Chapter XXXII: The Preservation of Myths (5)

=Erichthonius=
+-- Pandion I
+-- Erechtheus
| +-- Pandion II
| | +-- =Ægeus=
| | ==Æthra=
| | +-- =Theseus= (see above)
| +-- Creüsa
| =Apollo
| +-- =Ion=
| =Xuthus
+-- =Procne=
+-- =Philomela=

=Cecrops= (see =65=). According to one tradition, Cecrops was autochthonous and had one son, Erysichthon, who died without issue, and three daughters, Herse, Aglauros, and Pandrosos (personifications of Dew and its vivifying influences). According to another, he was of the line of Erichthonius, being either a son of Pandion I, or a son of Erechtheus and a grandson of Pandion I. Apollodorus makes him father of Pandion II. He was regarded as founder of the worship of Athene and of various civic institutions. He is probably a hero of the Pelasgian race.

=Ion.= According to one tradition, the race of Erechtheus became extinct, save for Ion, a son of Apollo and Creüsa, daughter of Erechtheus. This son, having been removed at birth, was brought up in Apollo's temple at Delphi, and, in accordance with the oracle of Apollo, afterwards adopted by Creüsa and her husband Xuthus (see the Ion of Euripides). Ion founded the new dynasty of Athens. But, according to Pausanias and Apollodorus, the dynasty of Erechtheus was continued by =Ægeus=, who was either a son, or an adopted son, of Pandion II. By Æthra he became father of Theseus, in whose veins flowed, therefore, the blood of Pelops and of Erichthonius.

_=Interpretative.=_ The story of =Philomela= was probably invented to account for the sad song of the nightingale. With her the swallow is associated as another much loved bird of spring. Occasionally Procne is spoken of as the nightingale, and Philomela as the swallow, and Tereus as taking the form of a red-crested hoopoe.

_=Illustrative.=_ Chaucer, Legende of Good Women (Philomene of Athens); Milton, Il Penseroso; Richard Barnfield, Song, "As it fell upon a day"; Thomson, Hymn on the Seasons; Swinburne, Itylus; Oscar Wilde, The Burden of Itys; Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd's drama, Ion.

=176-181. Tr[oe]zen=: in Argolis. According to some the Amazonian wife of Theseus was =Hippolyta=, but her Hercules had already killed. =Theseus= is said to have united the several tribes of Attica into one state, of which Athens was the capital. In commemoration of this important event, he instituted the festival of =Panathenæa=, in honor of Athene, the patron deity of Athens. This festival differed from the other Grecian games chiefly in two particulars. It was peculiar to the Athenians, and its chief feature was a solemn procession in which the Peplus, or sacred robe of Athene, was carried to the Parthenon, and left on or before the statue of the goddess. The Peplus was covered with embroidery, worked by select virgins of the noblest families in Athens. The procession consisted of persons of all ages and both sexes. The old men carried olive branches in their hands, and the young men bore arms. The young women carried baskets on their heads, containing the sacred utensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the sacrifices. The procession formed the subject of the bas-reliefs which embellished the frieze of the temple of the Parthenon. A considerable portion of these sculptures is now in the British Museum among those known as the "Elgin Marbles." We may mention here the other celebrated national games of the Greeks. The first and most distinguished were the =Olympic=, founded, it was said, by Zeus himself. They were celebrated at Olympia in Elis. Vast numbers of spectators flocked to them from every part of Greece, and from Asia, Africa, and Sicily. They were repeated every fifth year in midsummer, and continued five days. They gave rise to the custom of reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. The first Olympiad is generally considered as beginning with the year 776 B.C. The =Pythian= games were celebrated in the vicinity of Delphi, the =Isthmian= on the Corinthian isthmus, the =Nemean= at Nemea, a city of Argolis. The exercises in these games were chariot-racing, running, leaping, wrestling, throwing the quoit, hurling the javelin, and boxing. Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were contests in music, poetry, and eloquence. Thus these games furnished poets, musicians, and authors the best opportunities to present their productions to the public, and the fame of the victors was diffused far and wide.

=_Interpretative._ Theseus= is the Attic counterpart of Hercules, not so significant in moral character, but eminent for numerous similar labors, and preëminent as the mythical statesman of Athens. His story may, with the usual perilous facility, be explained as a solar myth. =Periphetes= may be a storm cloud with its thunderbolts; the =Marathonian Bull= and the =Minotaur= may be forms of the power of darkness hidden in the starry labyrinth of heaven. Like Hercules, Theseus fights with the =Amazons= (clouds, we may suppose, in some form or other), and, like him, he descends to the underworld. =Ariadne= may be another twilight-sweetheart of the sun, and, like Medea and Dejanira, she must be deserted. She is either the "well-pleasing" or the "saintly." She was, presumably, a local nature-goddess of Naxos and Crete, who, in process of time, like Medea, sank to the condition of a heroine. Probably from her goddess-existence the marriage with Bacchus survived, to be incorporated later with the Attic myth of Theseus. As the female semblance of Bacchus, she appears to have been a promoter of vegetation; and, like Proserpina, she alternated between the joy of spring and the melancholy of winter. By some she is considered to be connected with star-worship as a moon-goddess.

