Chapter II: Part 2

II. _Motion-pictures other than photoplays reproduced in copies for sale_: When the work has been published (i.e., placed on sale, sold, or publicly distributed) with the required notice of copyright upon each copy, promptly after such publication deposit in the Copyright Office two complete copies of the work, accompanied by an application for recording the claim to copyright in the published work. For this purpose use Application Form "M 1," which is furnished by the Copyright Office upon request. Also send with the application the statutory fee of $1.00.

In all cases, the money order remitting the registration fee should be made payable to the "Register of Copyrights." Send the title, description, prints, copies, application and fee in one parcel, addressed to the Register of Copyrights, Washington, D.C.

If any motion-picture has been registered as a work "not reproduced in copies for sale," it must nevertheless be registered a second time if it has been afterward published.

AD INTERIM PROTECTION

In the case of a book published abroad in the English language before publication in the United States, the deposit in the Copyright Office at Washington, not later than thirty days after its publication abroad, of one complete copy of the foreign edition, with a request for the reservation of the copyright, and a statement of the name and nationality of the author and of the copyright proprietor, and of the date of the publication of the book, secures to the author or proprietor an _ad interim_ copyright, which has all the force and effect given by copyright, and extends until the expiration of thirty days after such deposit in the Copyright Office. Whenever, within the period of this _ad interim_ publication, an authorized edition of the book is published within the United States in accordance with the manufacturing provisions specified in the American copyright law, and when the provisions of the American law as to deposit of copies, registration, filing of affidavit, and the printing of the copyright notice have been duly complied with, the protection is then extended over the full term.

ASSIGNMENT OF COPYRIGHT

A copyright may be assigned, granted, or mortgaged by an instrument in writing signed by the proprietor of the copyright. No special blank form for assignment is issued by the Copyright Office.

=Recording assignments:=

Every assignment of copyright should be recorded in the Copyright Office within three calendar months after its execution in the United States, or within six calendar months after its execution without the limits of the United States, "in default of which it shall be void as against any subsequent purchaser or mortgagee for a valuable consideration, without notice, whose assignment has been duly recorded."

The original instrument of assignment should be sent to the Copyright Office to be placed on record. A valuable document of this kind should be forwarded by registered post.

After having been recorded, a certificate of record under seal of the Copyright Office is attached, and it is then returned by post. If the sender desires to have it returned by registered post, ten cents postage for the post-office registry fee should be sent in addition to the recording fees as stated below.

=Notice in assignee's name:=

When an assignment of the copyright in a specified book or other work has been recorded, the assignee may substitute his name for that of the assignor in the copyright notice. In order that this transfer of proprietorship may properly appear upon the index of the Copyright Office, a fee of ten cents (prescribed by law) for each title of a book or other article transferred is required for indexing, and this fee should be remitted in addition to the fee prescribed for recording the instrument as explained below.

=Foreign assignments:=

Every assignment of copyright executed in a foreign country must be acknowledged by the assignor before a consular officer or secretary of legation of the United States, authorized by law to administer oaths or perform notarial acts. The certificate of such acknowledgment under the hand and official seal of such consular officer or secretary of legation is prima facie evidence of the execution of the instrument.

FEES

The following schedule of fees, in addition to those already given, is fixed by the statute:

1. For recording and certifying any instrument in writing for the assignment of copyright, or any license to make use of copyright material, or for any copy of such assignment or license, duly certified, if not over three hundred words in length, one dollar; if more than three hundred and less than one thousand words in length, two dollars; if more than one thousand words in length, one dollar additional for each additional one thousand words or fraction thereof over three hundred words.

2. For comparing any copy of an assignment with the record of such document in the Copyright Office and certifying the same under seal, one dollar.

3. For recording the transfer of the proprietorship of copyrighted articles, ten cents for each title of a book or other article, in addition to the fee prescribed for recording the instrument of assignment.

THE DURATION OF COPYRIGHT

The duration of the term of copyright is twenty-eight years. This term may be extended for a further term of twenty-eight years by the author of the work, if living, or by the widow, widower, or children, or, if they be not living, then by the author's executors, or in absence of a will, by his next of kin.

¶Application for this extension must be made to the Copyright
Office and duly registered there within one year prior to the
expiration of the original term.

THE PROTECTION OF TITLES

The cases which have thus far been settled in litigation indicate that there is nothing at present in the copyright law which gives to the author the exclusive right to the title of his particular work. There may be any number of books or stories brought out by different authors bearing the same title so long as each one is distinct and original.

APPLICATION FORMS

Applicants for copyright registration should use the application forms furnished on request by the Copyright Office. A separate form should be used for each work to be entered.

_Books_: For any new book printed and published for the first time in the United States, use Application Form and Affidavit Form "A 1" if the book is to be printed from type or plates made from type; if it is to be produced by lithographic or photo-engraving process use Application Form and Affidavit Form "A 2."

For a book reprinted in the United States, with new copyright matter, use Application Form "A 2."

For a book of foreign origin in a language or languages other than English, use Application Form "A 3."

For _ad interim_ copyright in a book published abroad in the English language, use Application Form "A 4."

For the American edition of a book in the English language on which _ad interim_ copyright has been previously secured, use Application Form and Affidavit Form "A 1."

For a _contribution_ to a newspaper or periodical, use Application Form "A 5."

