of, near line of operations, 67.
contempt for, 63.
how dislodged, 188.
how to drive from his position, 201, 202.
should not be paid to leave a country, 242.

Enemy's movements, importance of knowing, 268.

England controls the sea, 173.
invasion of, by Sweyn, 370.
projected invasion of, by Napoleon, 249, 250, 386.

England's attack on Washington in 1814, 385.

English and French expedition to China, 389.

English, descents of, on France, 376.
expedition against Napoleon in 1815, 385.
expedition in 1762 against Havana, 382.
maritime expeditions, 384-390.
squares at Waterloo, 294.

Enthusiasm, importance of, 41.
not military spirit, 62.

Epaminondas, 190.

Error of Napoleon in campaign of 1812, 172.

Error of the allies in 1793, 107, 108.

Errors in strategy, 91.

Essential bases of military policy, 49.

Essling, 192, 193, 200, 350.
Napoleon at, 158.
Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.
order of battle at, 192, 193.

Eugene at Turin, 153.
march of, 141.

Eventual bases, 84.
lines of defense, 96.

Expediency, wars of, 18.

Expedition of Prince Koudacheff, 273.
to the Crimea, details of, 387-389.

Expeditions, assistance of fleets in, 174.
distant, 169.
marine, in modern times, 249.
maritime, 361-390.
of the ancients, 248.
of the Middle Ages, 171.
partly on land, partly by sea, 173.

Extended movements, when dangerous, 204.

Exterior lines of operations, 102.

Extermination, wars of, 34.

Eylau, 305, 306, 318, 352.
French armament at, 47.
Napoleon's march on, 94.
Napoleon's order of battle at, 198.
Russian artillery reserve at, 289.
Russian order at, 295.

F.

Famous retreats, instances of, 233.

Field, strategic, of 1806, 113.

Field-works, directions for attack of, 211, 212.
instances of well-arranged assaults on, 212.

Final reserves, 203.

Financial considerations, 50.

Fire-arms, influence of improvements in, on war, 347, 355, 359.

Fire-signals, how used, 276.

Flank attack, 203.
attack, cavalry, 310.
charges of cavalry, 307.
marches, 139, 140.
marches, where inadmissible, 140.
tactical maneuver by, 140.

Flanks of companies, movement by, 300, 301.
protection of, in tactical positions, 182.

Fleets, assistance of, in expeditions, 174.

Fleurus, 136, 193, 200.
balloons used at, 275.
order of battle at, 192.

Foot-artillery in line of battle, 289.
in the offensive, 316.

Forests, advantages of, in retreats, 183.

Formation by divisions, when preferable, 286.
for attack at Turin, 213.
for battle in small columns, 350.
for battle, Napoleon's system, 278, 279.
for battle often determined by size of army, 285.
for battle, Prussian and Austrian system, 354.
for close attack, 301.
of infantry for attack, five methods of, 292.
in two ranks, 356.
of troops for battle, 347-350.

Formations of cavalry, 309-311.
of lines of battle for two infantry corps, 282-284.
various, for infantry, 285.

Fortification of Coblentz, 157, 158.

Fortifications, remark upon, 151.

Fortified camps, 154.
places, attack of, 210.
places on the sea-coast, importance of, 152.
places, when a misfortune, 152.

Fortresses at Mayence, 150.
greatest advantages of, 150.
large, when preferable, 150.
number and position of, 149.
of France and Austria, 149.
on frontiers, 148.
relation of, to strategy, 148, 150.

Forts in a mountainous country, 151.
purposes of, 146.

Fossano, battle of, 168.

Four-rank formation of infantry, 291.

France adapted to parallel retreats, 240.
coalition against, in 1793, 37.
course and error of, in 1792, 105.
fortresses of, 149.
intention of, when declaring war in 1792, 105.
invasions of, by the English, 376.

Francis I., passage of the Alps by, 168.

Frederick the Great, 36, 37.
at Leuthen, 229.
at Prague, 205.
at Torgau, 206.
commissariat of, 142.
defensive-offensive operations of, 74.
maneuver of, at Leuthen, 141.
military genius of, 16.

Frederick II., Crusade of, 374.

French and English expedition to China, 389.

French armies in the Revolution, 135.
armies, situation of, in 1800, 112.
at Bautzen, 196.
at Fleurus, why successful, 193.
at Waterloo, 196.
capture of Vera Cruz by, in 1838, 386.
causes of defeat of, at Waterloo, 359.
cavalry, 313.
columns at Waterloo, 351.
defeat of, at Stockach, 111.
descent on Algiers in 1830, 386.
errors in 1795, 136.
expedition to Syria, 390.
in Bohemia in 1742, 171.
invasions of 1766 and 1795, 120.

French, maritime efforts of, during American Revolution, 383.
operations in Italy, 112.
operations of, at close of 1793, 331-333.
operations of, in 1794, 108.
order at Essling and Fleurus, 200.
order at Minden, 278.
plan in 1799, error of, 110.
Revolution, 26-28.
Revolution, armies of, how subsisted, 142.
Revolution, course of Austria in, 106.
Revolution, course of Prussia in, 105, 106.
Revolution, interest of Austria in, 105.
Revolution, lines of operations in the wars of, 104.
Revolution, relation of Italy to, 104.
Revolution, relation of Prussia and Austria to, 104.
Revolution, theater of operations in, 104.
Revolution, zones of operations in, 105.

Frontier defenses, maxims for, 148, 149.
when a permanent line of defense, 96.

Frontiers, defense of, 146.
disadvantage of fortresses on, 148.
how to be fortified, 152.
mountains as, 146.
rivers as, 147.