=_Illustrative._= Chaucer, The Knight's Tale (for Theseus and Ypolita); The Hous of Fame, 407, and the Legende of Good Women, 1884, for Ariadne; Shakespeare, Two Gentlemen of Verona, IV, i; Midsummer Night's Dream, II, ii (Hippolyta and Theseus); Shakespeare and Fletcher, Two Noble Kinsmen. In Beaumont and Fletcher's Maid's Tragedy, II, ii, a tapestry is ordered to be worked illustrating Theseus' desertion of Ariadne. Landor, To Joseph Ablett, "Bacchus is coming down to drink to Ariadne's love"; Landor, Theseus, and Hippolyta; Mrs. Browning, Paraphrase on Nonnus (Bacchus and Ariadne), Paraphrase on Hesiod; Sir Theodore Martin, Catullus, LXIV. Other poems: B. W. Procter, On the Statue of Theseus; Frederick Tennyson, Ariadne (Daphne and Other Poems); Mrs. Hemans, The Shade of Theseus; R. S. Ross, Ariadne in Naxos; J. S. Blackie, Ariadne; W. M. W. Call, Ariadne; Mrs. H. H. Jackson, Ariadne's Farewell. =Phædra and Hippolytus=: The Hippolytus of Euripides; Swinburne, Phædra; Browning, Artemis Prologizes; M. P. Fitzgerald, The Crowned Hippolytus; A. Mary F. Robinson, The Crowned Hippolytus; L. Morris, Phædra (Epic of Hades). On =Cecrops=: J. S. Blackie, The Naming of Athens; Erechtheus, by A. C. Swinburne.

=_In Art._= Theseus: the original of Fig. 140, text is in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg; of Fig. 141 in the Naples Museum. The Battle with the Amazons frequently recurs in ancient sculpture. The sleeping Ariadne, of the Vatican, Fig. 142, text. Also the Revels as in text, Fig. 144. Modern Sculpture: the Theseus of Canova (Volksgarten, Vienna); the Ariadne of Dannecker. Paintings: Tintoretto's Ariadne and Bacchus; Teschendorff's Ariadne; Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne.

=182-189. The Royal Family of Thebes.=

TABLE N

Agenor
+-- Cadmus
+-- =Agave=
| =Echion
| +-- Pentheus
| +-- Men[oe]ceus I
| +-- =Creon=
| | +-- Men[oe]ceus II
| | +-- Hæmon
| +-- =Jocasta=
| ==Laïus=
| +-- =[OE]dipus=
| ==Jocasta=
| +-- =Eteocles=
| +-- =Polynices=
| +-- =Antigone=
| +-- Ismene
| ==[OE]dipus=
| +-- =Eteocles= (see above)
| +-- =Polynices= (see above)
| +-- =Antigone= (see above)
| +-- Ismene (see above)
+-- Polydorus
+-- =Labdacus=
+-- =Laïus=
==Jocasta=
+-- =[OE]dipus= (see above)

=_Illustrative._ [OE]dipus=: Plumptre's translation of [OE]dipus the King, [OE]dipus Coloneus, and Antigone; Shelley, Swellfoot the Tyrant; E. Fitzgerald, The Downfall and Death of King [OE]dipus; Sir F. H. Doyle, [OE]dipus Tyrannus; Aubrey De Vere, Antigone; Emerson, The Sphinx; W. B. Scott, The Sphinx; M. Arnold, Fragment of an "Antigone." =Tiresias=: by Swinburne, Tennyson, and Thomas Woolner.

=_In Art._= Ancient: [OE]dipus and the Sphinx (in Monuments Inédits, Rome and Paris, 1839-1878). Modern paintings: Teschendorff's [OE]dipus and Antigone, Antigone and Ismene, and Antigone; [OE]dipus and the Sphinx, by J. D. A. Ingres; The Sphinx, by D. G. Rossetti.

Of the stories told in these and the following sections no systematic, allegorical, or physical interpretations are here given, because (1) the general method followed by the unravelers of myth has already been sufficiently illustrated; (2) the attempt to force symbolic conceptions into the longer folk-stories, or into the artistic myths and epics of any country, is historically unwarranted and, in practice, is only too often capricious; (3) the effort to interpret such stories as the Iliad and the Odyssey must result in destroying those elements of unconscious simplicity and romantic vigor that characterize the early products of the creative imagination.