_Periodicals_: For a periodical, if it is desired to make a separate application and remittance as each issue appears, use Application Form "B 1." If it is desired to file a general application in advance, and to deposit therewith a sum to cover the fees for several issues, use Application Form "B 2."

_Oral Works_: For a Lecture, Sermon, or Address for oral delivery, use Application Form "C."

_Dramas_: For a published Dramatic Composition, use Application Form "D 1."

For a Dramatic Composition of which copies are not reproduced for sale, use Application Form "D 2."

For a published Dramatico-Musical Composition, use Application Form "D 3."

_Music_: For a Musical Composition published for the first time, use Application Form "E."

For a Musical Composition, republished with new copyright matter, use Application Form "E 1."

For a Musical Composition of which copies are not reproduced for sale, use Application Form "E 2."

_Maps_: For a published map, use Application Form "F."

_Works of Art_: For a Work of Art (Painting, Drawing, or Sculpture); or for Model or Design for a Work of Art, use Application Form "G."

_Drawing or Plastic Work_: For a published Drawing or Plastic Work of a scientific or technical character, use Application Form "I 1."

For an unpublished Drawing or Plastic Work of a scientific or technical character, use Application Form "I 2."

_Photographs_: For a Photograph published for sale, use Application Form "J 1."

For a Photograph of which copies are not reproduced for sale, use Application Form "J 2."

_Prints or Pictorial Illustrations_: For the registration of any "Print" or "Pictorial Illustration," which is a printed picture, complete in itself and having artistic quality, use Application Form "K."

_Motion-Pictures_: For the registration of a Motion-Picture Photoplay reproduced in copies for sale, use Application Form "L 1."

For a Motion-Picture Photoplay of which copies are not reproduced for sale, use Application Form "L 2."

For a Motion-Picture, not a Photoplay, reproduced in copies for sale, use Application Form "M 1."

For a Motion-Picture, not a Photoplay, not reproduced in copies for sale, use Application Form "M 2."

=Renewal or extension:=

For the renewal of copyright subsisting in any work for the new renewal term of twenty-eight years as provided by the present law, use Renewal Form "R 1."

For the extension of an existing renewal term from fourteen years as provided under the old law, to twenty-eight years granted by the present law, use Extension Form "R 2."

¶These renewal forms can only be used within a period of one year
prior to the expiration of the existing term.

=Assignments:=

No forms are issued by the Copyright Office for assignments, or licenses, nor for Postmaster's receipts for articles deposited.

PRACTICAL PROCEDURE

The methods of each publisher in the various steps toward registration of copyright may vary in details, but the following method may be taken as typical and sufficient for the average American book copyrighted in the United States:

1. The type must be set up in the United States, and, if the book is printed from plates, the plates be made therefrom;

2. The book must be printed and bound in the United States;

3. The book must bear the copyright notice.

4. On the date set for publication, copies are for the first time offered to the public, sold or publicly distributed by the publisher or his authorized agents. This constitutes the "act of publication," on which the registration of copyright depends. The sale of these copies is recorded on the publisher's books in the same manner as the sale of any of his books, and this dating of the sale on his books is often deemed sufficient record of the first publication. In case books are to be distributed for sale by various booksellers as well as by the publisher himself, the booksellers must be notified in advance in order that no copies may be sold previous to the date set for first publication.

5. Either on the same day as the book is first published or promptly thereafter (but not before), blank Application and Affidavit Form "A 1" is filled out and sworn to.[25] Two copies of the book for deposit with the Copyright Office, together with this completed Application Form and a post-office money-order for the required fee of $1.00 made payable to the Register of Copyrights, are made up into one package, and the package addressed to: _The Register of Copyrights, Washington, D.C._ On the outside of the package is marked: "Books for Copyright Registration." The package is then delivered to the post-office, and the postmaster, if requested, will sign a receipt for the package which the publisher makes out. This receipt should contain the name of the book, the date, and the fact that the copies are to be transmitted to the Register of Copyrights in Washington for purpose of registration of copyright. The postmaster is required by law to forward these copies to the Copyright Office without expense to the sender.

6. After a few days a receipt under seal will come from the Copyright Office, certifying that the books have been received, with the remittance and application, and that the copyright has been duly recorded.

This is all that needs to be done for twenty-seven years, in case the copyright has not in the meantime been assigned. In case of assignment this fact should be recorded in the Copyright Office in accord with the methods specified.[26]

After twenty-seven years have passed, and within one year of the expiration of the copyright, the owner may renew it for twenty-eight years more upon application to the Copyright Office.

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT

In America, with the general lack of definite knowledge concerning all matters relating to copyright, the so-called "International Copyright" is equally shrouded in uncertainty. As the United States is not yet a member of the International Copyright Union as established in the convention of Berne, and cannot join this Union so long as the present clause in the American copyright law exists requiring all books to be completely manufactured within the United States in order to secure copyright, it will be evident that registration at Washington does not secure protection abroad. Mutual copyright protection has been arranged, however, by special treaties with foreign nations. The countries with which these treaty relations exist at present include: Belgium, France, Great Britain and her possessions, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, Netherlands and her possessions, Cuba, China, Norway, Japan (and Korea), Austria, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Luxemburg, Sweden, Tunis and Hungary. Inasmuch as we are not yet members of the International Copyright Union it is, strictly speaking, impossible for a citizen of the United States to secure "International Copyright" on his book, though a book can be protected in most of the countries where protection is desirable.[27] Many publishers secure copyright in Great Britain and her dependencies by publishing in England simultaneously with the American publication, and by conforming to the other requirements of the British law. A few publishers are of the opinion that protection in Great Britain and her colonies can be secured by publishing simultaneously in Canada instead of in England. Whether or not this is equally binding cannot be definitely determined, as no test case has as yet been made to establish or dispute the fact.