Front of operations, 330, 338.
of operations, extent of, 98.
of operations, how varied, 93.
strategic, change of, 94.
strategic, not to be too extended, 98.

Fronts of operations, 92.

Fronts, strategic, 92.

Fundamental principle of war, 66.
maxims of, 70.
principles for employment of troops, 328.

G.

Gallop, when best for cavalry charge, 306, 307.

General advanced guard, how composed, 262.
cavalry charge, 305.

General, essential qualities of a, 55.
importance of a skillful, 43.
one of the greatest talents of, 74.
qualities of a skillful, 334.
what constitutes a, 327.

General principle of war, manner of applying, 175.
staff, employment of, in time of peace, 49.
staff, usefulness of, 57.

Genoa, panic at siege of, 64.

Geography, military, 39.

Geographical objective points, 88.

Germanicus, expedition of, 366.

Girondists, 26, 37.

Gosa, French charge on, 305.

Governments, elective, weakness of, 46.
should not be unprepared for war, 46.

Grand tactics, 69, 70, 178.
principles of, 360.

Great detachments, 217, 219, 334.
instances of, 221, 222.
why made, 220, 221.

Grouchy, 127.

Guard, advanced, 261, 262.
in battle, 288, 289.
in unexpected battles, 208.

Gunpowder, effect of invention of, on distant invasions, 171.

Gustavus Adolphus, expedition of, 375.

H.

Half-deep order, infantry-formation, 295.
attacks in, 302.

Halts and departures in retreats, hours of, 236.

Halts in retreats to relieve rear-guards, 236.

Hannibal at Cannæ, 191.
at Zama, 179.

Harold, 370, 371.

Head-quarters of the army, when the most important point, 107.

Heights to be secured in mountainous countries, 167.

Hengist, 367.

Henry V. of England, descents of, on France, 376.

Hoche's expedition to Ireland, 383.

Hochkirch, 303.
surprise of, 209.

Hohenfriedberg, 305.

Hohenlinden, 183, 206.

Holland, expedition to, 91.

Horse-artillery in line of battle, 289.
in the offensive, 316.

Houchard, 333.

Hougoumont, 303.

Hungary, strategic character of the mountains of, 161.

Hypotheses as to the enemy's movements, 270.

Hypotheses of the author in 1806, 271.
how events justified them, 272.

I.

Igor, expeditions of, 368.

Illustrations of importance of logistics, 263-268.

Improvements in fire-arms, effect of, on infantry formations, 299.
effects of, on war, 347, 355, 359.

Industrial pursuits secondary to heroic virtues, 60, 61.

Infantry, battle-formation of, in two lines, 287.
best formation of, for assault, 298.
best formation of, for the defensive, 298.
cavalry must be supported by, 304.
checkerwise formation, 310.
formation of, in two deployed lines, 292.
formations, effect of improvements in fire-arms on, 299.
importance of, 290.
in three-rank formation, 293.
in what movements should be exercised, 300.
lines of battle for, 282-284.
mixed order, 295.
mounted, 308.
needs support of cavalry and artillery, 290.
protection of, from enemy's artillery, 303.
squares, 294, 296.
supports of artillery, 316, 317.
three-rank formation of, 291.
various formations for, 285.
when a line of, should be charged by cavalry, 305.

Information from partisans, 270.
of enemy's movements, rules for gaining, 273, 274.
of the enemy's movements, four means of acquiring, 269.

Initiative, advantages of, 184.

Institutions, military, 43.

Interior and simple lines, advantage of, 114.

Interior lines, observations on, 123.
of Archduke Charles, 136.
of operations, 102.
of operations, why preferable, 127.
should not be too much extended, 117.
two armies on, 117.

Intervention, instances of, 20-22.
kinds of, 19.
reasons for, 19.
wars of, 19.
wars of, essentials in, 21.

Intestine wars, 35.

Intrenched camp, on which side of a river, 157.

Intrenched camps and lines, defense of, 215.
connection of, with strategy, 154.
how differ from têtes deponts, 160.
influence of, 155.
instances of, 210, 211.
maxims on, 155, 156.
on river, 156.
Prussian system of. 158.
use of, 156.
where to be established, 155.

Intrenched lines, 146, 153.
attack of, 214.
continuous, 213.

Intrenched positions, 181.

Intrenchments, armies in, 154

Invaded country, how made to contribute to success, 142.

Invasion, advantage and disadvantage of, 72.
advantages of awaiting, 17.
army of, line of defense important to, 99.
control of the sea important in, 30.
difficult in national wars, 144.
how rendered feasible, 106.
of a mountainous country, 169.
of England contemplated by Napoleon, 249, 250, 386.
of Turkey by Russia, 23.
two kinds of, 22.
wars of, when advantageous, 17.

Invasions, diplomacy in, 24.
distant, across extensive territories, 171.
distant, effect of standing armies on, 171.
distant, how affected by invention of gunpowder, 171.
distant, maxim for, 173.
distant, to aid an ally, 170.
how to be carried on, 24.
neutrality of states adjoining the theater of war important in, 174.
of neighboring states, 174.
of Spain, 23.
when excusable, 23.

Investing a city, false system of, 152.
force, how strengthened, 153.

Irregular cavalry, 313.
arms for, 313.

Islamism, wars of, 25.

Italy, operations of the French in, 111, 112.
parallel retreats in, 241.
relation of, in the French Revolution, 104.

Ivar, expedition of, 369.

J.

James II., expedition of, in Ireland, 381.

Jemmapes, 342.