=190-194. Houses concerned in the Trojan War.=

TABLE O

(1) =Family of Peleus= and its connections:

Asopus
+-- Ægina
=Jupiter
+-- =Æacus=
+-- Telamon
| =Erib[oe]a
| +-- Ajax
| =Hesione
| +-- =Teucer=
+-- =Peleus=
=Thetis
+-- =Achilles=
+-- Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus)
=Hermione _d._ of Menelaüs and Helen

Nereus
=Doris
+-- Thetis
==Peleus=
+-- =Achilles= (see above)

(2) =Family of Atreus= and its connections:

Jupiter
+-- Minos I
| +-- Lycastus
| +-- Minos II
| +-- Crateus
| +-- Aërope
| ==Atreus=
| +-- =Agamemnon=
| | ==Clytemnestra=
| | +-- =Iphigenia=
| | +-- =Electra=
| | +-- Chrysothemis
| | +-- =Orestes=
| | =Hermione
| +-- =Menelaüs=
| ==Helen=
| +-- Hermione
| =Neoptolemus
| ==Orestes=
+-- Tantalus
+-- Pelops
=Hippodamia
+-- =Atreus=
| =Aërope
| +-- =Agamemnon= (see above)
| +-- =Menelaüs= (see above)
+-- Thyestes
| +-- =Ægisthus=
+-- Pittheus
+-- Æthra
=Ægeus
+-- Theseus
+-- Hippolytus

(3) =Family of Tyndareus= and its connections:

Æolus
+-- Perieres
+-- Icarius
| +-- =Penelope=
+-- =Tyndareus=
==Leda=
+-- Castor
+-- =Clytemnestra=

Thestius
+-- =Leda=
==Tyndareus=
+-- Castor (see above)
+-- =Clytemnestra= (see above)
=Jupiter
+-- Pollux
+-- =Helen=
==Menelaüs=
==Paris=

Castor and Pollux are called sometimes Dioscuri (sons of Jove), sometimes Tyndaridæ (sons of Tyndareus). Helen is frequently called Tyndaris, daughter of Tyndareus.

(4) =Descent of Ulysses and Penelope=:

Hellen
+-- Æolus I
+-- Perieres
| +-- Icarius
| | +-- =Penelope=
| | ==Ulysses=
| | +-- =Telemachus=
| +-- =Tyndareus=
| ==Leda=
| +-- Castor
| +-- =Clytemnestra=
+-- Deïon
+-- Cephalus
| =Procris
| +-- Arcesius
| +-- Laërtes
| +-- =Ulysses=
| ==Penelope=
| +-- =Telemachus= (see above)
+-- Actor
+-- Men[oe]tius
+-- =Patroclus=

(5) =The Royal Family of Troy=:

Iapetus (Titan)
+-- Atlas
+-- Electra (Pleiad)
=Jupiter
+-- =Dardanus=
=Batea
+-- Erichthonius
+-- Tros
+-- Ilus II
| +-- =Laomedon=
| +-- Tithonus
| | =Aurora
| | +-- Memnon
| +-- Hesione
| | =Telamon
| | +-- =Teucer=
| +-- =Priam=
| =Hecuba
| +-- =Hector=
| | =Andromache
| | +-- Astyanax
| +-- =Paris=
| | =[OE]none
| | ==Helen=
| +-- Deiphobus
| +-- Helenus
| +-- Troilus
| +-- Cassandra
| +-- Creüsa
| | ==Æneas=
| | +-- =Ascanius=
| | =Iulus
| +-- Polyxena
+-- Assaracus
+-- Capys
+-- Anchises
=Venus
+-- =Æneas=
=Creüsa
+-- =Ascanius= (see above)

=Teucer=
+-- Batea
==Dardanus=
+-- Erichthonius (see above)

=195.= On the =Iliad= and on =Troy=: Keats, Sonnet on Chapman's Homer; Milton, Paradise Lost, 1, 578; 9, 16; Il Penseroso, 100; Hartley Coleridge, Sonnet on Homer; T. B. Aldrich, Pillared Arch and Sculptured Tower; the Sonnets of Lang and Myers prefixed to Lang, Leaf, and Myers' translation of the Iliad. On the =Judgment of Paris=: George Peele, Arraignment of Paris; James Beattie, Judgment of Paris; Tennyson, Dream of Fair Women; J. S. Blackie, Judgment of Paris. See, for allusions, Shakespeare, All's Well that Ends Well, I, ii, iii; Henry V, II, iv; Troilus and Cressida, I, i; II, ii; III, i; Romeo and Juliet, I, ii; II, iv; IV, i; V, iii. On =Helen=: A. Lang, Helen of Troy, and his translation of Theocritus, Idyl XVIII; Landor, Menelaüs and Helen; John Todhunter, Helena in Troas; G. P. Lathrop, Helen at the Loom (_Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. 32, 1873). See Shakespeare, Midsummer Night's Dream, I, i; III, ii; IV, i; All's Well that Ends Well, I, i, iii; II, ii; Romeo and Juliet, II, iv; Troilus and Cressida, II, ii; Marlowe, Faustus (Helen appears before Faust).