Recent copyright legislation in England has been pointed in the direction of more strict regulations regarding bona fide publication in England of American books on which English copyright is desired. This is a step in the right direction, and defines the issue somewhat more clearly, but even now conditions are not as well defined as they should be, or as they must ultimately be. The following statements may be made:

(_a_) Simultaneous publication is necessary in England and the United States. The English agents, therefore, should be supplied with not less than seven copies of the book at least one week before the date fixed for American publication.

¶Great care should be taken that the date selected for publication
is not Saturday, Sunday or a public holiday in England. These
public holidays are: Easter Monday, Monday in Whitsun-week, first
Monday in August, December 26 (or, if Sunday, December 27), Good
Friday and Christmas Day.

In Canada the public holidays are: New Year's, Good Friday, Easter
Monday, Empire Day (May 24), Dominion Day (July 1), first Mondays
in August and September (Labor Day), Thanksgiving and Christmas Day.

The publication is accepted in England as being simultaneous if the time between publication in England and in America does not exceed fourteen days. It is important to note that when the case is reversed the "simultaneous" publication of an American book in England must be made on the exact day of its publication in America.

(_b_) The so-called English agent must be an English publisher. On the day appointed for publication, the English agent must make formal sale of at least one copy of the volume, and the entry of such sale must appear upon his books. Six copies are delivered by the agent to the following libraries:

_British Museum_
_Bodleian Library, Oxford_
_University Library, Cambridge_
_Library of the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh_
_Library of Trinity College, Dublin_
_National Library of Wales_

¶It is not obligatory that five of these six copies be delivered
unless demand is formally made within twelve months after
publication, but if the books are not in stock for delivery then
the agent may be fined £5 plus the cost of the volume. The copy
for the British Museum must be delivered within one month after
publication.

If an edition de luxe is issued, the copy sent to the British
Museum must be of this edition.

Points which are still to be settled in the new English copyright law are, whether or not, in order to make a bona fide publication, copies should be sent out for review, and advertised or offered for sale by the traveling salesmen of the English publisher. It is probable that these points will be definitely determined within the next few months. The English act requires a genuine publication to satisfy public demand, and not merely a "colourable" formality. What "public demand" may be has not yet been defined.

There is no necessity for printing any notice of English copyright, as the English law does not require it; but it is customary, on American books copyrighted in England, to use the words, "Copyright in England," to give warning that copyright is claimed on the book. It is not considered necessary to have the English publisher's imprint on the title-page of such books.

The expression sometimes seen on the copyright page, "All rights reserved including that of translation into foreign languages including the Scandinavian," is now valueless. The American and English copyrights protect the book in all countries with which the United States has copyright relations, and the notice would not prevent appropriation in any country with which the United States has no copyright relations. The expression came into use during the years preceding our present reciprocal copyright arrangements, and is now discontinued by those familiar with its original significance.

RELATIONS OF THE SHORT-STORY WRITER TO THE MAGAZINES

THE contributor to the magazines stands in a relation entirely different from that of the novelist to his publisher. In this case, the author has no joint interest with the publisher, being but one of many contributors to the magazine as a whole. In an article in their "Bulletin," the Authors' League refers to these dealings as follows:

"In his relations with the magazine publisher, the short-story
writer may be considered either as an independent merchant,
peddling his wares, or as an employee,--on the same plane with the
ink-dealer and the paper-house, say, or on the same plane with the
sub-editor and the cashier. The magazine publisher, for selfish
reasons, generally prefers to consider him as a merchant. Your
committee, for reasons equally selfish but perhaps better founded,
considers him rather in the light of an employee. First, and most
importantly, the ink-dealer and the paper-house have capital; the
magazine writer brings nothing to his business but his brain and
his two hands. In the second place, a great deal of the writing for
our periodicals is done by men and women employed on salary, and
economically in the same category as the cashier or the sub-editor.
The man or woman who writes 'on the outside,' either on speculation
or on order, it seems to us, is no less a temporary employee of the
magazine.

This consideration enters into the first grievance which has been
urged by many of our members against certain of our magazines,--the
deferring of payments after the acceptance of the article or story.
As every one knows, the custom of our leading periodicals varies
greatly in this regard. Some pay upon acceptance, not nominally
but really. Certain others pay within the month. Still others pay
just about when the author can get it. The staff writer receives
his regular salary every week; the free-lance writer, working on
order, temporarily just as much a part of the magazine staff as
any regular employee, often has to wait for weeks and months.
Certain of the magazine publishers interviewed by your committee
have their ready-made answer to this: 'The ink maker and the paper
manufacturer give us time: they wait one, two, or three months for
their money; why should we be any more prompt with the author?'
This position, on the theory that the magazine writer is only an
outside employee, is of course untenable."

