Chapter I: Front Matter

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THE CHINA OF CHIANG K'AI-SHEK:

A Political Study

by

PAUL M. A. LINEBARGER

Duke University

Greenwood Press, Publishers Westport, Connecticut

The Library of Congress has catalogued this publication as follows: Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Linebarger, Paul Myron Anthony, 1913-1966. The China of Chiang K'ai-shek; a political study. Reprint of the 1943 ed. published by World Peace Foundation, Boston. Includes bibliographical references. 1. China--Politics and government--1912-1949. 2. Chiang, Kai-shek, 1886- . I. Title. DS774.L48 1973 320.9'51'042 73-725 ISBN 0-8371-6779-5

Copyright 1942 by World Peace Foundation Originally published in 1943 by World Peace Foundation, Boston

Reprinted with the permission of World Peace Foundation First Greenwood Reprinting 1973

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 73-725 ISBN 0-8371-6779-5

Printed in the United States of America

TO MY MOTHER

_With Love_

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments, for a work of this type, are always insufficient and often ungracious. Today, political and military conditions forbid mention of some of the persons to whom I am most indebted. Furthermore, it is unfeasible to thank those teachers and friends who have prepared me in years past for the present work. Nevertheless, courtesy and candor demand that I indicate the extent of my obligation, and tender these inadequate thanks.

For interviews, hospitality and other kindnesses shown me in Western China I wish to thank Generalissimo and Mme. Chiang K'ai-shek; Their Excellencies, Sun K'ê, Yü Yu-jen, H. H. Kung, Wang Ch'ung-hui, Chang Chia-ngau, T. F. Tsiang, Yeh Ch'u-tsang, Kan Nai-kuang, Ch'ên Kuo-fu, Wang Shih-chieh, Ch'u Chia-hua, Hollington Tong, and Ma Chao-chun; Major Generals J. L. Huang and Ch'u Shih-ming; Bishop Paul Yu-pin; and Messrs. Foo Ping-shêng, Chên Ming-shu, Lo Chia-lun, Edward Bing-shuey Lee, Han Lih-wu, P. C. Kuo, Ch'ên Chih-mai, Kinn-wei Shaw, James Y. C. Yen, Wang Shen-tsu, Shuming T. Liu, Jen Shieh, Li Ch'in-shui, and Ma P'in-ho. Among the foreign community, I wish to thank the American Ambassador, Mr. Nelson Johnson, and Mr. E. F. Drumwright for their kind reception; and to thank Mr. Tillman Durdin, Mr. Theodore White, Mr. George Fitch, Dr. J. B. Tayler, Professor Frank Price, and Professor and Mrs. J. B. Slocum.

I feel myself peculiarly fortunate in having three such good, loyal friends as Drs. Chu Djang, Miao Chung-yi, and Yin Pao-yü, whose kindnesses to me have continued ever since our student days together at the Johns Hopkins.

Dean Shen Ch'un-lu, Mr. Tso T'ao-fên and their associates in the National Salvation movement; Colonel Ch'in Po-k'u of the Communist Party; Mr. Chang Peh-chuen of the Third Party; Dr. Carson Chang of the National Socialist Party, and other spokesmen for minority and unofficial groups were most generous with their time and information.

Messrs. You Shoo-tseng, Yang Chun, Wu Hsüeh-ping, Hawthorne Chen and others translated Chinese materials for or with me. Save for their help, so liberally and painstakingly rendered, this book would have been delayed for months if not years. These gentlemen are not to be held responsible for the selection of materials, nor for the translations in their present form, since I have sought to check and revise this work as far as time and my imperfect command of written Chinese have permitted.

The International Peace Campaign (China Branch), The People's Foreign Relations Association, The Chinese-American Institute for Cultural Relations, and other institutions in Free China were generous with their hospitality and facilities. I owe particular thanks to the Central Bank of China for the high courtesy shown me through the Chief Secretary and the following gentlemen: Mr. T. T. Wang, Chief of the Engineering Division; Mr. Ch'ên Yin-sung, Manager, Kiating Branch; and Mr. Yang Hsia-tz'ŭ, Manager, Chengtu Branch. The officers of the Bank went to enormous pains to ensure my timely, safe return to Chungking when I was ill, hurried, tardy, and in danger of missing my prearranged bookings back to America. Special acknowledgment must also be offered to Mr. C. C. Chi, for his unfailing kindness in providing interviews and trips, and to the China National Aviation Corporation for their unusual courtesies.

In Hong Kong, I was assisted by Dr. Eugene Chen, Dr. Wên Yüan-ning, Dr. Ch'en Han-seng, and Mr. Liu Yu-wan.

In Shanghai, Mr. T. Nakada of the Japanese consulate-general was most helpful.

In Nanking, Messrs. Wên Chung-yao, Kiang Kang-hu, Tsu Min-yi, Lin Pai-shêng, Li Shêng-wu, Hsü Liang, George Wên, P. C. Huang, T'ang Leang-li, K. S. James Woo and L. K. Kentwell were most hospitable. Mr. M. Kimura, of the Japanese Embassy in Nanking, was kind and courteous. I wish to thank these gentlemen for their friendliness to an alien scholar who had just come from the other side of the war.

In Tokyo, Messrs. Yokachiro Suma, Yoji Hirota, Kaneo Tsuchida, and Nobuo Fujimura of the Foreign Office were hospitable and informative.