=_In Art._ Homer=: the sketch by Raphael (in the Museum, Venice). =Paris and= =Helen.= Paintings: Helen of Troy, Sir Frederick Leighton; Paris and Helen, by David; The Judgment of Paris, by Rubens; by Watteau. Sculpture: Canova's Paris. Crayons: D. G. Rossetti's Helen; see also Fig. 150, as in text (ancient relief, Naples).

=196. Iphigenia and Agamemnon.= Sometimes, in accordance with Goethe's practice, the name _Tauris_ is given to the land of the Tauri. To be correct one should say, "Iphigenia among the Tauri," or "Taurians." (See Index.) Iphigenia and Agamemnon by W. S. Landor; also his Shades of Agamemnon and Iphigenia; Dryden, Cymon and Iphigenia; Richard Garnett, Iphigenia in Delphi; Sir Edwin Arnold, Iphigenia; W. B. Scott, Iphigenia at Aulis. Any translations of Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris, and of Euripides' Iphigenia in Aulis and Among the Tauri; also of Æschylus' Agamemnon,--such as those by Milman, Anna Swanwick, Plumptre, E. A. Morshead, J. S. Blackie, E. Fitzgerald, and Robert Browning. For Agamemnon, see Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, I, iii; II, i, iii; III, iii; IV, v; V, i; and James Thomson, Agamemnon (a drama). The =Troilus and= =Cressida= story is not found in Greek and Latin classics. Shakespeare follows Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, which is based upon the Filostrato and the Filocolo of Boccaccio. =Pandarus=: the character of this name, uncle of Cressida, to be found in Lydgate, Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, and Shakespeare's play of the same title, enjoys an unsavory reputation for which medieval romance is responsible. On =Menelaüs=, see notes to Helen and Agamemnon.

=_In Art._ Iphigenia.= Paintings: Fig. 152, text (Museum, Naples); E. Hübner; William Kaulbach; E. Teschendorff.

=199. Achilles.= Chaucer, Hous of Fame, 398; Dethe of Blaunche, 329; Landor, Peleus and Thetis; Robert Bridges, Achilles in Scyros; Sir Theodore Martin, translation of Catullus, LXIV; translation by C. M. Gayley as quoted in text. See also Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida; 2 Henry VI, V, i; Love's Labour's Lost, V, ii; Milton, Paradise Lost, 9, 15.

=_In Art._= In general, Figs. 151, 153, 155-156, 159-162, in text; Wiertz, Fight for the Body of Achilles (Wiertz Museum, Brussels); Burne-Jones, The Feast of Peleus (picture).

=204. Ajax.= Plumptre, Ajax of Sophocles; Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Love's Labour's Lost, IV, iii; V, ii; Taming of the Shrew, III, i; Antony and Cleopatra, IV, ii; King Lear, II, ii; Cymbeline, IV, ii; George Crabbe, The Village.

_=In Art.=_ The ancient sculpture, Ajax (or Menelaüs) of the Vatican. Modern sculpture, The Ajax of Canova. Flaxman's outline drawings for the Iliad.

=207. Hector and Andromache.= Mrs. Browning, Hector and Andromache, a paraphrase of Homer; C. T. Brooks, Schiller's Parting of Hector and Andromache. See also Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida; Love's Labour's Lost, V, ii; 2 Henry IV, II, iv; Antony and Cleopatra, IV, viii.

_=In Art.=_ Flaxman's outline sketches of the Fight for the Body of Patroclus, Hector dragged by Achilles, Priam supplicating Achilles, Hector's Funeral, Andromache fainting on the Walls of Troy; Canova's Hector (sculpture); Thorwaldsen's Hector and Andromache (relief) (Fig. 154, text). Hector, Ajax, Paris, Æneas, Patroclus, Teucer, etc., among the Ægina Marbles (Glyptothek, Munich). The Pasquino group (Fig. 158, in text) is from a copy in the Pitti, Florence.

=216. Priam and Hecuba.= The translations of Euripides' Hecuba and Troades; Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida; Coriolanus, I, iii; Cymbeline, IV, ii; Hamlet, II, ii; 2 Henry IV, I, i.

=219-220. Polyxena.= W. S. Landor, The Espousals of Polyxena. =Philoctetes=: translation of Sophocles by Plumptre; sonnet by Wordsworth; drama by Lord de Tabley.

=221. [OE]none.= See A. Lang, Helen of Troy; W. Morris, Death of Paris (Earthly Paradise); Landor, Corythos (son of [OE]none), the Death of Paris, and [OE]none, Tennyson, [OE]none, also the Death of [OE]none, which is not so good.