COPYRIGHT

From the same source comes most valuable comment regarding the importance of a fuller knowledge on the part of the short-story writer of the exact bearing of the copyright law upon his work, being the statements upon recent opinions handed down as a result of litigation. Briefly, these opinions are to the effect that a magazine copyright covers the matter contained in each number only to the extent to which such matter is the property of the magazine. It therefore follows that in the case of a story, of which only the magazine rights have been sold by the author, the magazine copyright leaves him absolutely unprotected in his dramatic and, theoretically at least, in his book rights. To save whatever he reserves, he must take copyright, also, in his own name, fulfilling the necessary formalities, such as paying a separate fee, depositing two copies of the book in the Library of Congress, and seeing that his notice of copyright appears upon the story when published in the magazine.[28] The attorney for the Authors' League advises as follows:

"So long as this and similar matters remain in doubt, both authors
and publishers should, for their own protection, agree on some
system whereby the dramatic and all other rights are thoroughly
safeguarded. This can be accomplished in either of two ways:

(_a_) The editor can copyright each story or article separately in
the author's name, printing at the bottom of the first page thereof
a proper copyright notice, as follows:

'Copyright, 1913, by John Doe'

The author should then, immediately on publication, mail one copy
of the magazine to the Register of Copyrights in Washington, in
conformity with the requirements of the present Act, enclosing the
fee of One Dollar. This is perhaps the simplest way, although it
involves a separate registration of the magazine for each story or
article so copyrighted.

(_b_) Or the author can sell his story outright to the editor
or publisher, and safely reserve his equitable interests in the
dramatic or other rights thereto by attaching to his manuscript a
'rider' or slip somewhat as follows:

'This manuscript is submitted with the understanding that, if
accepted for publication, the same shall be copyrighted by the
publishers, and all rights under said copyright (except that of
magazine publication) shall be held in trust for the benefit of the
writer or his assigns, and will be reassigned to him upon demand.'"

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS

The general advice under "Submitting the Manuscript"[29] applies with added force to the manuscripts of short stories, as the number of such manuscripts submitted to editors is naturally greater than in the case of novels and publishers. In a word, make the reading of your story as attractive and as easy for the editor as possible. In addition, these points are of importance in submitting manuscripts of short stories:

Use double space in typewriting.

Be sure that your typewriting machine is in good order. Typewritten manuscript possesses an individuality as well as hand-script, and inaccurate or slovenly pages prejudice the reader.

Always enclose a stamped, addressed envelope, and be sure that the postage is not underpaid. Manuscript copy costs two cents an ounce; when mailed with proof, it costs one-half cent an ounce.

Write your name and address in the upper, left-hand corner of the first page; in the upper, right-hand corner write the approximate number of words.[30]

A short story is usually supposed to contain from 3000 to 6000 words.

Number your pages consecutively.

The manuscript may be folded, not more than twice, but should never be rolled.

DEALINGS WITH THE EDITOR

The letter accompanying the manuscript should be brief, business-like, and to the point. The editor is too busy to concern himself with anything in connection with the writer or the story except the story itself.

Don't call upon the editor, or send him a letter of introduction; let the merit of your story be your only sponsor.

Don't ask the editor to criticize your work; place the manuscript in the hands of a professional reader if that is what you desire.

Be patient. It is reasonable to expect a decision upon your manuscript within three months' time, but not sooner.

Don't be offended by the receipt of a printed rejection slip. Personal letters are not to be expected.

Accept the editor's judgment cheerfully. Nothing is ever gained, and much is usually lost, by personal pique.

Study the spirit and policy which lie behind each publication. Just as a merchant offers his wares only in the market where the demand exists, make sure in your own mind that your story fits the magazine to which you send it.

Look upon the return of a manuscript as an opportunity for revision and improvement before sending it out again. Study it, and try yourself to discover why it did not succeed.

Keep a careful record of the peregrinations of your various manuscripts.

Be timely, remembering that "seasonable" stories should be received by the magazines four to six months before the season arrives.

The best magazines have a regular rate of payment, so it is needless to discuss terms in submitting your manuscript.

Never give a story away. If it is worth publishing it is worth being paid for, and to part with it for nothing injures the literary market for your fellow-writers as well as for yourself.

There is much difference of opinion regarding the ethics of submitting the same manuscript to more than one magazine at a time. In this matter each writer must settle the question for himself. There is no general custom, but good taste would seem to argue against the practice.

It is seldom wise to submit more than one story at a time to the same magazine.

THE LITERARY AGENT

Enlarging upon what has been said in an earlier chapter,[31] the literary agent may be found much more useful in the marketing of short stories than in novels. The relations of the author to the publisher are much closer than those existing between the short-story writer and the magazine editor, and the personality of the author is a less important factor. If the writer of short-stories makes a study of the market, and possesses ordinary business ability, he has no more occasion for an "agent" than a man engaged in any other profession. On the other hand, it is a fact that the average writer does not develop himself along these lines, so that the advice and co-operation of one who makes a business of acting as a go-between can be made exceedingly valuable.

In placing oneself in the hands of a literary agent, great care should be exercised to select one with a reputation for the successful placing of manuscripts and for prompt financial dealings.