Mr. Robert Kempton, Mr. George Giffen, and Dr. Louis Wilkinson showed me great kindness on my journey.

In the United States, I am indebted for introductions and advice to Dr. Hu Shih, the Chinese Ambassador; Professor George Taylor, of the University of Washington; and Mr. Frederick V. Field, of the American Council of the Institute of Pacific Relations.

My colleagues and friends at Duke University have been very helpful. Professors Homer Dubs and Paul H. Clyde, my colleagues in the Far Eastern field, read the manuscript and made invaluable suggestions; Professor Dubs' command of Chinese has saved me from many predicaments. Professor Robert R. Wilson has been unfailing in his encouragement, sympathetic interest, and facilitation of my plans.

The Duke University Research Council has assisted me with annual grants for the collections of documentary materials on Chinese politics. Save for this, I have received no financial aid or subsidy from any institution, person, or government whatever.

Mr. J. C. Yang, Mr. and Mrs. R. E. Hosack, Mrs. Freda Townsend, and Mrs. Margaret Linebarger have assisted me with manuscripts and proof.

I wish to thank the Director, Dr. S. Shepard Jones, and the staff of the World Peace Foundation for their patience, and helpfulness during the preparation of this work for the press. Miss Marie J. Carroll has been especially helpful.

All opinions and statements herein expressed are my own, unless clearly indicated as quotation. These acknowledgments are a record of thanks. I assume sole and complete responsibility for the contents of this book.

P. M. A. L.
_Durham, North Carolina
March 31, 1941_

WORLD PEACE FOUNDATION

40 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston, Massachusetts

_Founded in 1910_

_Board of Trustees_

GEORGE H. BLAKESLEE, _President_
FRANK AYDELOTTE
JAMES PHINNEY BAXTER, 3d
HARVEY H. BUNDY
LEONARD W. CRONKHITE
STEPHEN DUGGAN
HARRY A. GARFIELD
CHRISTIAN A. HERTER
BRUCE C. HOPPER
MANLEY O. HUDSON
A. LAWRENCE LOWELL
J. GRAFTON ROGERS
CHARLES SEYMOUR
JOHN H. WILLIAMS
HENRY M. WRISTON

_General Staff_

S. SHEPARD JONES, _Director_
DENYS P. MYERS, _Research_
MARIE J. CARROLL, _Reference_
MARY J. MACDONALD, _Treasurer_

The World Peace Foundation is a non-profit organization which was founded in 1910 by Edwin Ginn, the educational publisher, for the purpose of promoting peace, justice and good-will among nations. For many years the Foundation has sought to increase public understanding of international problems by an objective presentation of the facts of international relations. This purpose is accomplished principally through its publications and by the maintenance of a Reference Service which furnishes on request information on current international problems. Recently increased attention has been focused on American foreign relations by study groups organized for the consideration of actual problems of policy.

CONTENTS

_Frontispiece_--Generalissimo Chiang K'ai-shek
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1

The Chinese Political Inheritance: Some Continuing Aspects 1

China at the Outbreak of War 6

The Beginning of Active Hostilities 11

The Hankow Period 15

The Chungking Period 19

I. THE CONSTITUTION 21

The _Yüeh-fa_ of 1931 22

The Draft Permanent or Double Five Constitution 25

The Issue of Constitutional Change 31

II. THE POLITICAL ORGANS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 41

The Five-Power Constitution 42

The Supreme National Defense Council 46

The President of the National Government 52

The Council of State 53

The Executive _Yüan_ 56

The Military Affairs Commission 60

The Judicial, Legislative, Examination and Control _Yüan_ 65

III. CONSULTATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANS 69

The People's Political Council 69

The Administrative Pattern 79

The Political Ministries 81

Social and Cultural Agencies 83

The Economic Ministries 85

IV. PROVINCIAL, LOCAL, AND SPECIAL-AREA GOVERNMENT 98

Chart on Provincial and Urban Government facing 98

The Provinces 99

Local Government 103

The Communist Zone 111

Guerrilla Governments 116

V. THE KUOMINTANG 124

The Party Constitutional System 125

Party Organization 129

The Kuomintang Bid for Leadership 140

Intra-Kuomintang Politics 142

The New Life Movement and Other Affiliates 149

VI. THE COMMUNIST AND MINOR PARTIES 159

The Chinese Communists: Party and Leaders 160

Communism: Patriotism or Betrayal? 171

The National Salvation Movement 175

The Third Party 178

The Chinese National Socialist Party 179

Social Democrats and _La Jeunesse_ 181

VII. GOVERNING INSTITUTIONS OF THE JAPANESE AND PRO-JAPANESE 183

The Japanese Army as a Chinese Government 185

The Problem of Puppet States 188

The Provisional and Reformed Governments 192

The Reorganized National Government of Wang Ch'ing-wei 197

VIII. EXTRA-POLITICAL FORCES 211

The Foundations of Chinese Government 212

Mass Education 214

Rural Reconstruction 218

The Chinese Industrial Cooperatives 223

Unorganized Pressure 234

IX. SUN YAT-SEN AND CHIANG K'AI-SHEK 239

Sun Yat-sen 240

The _San Min Chu I_ 250

Chiang K'ai-shek 254

Chinese Appraisals of Chiang 266

The Ideology of Chiang 269