The pathetic story of the death of Corythus, the son of [OE]none and Paris, at the hands of his father, who was jealous of Helen's tenderness toward the youth, is a later myth.

=223. Sinon.= Shakespeare, 3 Henry VI, III, ii; Cymbeline, III, iv; Titus Andronicus, V, iii.

=224. Laocoön.= L. Morris, in The Epic of Hades. See Frothingham's translation of Lessing's Laocoön (a most important discussion of the Laocoön group and of principles of æsthetics). See also Swift's Description of a City Shower.

_=In Art.=_ The original of the celebrated group (statuary) of Laocoön and his children in the embrace of the serpents is in the Vatican in Rome. (See text, opp. p. 310.)

=226. Cassandra.= Chaucer, Troilus and Criseyde; Dethe of Blaunche, 1246. Poems by W. M. Praed and D. G. Rossetti. See Troilus and Cressida, I, i; II, ii; V, iii; Lord Lytton's translation of Schiller's Cassandra.

_=In Art.=_ The Cassandra of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (in ink).

=228-230. Electra and Orestes.= Translations of the Electra of Sophocles, the Libation-pourers and the Eumenides of Æschylus, by Plumptre; and of the Orestes and Electra of Euripides, by Wodhull. Lord de Tabley, Orestes (a drama); Byron, Childe Harold, 4; Milton, sonnet, "The repeated air Of sad Electra's poet," etc.

=_In Art._= Græco-Roman sculpture: Fig. 169, in text, Orestes and Pylades find Iphigenia among the Taurians. Pompeian Fresco; Orestes and Electra (Villa Ludovisi, Rome); Orestes and Electra (National Museum, Naples). Vase-paintings: Figs. 167-168 in text; also Orestes slaying Ægisthus; Orestes at Delphi; Purification of Orestes. Modern paintings: Electra, by Teschendorff and by Seifert.

=Clytemnestra=, The Death of, by W. S. Landor; Clytemnestra, by L. Morris, in The Epic of Hades.

=Troy=: Byron, in his Bride of Abydos, thus describes the appearance of the deserted scene where once stood Troy:

The winds are high, and Helle's tide
Rolls darkly heaving to the main;
And Night's descending shadows hide
That field with blood bedew'd in vain,
The desert of old Priam's pride;
The tombs, sole relics of his reign,
All--save immortal dreams that could beguile
The blind old man of Scio's rocky isle!

On Troy the following references will be valuable: H. W. Acland, The Plains of Troy, 2 vols. (London, 1839); H. Schliemann, Troy and its Remains (London, 1875); Ilios (London, 1881); Troja, results of latest researches on the site of Homer's Troy (London, 1882); W. J. Armstrong, _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. 33, p. 173 (1874), Over Ilium and Ida; R. C. Jebb, _Jour. Hellenic Studies_, Vol. 2, p. 7, Homeric and Hellenic Ilium; _Fortn. Review_, N. S. Vol. 35, p. 4331 (1884), Homeric Troy.

=231-244.= The =Odyssey=: Lang, Sonnet, "As one that for a weary space has lain," prefixed to Butcher and Lang's Odyssey. Translations by W. Morris, G. H. Palmer, Chapman, Bryant, Pope. =Ulysses=: Tennyson; Landor, The Last of Ulysses. See also Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida; 3 Henry VI, III, ii; Coriolanus, I, iii; Milton, Paradise Lost, 2, 1019; Comus, 637; R. Buchanan, Cloudland; Pope, Rape of the Lock, 4, 182; Stephen Phillips, Ulysses; Robert Bridges, The Return of Ulysses; R. C. Rogers, Odysseus at the Mast, Blind Polyphemus, Argus.

=_In Art._= Statuettes, vase-paintings, and reliefs as in text, Figs. 170-180; also Ulysses summoning Tiresias (in Monuments Inédits, Rome and Paris, 1839-1878); Meeting with Nausicaa (Gerhard's vase pictures); outline drawings of Ulysses weeping at the song of Demodocus, boring out the eye of Polyphemus, Ulysses killing the suitors, Mercury conducting the souls of the suitors, Ulysses and his dog, etc., by Flaxman.

=Penelope=: Poems by R. Buchanan, E. C. Stedman, and W. S. Landor. In ancient sculpture, the Penelope in the Vatican. Modern painting by C. F. Marchal. In crayons by D. G. Rossetti.

=Circe=: M. Arnold, The Strayed Reveller; Hood, Lycus, the Centaur; D. G. Rossetti, The Wine of Circe; Saxe, The Spell of Circe. See Shakespeare, Comedy of Errors, V, i; 1 Henry VI, V, iii; Milton, Comus, 50, 153, 253, 522; Pope, Satire 8, 166; Cowper, Progress of Error; O. W. Holmes, Metrical Essay; Keats, Endymion, "I sue not for my happy crown again," etc. Circe and the Companions of Ulysses, a painting by Briton Rivière. Circe, in crayons.