The ordinary commission of the literary agent is 10 per cent. upon all sums received on account of the author, and it is customary for him to handle the financial as well as the literary relations between the writer and the magazines.

THE MECHANICS OF THE BOOK

SOME authors have a general idea of how a book is manufactured, but more have none. Even in the case of experienced writers, every printing-office could tell surprising stories to illustrate the unreasonableness born of a lack of knowledge of the ordinary mechanics of manufacture, or of a confidence born of too little knowledge. And unreasonableness on the part of the author means extra and unnecessary expense either to the printer or to the publisher. One of the most unfortunate features of the publishing business is that the exact cost of manufacturing a book can rarely be estimated in advance: typography, electrotyping, engraving, designing, presswork, paper, and binding can be figured closely, but the "extras," resulting from the author's carelessness, lack of knowledge of the book's mechanics, or change of heart as the manuscript goes into type, in many cases so increase the cost beyond the publisher's expectations that the publication can only show a loss instead of a profit.

These "extras" result from different causes: the manuscript may be carelessly prepared, with poor punctuation and clumsy expressions, which the author corrects in the proof. The author frequently boasts, "I know nothing about punctuation," but would an artist admit that he was ignorant of how to mix his colors? There is no question that authors sometimes take advantage of their "temperament," and lie down upon it in a manner most unfair to their co-partners in the enterprise.

Changes in the manuscript cost nothing, changes in the type cost one dollar per hour. To correct vital points after the book is in type is warranted; to correct blunders in punctuation or expression is needless expense, and is a reflection upon the intelligence of the author. Genius may be erratic, but it is more respected when it is not made to carry the responsibility of ordinary carelessness or ignorance. The writer recalls a case where the author of a story changed the name of one of the characters after the book was in type; it cost the publishers over eighty dollars. Frequently an author changes the name of his story, necessitating resetting the running-heads, the title-page, and recutting the brass dies, all of which adds expense beyond the publisher's original estimate. Countless other examples might be cited, but the main point is that all vital details should be discussed and settled while the story is still in manuscript, and after it has been placed in the printer's hands further changes should be only those which are of serious moment.

Other "extra" expenses include the cost of proofs. The publisher usually receives from the printer two sets of galley-proof, two sets of page-proof, and two sets of foundry-proof. All proofs beyond these six sets are charged for as "extra," the usual rate being one cent per page.

If the author retains his proof longer than is necessary to read and correct it, this delay frequently forces the printer to work over-time to meet publication-day; this over-time work is charged for at double price.

An author would never have any difficulty in securing a letter of introduction from his publisher to some large printing-house, and the printer would gladly give him every opportunity to familiarize himself with the mechanical processes. This knowledge, together with a study of those elements which go into the manufacture of a book, would enable the author to avoid needless cost, or to incur intelligently such extra expense as became vitally necessary.

The following suggestions are important regarding the relations between the author and the printer:

It is always wiser to leave all questions of typography for the publisher to settle with the printer, unless there is some specific reason why the author wishes to accomplish a particular result by using certain type effects.

Copy should be typewritten, and revised carefully by the author, before sending it to the printer, to correct typewriter's errors. Interlineations and erasures which make the reading difficult should be avoided. It is always a simple matter to rewrite such portions without rewriting the entire chapter.

If the author has decided preferences regarding spelling or punctuation, this fact should be clearly stated on the manuscript; otherwise the printer follows his office style, which may or may not conform with the author's ideas.

In the preparation of copy, consistency of spelling and punctuation is strongly urged, as it not only simplifies the problem for the printer, but also prevents possible misunderstanding of copy and consequent necessity for resetting.

All paragraphs should be clearly indicated in the copy.

All directions written upon the manuscript, which are not intended as "copy," should be enclosed in a circle.

The author should punctuate each sentence as he writes it, for in this way the marks are indicative of the natural pauses, and better express his meaning.

Foot-notes should always be clearly indicated.

Unusual words, proper names, and figures should be written out with the greatest care and distinctness by the author.

It is for the common advantage of the author, the publisher, and the printer that the author or the editor read all proofs promptly.

ESTIMATING THE MANUSCRIPT

The usual procedure in making a book is as follows: When the publisher sends the manuscript to the printer, a request goes with it for a sample page, set to a size and in a type which will make a volume of the desired number of pages. A novel is supposed to run from 320 pages to 400 pages. The first thing to be done is to estimate the number of words in the manuscript, and this is accomplished by averaging the number of words in say thirty lines, and then multiplying by the number of lines on a page. No allowance is made for fractional lines, as these also occur in the printed page. If the manuscript is carefully written, each page will contain the same number of lines, so the total number of words may be found by multiplying the number of words on the page, as arrived at above, by the total number of pages in the manuscript. This explains the importance of having a standard number of lines on each page.[32] No allowance is made for fractional pages at the end of chapters, as there are also fractional pages in the printed book, and it averages up.

The front matter has to be estimated separately, with allowance for the blanks on the reverse of bastard-title, dedication, etc.,[33] but the usual number of pages is eight. Then, again, an allowance of half a page for each chapter sinkage[34] has to be made. Suppose we have a manuscript of 90,000 words, with 24 chapters: A type page of 280 words gives us 322 pages, to which we add 8 pages for front and 12 pages for chapter sinkages, giving us a volume of about 344 pages. As the presswork is usually done in forms of 32 pages, an effort is always made not to exceed even forms by a small number of pages. Striking out the bastard-title will often save a form of press-work.