On =Sirens= and =Scylla= see =C. 50-52=; S. Daniel, Ulysses and the Siren; Lowell, The Sirens. Scylla and Charybdis have become proverbial to denote opposite dangers besetting one's course. Siren, in crayons; Sea-Spell, in oil, D. G. Rossetti.

=Calypso=: Pope, Moral Essays, 2, 45; poem by Edgar Fawcett (_Putnam's Mag._, 14, 1869). Fénelon, in his romance of Telemachus, has given us the adventures of the son of Ulysses in search of his father. Among other places which he visited, following on his father's footsteps, was Calypso's isle; as in the former case, the goddess tried every art to keep the youth with her, and offered to share her immortality with him. But Minerva, who, in the shape of Mentor, accompanied him and governed all his movements, made him repel her allurements. Finally, when no other means of escape could be found, the two friends leaped from a cliff into the sea and swam to a vessel which lay becalmed offshore. Byron alludes to this leap of Telemachus and Mentor in the stanza of Childe Harold beginning "But not in silence pass Calypso's isles" (2, 29). Calypso's isle is said to be Goza.

Homer's description of the ships of the Phæacians has been thought to look like an anticipation of the wonders of modern steam navigation. See the address of Alcinoüs to Ulysses, promising "wondrous ships, self-moved, instinct with mind," etc. (Odyssey, 8).

Lord Carlisle, in his Diary in the Turkish and Greek Waters, thus speaks of Corfu, which he considers to be the ancient Phæacian island:

"The sites explain the Odyssey. The temple of the sea-god could not have been more fitly placed, upon a grassy platform of the most elastic turf, on the brow of a crag commanding harbor, and channel, and ocean. Just at the entrance of the inner harbor there is a picturesque rock with a small convent perched upon it, which by one legend is the transformed pinnace of Ulysses.

"Almost the only river in the island is just at the proper distance from the probable site of the city and palace of the king, to justify the princess Nausicaa having had resort to her chariot and to luncheon when she went with the maidens of the court to wash their garments."

=245-254.= Poems: Tennyson, To =Virgil=, of which a few stanzas are given in the text; R. C. Rogers, Virgil's Tomb. =Æneas= and =Anchises=: Chaucer, Hous of Fame, 165; 140-470 (pictures of Troy); Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida; Tempest, II, i; 2 Henry VI, V, ii; Julius Cæsar, I, ii; Antony and Cleopatra, IV, ii; Hamlet, II, ii; Waller, Panegyric to the Lord-Protector (The Stilling of Neptune's Storm).

=Dido=: Chaucer, Legende of Good Women, 923; Sir Thomas Wyatt, The Song of Iopas (unfinished); Marlowe, Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage; Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, IV, xii; Titus Andronicus, II, iii; Hamlet, II, ii. =Palinurus=: see Scott's Marmion, Introd. to Canto I (with reference to the death of William Pitt).

The =Sibyl=. The following legend of the Sibyl is fixed at a later date. In the reign of one of the Tarquins there appeared before the king a woman who offered him nine books for sale. The king refused to purchase them, whereupon the woman went away and burned three of the books, and returning offered the remaining books for the same price she had asked for the nine. The king again rejected them; but when the woman, after burning three books more, returned and asked for the three remaining the same price which she had before asked for the nine, his curiosity was excited, and he purchased the books. They were found to contain the destinies of the Roman state. They were kept in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, preserved in a stone chest, and allowed to be inspected only by especial officers appointed for that duty, who on great occasions consulted them and interpreted their oracles to the people.

There were various Sibyls; but the Cumæan Sibyl, of whom Ovid and Virgil write, is the most celebrated of them. Ovid's story of her life protracted to one thousand years may be intended to represent the various Sibyls as being only reappearances of one and the same individual.

=_Illustrative._= Young, in the Night Thoughts, alludes to the Sibyl. See also Shakespeare, 1 Henry VI, II, ii; Othello, III, iv.

=_In Art._= Figs. 181-183, in text. The Virgil of Raphael (drawing in the Museum, Venice); the Æneas of the Ægina Marbles (Glyptothek, Munich). P. Guérin's painting, Æneas at the Court of Dido; Raphael, Dido; Turner, Dido building Carthage. The Sibyls in Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, Rome; the Cumæan Sibyl of Domenichino; Elihu Vedder's Cumæan Sibyl.

=255-257. Rhadamanthus=: E. W. Gosse, The Island of the Blest. =Tantalus=: Cowper, The Progress of Error; L. Morris, Epic of Hades; W. W. Story, Tantalus. =Ixion=: poem by Browning in Jocoseria. See Pope, St. Cecilia's Day, 67; Rape of the Lock, 2, 133. =Sisyphus=: Lord Lytton, Death and Sisyphus; L. Morris, in The Epic of Hades.

=The teachings of Anchises= to Æneas, respecting the nature of the human soul, were in conformity with the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras (born about 540 B.C.) was a native of the island of Samos, but passed the chief portion of his life at Crotona in Italy. He is therefore sometimes called "the Samian," and sometimes "the philosopher of Crotona." When young he traveled extensively and is said to have visited Egypt, where he was instructed by the priests, and afterwards to have journeyed to the East, where he visited the Persian and Chaldean Magi, and the Brahmins of India. He established himself at Crotona, and enjoined sobriety, temperance, simplicity, and silence upon his throngs of disciples. _Ipse dixit_ (Pythagoras said so) was to be held by them as sufficient proof of anything. Only advanced pupils might question. Pythagoras considered _numbers_ as the essence and principle of all things, and attributed to them a real and distinct existence; so that, in his view, they were the elements out of which the universe was constructed.

As the numbers proceed from the monad or unit, so he regarded the pure and simple essence of the Deity as the source of all the forms of nature. Gods, demons, and heroes are emanations of the Supreme, and there is a fourth emanation, the human soul. This is immortal, and when freed from the fetters of the body, passes to the habitation of the dead, where it remains till it returns to the world, to dwell in some other human or animal body; at last, when sufficiently purified, it returns to the source from which it proceeded. This doctrine of the transmigration of souls (metempsychosis), which was originally Egyptian and connected with the doctrine of reward and punishment of human actions, was the chief reason why the Pythagoreans killed no animals. Ovid represents Pythagoras saying that in the time of the Trojan War he was Euphorbus, the son of Panthus, and fell by the spear of Menelaüs. Lately, he said, he had recognized his shield hanging among the trophies in the Temple of Juno at Argos.

On =Metempsychosis=, see the essay in the Spectator (No. 343) on the Transmigration of Souls; Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice (Gratiano to Shylock).

=Harmony of the Spheres.= The relation of the notes of the musical scale to numbers, whereby harmony results from proportional vibrations of sound, and discord from the reverse, led Pythagoras to apply the word _harmony_ to the visible creation, meaning by it the just adaptation of parts to each other. This is the idea which Dryden expresses in the beginning of his song for St. Cecilia's Day, "From harmony, from heavenly harmony, This everlasting frame began."

In the center of the universe (as Pythagoras taught) there was a central fire, the principle of life. The central fire was surrounded by the earth, the moon, the sun, and the five planets. The distances of the various heavenly bodies from one another were conceived to correspond to the proportions of the musical scale. See Merchant of Venice, Act V (Lorenzo and Jessica), for the Music of the Spheres; also Milton, Hymn on the Nativity. See Longfellow's Verses to a Child, and Occultation of Orion, for Pythagoras as inventor of the lyre.

=260. Camilla.= Pope, illustrating the rule that "the sound should be an echo to the sense," says:

When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw,
The line, too, labors and the words move slow;
Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain,
Flies o'er th' unbending corn, or skims along the main.

Essay on Criticism.

=268-281.= On Norse mythology, see R. B. Anderson, Norse Mythology, or the Religion of our Forefathers (Chicago, 1875); Anderson, Horn's Scandinavian Literature (Chicago, S. C. Griggs & Co., 1884); Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse (transl. from P. C. Asbjörnsen, New York, 1859); Thorpe's translation of Sæmund's Edda, 2 vols. (London, 1866); Icelandic Poetry or Edda of Sæmund, transl. into English verse (Bristol, A. S. Cottle, 1797); Augusta Larned, Tales from the Norse Grandmother (New York, 1881); H. W. Mabie, Norse Stories (Boston, 1882). A critical edition of the Elder Edda is Sophus Bugge's (Christiania, 1867). The Younger Edda: Edda Snorra Sturlasonar, 2 vols. (Hafniae, 1848-1852); by Thorleif Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1875); Translation: Anderson's Younger Edda (Chicago, S. C. Griggs & Co., 1880) (see references at foot of pp. 458-461 and in =C. 282=). Illustrative poems: Gray, Ode on the Descent of Odin, Ode on the Fatal Sisters; Matthew Arnold, Balder Dead; Longfellow, Tegnér's Drapa, on Balder's Death; William Morris, The Funeral of Balder, in The Lovers of Gudrun (Earthly Paradise); Robert Buchanan, Balder the Beautiful; W. M. W. Call, Balder; and Thor. Sydney Dobell's Balder does not rehearse the Norse myth. It is a poem dealing with the spiritual maladies of the time, excellent in parts, but confused and uneven. Longfellow's Saga of King Olaf (the Musician's Tale, Wayside Inn) is from the Heimskri[.n]gla, or Book of Stories of the Kings, edited by Snorri Sturlason. Many of the cantos of the Saga throw light on Norse mythology. See also the Hon. Roden Noël's Ragnarok (in the Modern Faust), for an ethical modification of the ancient theme.