Various short-cuts have been suggested for estimating the number of words in a printed page, but the old-fashioned method of counting is the safest. Here is a table which is as accurate as any short-cut can be:

Words in
sq. in.

18-Point (Great Primer), solid 7
14-Point (English), solid 10
12-Point (Pica), solid 14
12-Point (Pica), leaded[35] 11
11-Point (Small Pica), solid 17
11-Point (Small Pica), leaded 14
10-Point (Long Primer), solid 21
10-Point (Long Primer), leaded 16
9-Point (Bourgeois), solid 26
9-Point (Bourgeois), leaded 20
8-Point (Brevier), solid 30
8-Point (Brevier), leaded 21
7-Point (Minion), solid 38
7-Point (Minion), leaded 27
6-Point (Nonpareil), solid 47
6-Point (Nonpareil), leaded 33
5-Point (Pearl), solid 69
5-Point (Pearl), leaded 50

In cases where the number of lines to the inch of certain sizes of type is desired, the following table may be employed up to 18-point body:

No. lines
No. lines leaded with
Size of type set solid 2-point leads

5-pt. 14 10
5½-pt. (agate) 13+ 9+
6-pt. 12 9
8 " 9 7+
10 " 7+ 6
12 " 6+ 5+
14 " 5+ 4+
18 " 4 3+

THE SAMPLE PAGE

With these details settled, the sample page is next in order. Knowing that the book is to be a 12mo (size of leaf 5⅛ × 7⅝) or a 10mo (size of leaf 5½ × 8¼), the printer must "lay out" the page so as to leave margins of proper size and proportion. A 12mo type page may vary from 3 × 5¼ inches to 4 × 6¾ inches. Somewhere within this area, in the given example, the page must contain about 280 words. If the manuscript is long, then the type page must be large, the type itself small (never smaller than long primer[36] nor larger than pica[36]), the leads[36] reduced or omitted altogether. This is where the printer's taste and skill is given an opportunity for expression: he is the architect of the book, and must not combine types or decorations which are inharmonious, and his proportions must be kept correct.

For his sample page for the given novel, the printer would select from these standard faces:

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLM
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP abcdefghijklmno_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLM ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
_abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890_
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLM ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
_abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890_
_ABCDEFGHIJKLM NOPQRSTUVW_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLM ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
_ABCDEFGHIJKLM abcdefghijklmnop_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabc 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP abcdefghijklmnopq_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
_abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890&_
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXY_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKL
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO abcdefghijklmnop_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwyz 1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO ABCDEFGHIJKLM
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMN abcdefghijklmnopq_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 abcde
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP abcdefghijklmnopqrstu_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 abc
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
_abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 & abc_
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZIS_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 abc
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO& abcdefghijklmnopqr_]

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 abc
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
_ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP abcdefghijklmnopqr_]

Type sizes in the present day are determined by the point system, the fundamental unit of which is the point. This is obtained by dividing a length of 13⅘ inches into 996 equal parts, each one being called a point. One point is therefore .0138 of an inch or 72.46 points are equal to 1 inch.

For purposes of convenience, a point is expressed as being 1/72 of an inch. Thus 6-point type occupies 6/72 of an inch of space, 12-point 12/72 and so on. This does not mean, however, that the actual printed face occupies six points on the paper, but that it is six points from the base to the top of the body carrying the face.

In other words, one may say that it is 12 points from the bottom of one line of 12-point type to the _bottom_ of the next line of 12-point type, etc.

The pica is the standard of measurement of the old system, and is equal to 12 points of the new system; thus six picas are equal to 1 inch or 72 points. Printers still estimate the length and width of a page or a column by the pica; thus a page 4 inches wide is 24 picas.

The "em" is the square of a type body. Thus a "12-point em" is 12 points wide and 12 points long, or 1 pica long and 1 pica wide. A "10-point em" is a 10 point square, etc. The em used in measuring newspaper column widths, magazine columns, etc., is known as the em pica, which is 12 points square.

In using larger faces for headings and display, or smaller faces for footnotes or quoted matter, the printer will select from the same family to which the type belongs, or from some family which combines with it harmoniously. Old-style faces should not be used with modern faces, but the Scotch face, which is a cross between old-style and modern, combines well with either.

As to leading, this volume is leaded with a 1-point lead; between the first and second lines of the preceding paragraph there is no leading (technically, "set solid"); between the second and third, a 2-point lead, and between the third and fourth, a 3-point lead.

In technical volumes and schoolbooks the Old Style Antique type is largely used for subject-headings and side-notes:

=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 abc
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&AJ=]

THE TYPESETTING

With the sample page accepted by the publisher or author, or both, the printer is authorized to proceed with the typesetting. Setting type by hand is now almost entirely superseded by machine-composition, except for the display pages (such as the title) and where the type itself runs larger than the English (14-point) size, this being the limit of the machines. Linotype[37] composition is cheaper than monotype,[37] but as the type is cast all in one line, instead of in separate characters, the cost of corrections is much higher. To change even a mark of punctuation requires recasting the entire line. If the manuscript is reasonably final in its form, the publisher is likely to order linotype composition; otherwise, monotype will be selected. Both machines carry the standard faces and sizes of type.

THE PROOFS

The first proofs sent out by the printer are called "galley-slips," or "galleys."[38] These are supposed to give the author opportunity to make such changes as are absolutely necessary. When returned to the printer, these galleys are made up into "page-proofs,"[38] and frequently go again to the author, or the type may be "cast" (made into electrotype plates) at this point. When page-proofs are submitted to the author, the publisher expects him to revise them, making sure that all his galley corrections have been properly made, rather than to make further corrections, as changes in the pages are still more expensive than in the galleys. If changes must be made, the author should endeavor to have the correction occupy exactly the same space as the matter cut out, or to cut out further matter to make room for the addition. Otherwise, the page so corrected will contain more than the standard number of lines, which must be thrown forward, and the make-up of each page changed to the end of the chapter.

Competent proofreaders in the best offices frequently call the attention of the author to errors in dates, figures, or proper names, but this should always be regarded by the author as a courtesy rather than as something which the printer is expected to do. The proofreader, on the other hand, is supposed to have corrected every typographical error, and for the author to mark corrections which have been overlooked is a courtesy on the part of the author. The fact that the author or editor has passed over typographical errors in no way relieves the proofreader of his responsibility.

The proofreader is expected to correct any obvious error without hesitation, but to make no other changes. If he thinks a change should be made, it will take the form of a query in the margin to the author. The author should carefully note all such queries, and answer them or strike them out, bearing in mind that if he accepts the query the change necessitated in the type becomes an author's correction, the expense of which falls upon the publisher.

Any marks on the proofs for correction should be made distinct by drawing a short line through the letter to be changed, etc., placing in the margin the recognized sign indicating the change, _exactly opposite the line in which the change is to be made, and in the order in which the necessary alterations occur_. In doing this be sure to write legibly, and do not cover the proof with lines and counter-lines.

The author should familiarize himself with the standard proofreading marks, and employ these in marking all corrections upon the proofs which are sent him. These marks are as follows:

THE above marks are the ones most generally used in proofreading. There are many others that are required in different classes of work, but these are in the main self-explanatory. This display of proof marks and their meanings has been prepared for THE GRAPHIC ARTS and endorsed by the Boston Proofreaders Association.

THE GRAPHIC ARTS, Boston]

When the page-proofs are returned to the printer, they are carefully "read for foundry" by the proofreader, and all final changes in the type are then made. "Bearers"[39] are placed around pages, which are imposed[39] in chases[39] and sent to foundry.[39] Foundry-proofs are taken at this point.

THE PLATES

The process of electrotyping is one of the most interesting steps in the making of a book, and authors will find it well worth while to brave the grime of the black-lead in order to become familiar with the detail. In brief, the type form is pressed down into a tablet made of wax or similar substance, in which it leaves an impression. This wax tablet is then allowed to remain in a galvanic bath, through which it becomes covered with a coating of copper. When separated from the wax, the thin, copper replica of the composed type is backed up by an alloy, and, after passing through various stages in finishing, finally becomes an electrotype plate.[39]

COVER DESIGN AND ILLUSTRATIONS

While the printer has been engaged in putting the manuscript into type, the publisher has had a designer at work upon a cover sketch, and an artist upon such illustrations as the book requires. All this has to fall in with the publisher's general scheme for the book as a whole. The designer must know what limits are placed upon him as to the number of inks or foils, or the amount of gold-leaf which he may employ. The artist must know whether his pictures are to be drawn for full color, two-color or one-color plates. In deciding these questions, the publisher is influenced by what he believes the book to require in its appeal to the public, and how great an expense is warranted by the probability of its success.

ENGRAVING

The illustrations in all except the most pretentious volumes are either halftone or lineplate photo-engravings. In making a halftone plate, the picture or object to be reproduced is photographed through a screen consisting of a glass plate, diagonally ruled at right angles in two directions with lines numbering from fifty to four hundred to the inch. This screen is placed inside of the camera and in front of, and very near, the chemically sensitized plate. The light reflected from the object to be photographed, varying in intensity according to the lights and shadows of the object, is focused on the sensitized plate through the intervening line screen, and affects the sensitized film more or less according to its intensity. This causes a chemical change of such nature that the next following operations, the development and the intensification of the picture, result in producing it in the form of dots and stipples varying in size, and consequently in the respective light and shade effects, according to the varying lights and shadows of the original. Inasmuch as the lights show dark and the darks light, the picture on the glass makes a negative of the subject. This negative is placed in a printing frame, in close contact with a polished copper plate prepared with a film sensitive to the light. A few minutes' exposure to the light renders insoluble in water those parts of the film which the light has reached through the negative, and when the other parts of the film, which remain soluble in water, are washed away, the picture appears clear on the surface of the plate. The dots and the stipples forming the picture are then further treated to enable them to resist the action of the solution of iron perchloride to which the plate is next subjected, which etches out the spaces between the dots, and leaves the latter in relief. As the etching on the copper must be in reverse as regards right and left, in order that it may appear in proper relation when printed on the paper, the negative must be produced through a reflecting prism, or the finished negative, properly toughened, must be stripped from the glass on which it has been produced, and turned over. In ordinary practice, a number of such turned negatives are placed together on a single large glass, and exposed together on a large copper plate, to be cut apart afterwards and mounted separately. The primary etching is usually supplemented by further processes, such as re-etching, vignetting, hand-tooling and routing. The finished plate is finally mounted on a wooden block to the height of type.

Illustrations in full color are reproduced from corresponding originals, usually paintings in oil or water-color, by means of the three-[40] or four-color[40] process of reproduction. The plates for this purpose are usually all halftone, but are sometimes a combination of halftones and Benday[40] plates. Two-color halftones have either a tint background, or secondary plate in tint, the latter forming the underground upon which the keyplate is printed in black. In the three-color process, the respective plates are printed in yellow, red and blue successively over one another. In the four-color process a fourth plate is used to emphasize the blacks of the picture, the plate being virtually a keyplate, combining all the features of the subject, printed on top of the other three colors, usually in black or dark gray.

It is of particular importance that the engraver who is to make the halftone plates should be informed as to the kind of paper they are to be printed on. A 50-line halftone plate will print on almost anything, but is too coarse to render the details of the picture, and is usually applied only for newspaper use. It would be entirely too coarse for the purpose of book illustration. On the other hand, a halftone plate made through a screen of 400 lines to the inch can be printed satisfactorily only upon paper of the highest surface, and with correspondingly careful presswork. For super-calendered or English-finish paper, plates made through a 133-line screen are most advisable, while the average coated or enameled paper will take 150-line halftones to best advantage.

Lineplates are etchings in relief on plates of zinc or copper, reproduced from pen-and-ink-drawings, or diagrams, by photo-mechanical process. The method in general is the same as that for halftone work, but without the intervention of the screen. In lineplates, the light and shade effects are produced by gradations of thick and thin lines, in distinction from the effects of wash-drawings and photographs, which are produced by gradations of tone. The latter require the intervention of the screen to convert the full tone gradations into the halftone of the dots and stipples, while the former may, as already noted, be reproduced directly.

Other classes of engravings, of a more costly kind, and which are therefore used only in books of more expensive character, are the various forms of engraving in intaglio; that is to say, in effects produced by cutting or etching the design into and below the surface of the plate, instead of cutting or etching away the ground, and leaving the design in relief. Examples of this order are the old-time copperplate engraving, the more modern steel-engraving,[41] in the form of line or mezzotint effects,[41] photogravure,[41] and the yet more recent photo-intaglio process known as rotogravure,[41] and photo-mezzotint.

DIE CUTTING

Dies,[41] generally required for stamping the covers of books in gilt letters and designs, are cut in brass by hand or by finely adjusted routing-machines, the design being drawn upon the metal by an artist, or transferred to it by photography. In the case of very elaborate designs, the dies are first etched by nitric acid or iron perchloride, and the more open or less intricate spaces then deepened by hand, or by the routing-machines.

THE PAPER

In selecting the paper for the book, the publisher must consider the surface required by his plates, the weight necessary to give a proper bulk in proportion to the size of his volume, and the quality as regulated by the price. The average book, with no text illustrations, is printed on wove[42] paper of antique finish, which is a fairly rough surface, giving a maximum bulk. A 12mo[42] book should bulk 1 to 1⅛ inches, a 10mo[42] book, 1⅛ to 1¼ inches. If the book runs more than an average length, a medium-or a plate-finish paper may be used, and the weight per ream is regulated by the number of pages in each volume and the bulk required.

Lineplates print satisfactorily on medium-finish paper, and even on antique-finish if the lines are not too fine. Halftones require English-finish,[42] super-calendered[42] or coated[42] paper. Inserts[42] are almost always printed upon coated paper.

Laid[42] paper is used in more expensive books, as, from its nature, better and more costly stock is required in its making.

THE PRESSWORK

Books are printed in forms[42] of 4 pages and multiples of 4 pages, depending upon the size of the paper leaf. The usual form is 32 pages, so the publisher tries to plan his volume to make approximately even forms. To print any number of pages over an even form is as expensive as to print the complete 32 pages.[43]

THE BINDING

In binding, the questions to be settled include the style of back,--flat, half-round, or round; plain or gilt-top; headband[45] or not; trimmed or uncut edges;[44] kind of cloth,--T pattern,[45] silk,[45] vellum,[45] etc.; color and shade of cloth; location of dies; stamping,--ink, foil, gold or Oriental tissue, etc.; jacket,--glassine, manila, or printed.

THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE BOOK

THE proper layout for an ordinary volume, arranged in accord with the best usage, is as follows:

Bastard-Title (_right hand_).
Blank Page or Advertising Card (_left hand_).
Title-Page (_right hand_).
Copyright Page and the Printer's Imprint (_left hand_).
Dedication (_right hand_).
Blank Page (_left hand_).
Preface (_begins on right hand_).
Table of Contents (_begins on right hand_).
List of Illustrations (_begins on right hand_).
Introduction (_begins on right hand_).
Half-Title (_right hand_).
Blank Page (_left hand_).
First Page of Text (_begins on right hand_).

In limited editions, the limit notice is placed upon the reverse of the bastard-title, or on a left-hand page facing the bastard-title.

Following the text may be:

Appendix (_begins on right hand_).
Glossary (_begins on right hand_).
Bibliography (_begins on right hand_).
Index (_begins on right hand_).

Considering these various divisions more at length:

BASTARD-TITLE