=Anses= (the Asa-folk, Æsir, etc.). The word probably means _ghost_, _ancestral_ _spirit_,--of such kind as the Manes of the Romans. The derivation may be from the root _AN_, 'to breathe,' whence _animus_ (Vigfusson and Powell, Corp. Poet. Bor. 1, 515). According to Jordanes, the Anses were demigods, ancestors of royal races. The main cult of the older religion was ancestor-worship, Thor and Woden being worshiped by a tribe, but each family having its own _anses_, or deified ancestors (Corp. Poet. Bor. 2, 413). =Elf= was another name used of spirits of the dead. Later it sinks to the significance of "fairy." Indeed, say Vigfusson and Powell, half our ideas about fairies are derived from the heathen beliefs as to the spirits of the dead, their purity, kindliness, homes in hillocks (cf. the Irish "folk of the hills," _Banshees_, etc.) (Corp. Poet. Bor. 2, 418).

The =Norse Religion= consists evidently of two distinct strata: the lower, of gods, that are personifications of natural forces, or deified heroes, with regular sacrifices, with belief in ghosts, etc.; the upper, of doctrines introduced by Christianity. To the latter belong the Last Battle to be fought by Warrior-Angels and the Elect against the Beast, the Dragon, and the Demons of Fire (Corp. Poet. Bor. 2, 459).

=Odin= or =Woden= was first the god of the heaven, or heaven itself, then husband of earth, god of war and of wisdom, lord of the ravens, lord of the gallows (which was called Woden's tree or Woden's steed). =Frigga= is Mother Earth. =Thor= is the lord of the hammer--the thunderbolt, the adversary of giants and all oppressors of man. He is dear to man, always connected with earth,--the husband of _Sif_ (the Norse Ceres). His goat-drawn car makes the rumbling of the thunder. =Freyr= means _lord_; patron of the Swedes, harvest-god. =Balder= means also _lord_ or _king_. On the one hand, his attributes recall those of Apollo; on the other hand, his story appeals to, and is colored by, the Christian imagination. He is another figure of that radiant type to which belong all bright and genial heroes, righters of wrong, blazing to consume evil, gentle and strong to uplift weakness: Apollo, Hercules, Perseus, Achilles, Sigurd, St. George, and many another. =Höder= is the "adversary."

=Nanna=, Balder's wife, is the ensample of constancy; her name is _maiden_.

=282.= The =Volsunga Saga=. The songs of the Elder Edda, from which Eirikr Magnússon and William Morris draw their Story of the Volsungs and the Nibelungs (London, 1870), are The Lay of Helgi the Hunding's-Bane, The Lay of Sigrdrifa, The Short Lay of Sigurd, The Hell-Ride of Brynhild, The Lay of Brynhild, The Ancient Lay of Gudrun, The Song of Atli, The Whetting of Gudrun, The Lay of Hamdir, The Lament of Oddrun. For translations of these fragments, see pp. 167-270 of the volume mentioned above. For the originals and literal translations of these and other Norse lays of importance, see Vigfusson and Powell's Corpus Poeticum Boreale; and Vigfusson's Sturlunga Saga, 2 vols. For the story of Sigurd, read William Morris' spirited epic, Sigurd the Volsung. Illustrative of the Norse spirit are Motherwell's Battle-Flag of Sigurd, the Wooing Song of Jarl Egill Skallagrim, and the Sword Chant of Thorstein Raudi; also Dora Greenwell's Battle-Flag of Sigurd; and Charles Kingsley's Longbeard's Saga, in Hypatia. Baldwin's Story of Siegfried (New York, 1888) is a good introduction for young people.

=283.= The =Nibelungenlied=. The little book entitled Echoes from Mist Land, by Auber Forestier (Chicago, Griggs & Co., 1877) will be of value to the beginner. Other translations are made by A. G. Foster-Barham (London, 1887) and by W. N. Lettsom, The Fall of the Nibelungers (London, 1874), both in verse. See also T. Carlyle, Nibelungenlied (Crit. Miscell.), Essays, 2, 220. Modern German editions by Simrock, Bartsch, Marbach, and Gerlach are procurable. The edition by Werner Hahn (Uebersetzung d. Handschrift A, Collection Spemann, Berlin u. Stuttgart) has been used in the preparation of this account. The original was published in part by Bodmer in 1757; later, in full by C. H. Myller, by K. K. Lachmann (Nibelunge Nôt mit der Klage, 1826); by K. F. Bartsch (Der Nibelunge Nôt, 2 vols. in 3, 1870-1880), and in Pfeiffer's Deutsch. Classik. des Mittelalt., Vol. 3, (1872); and by others (see James Sime's _Nibelungenlied_, Encyc. Brit.). Of some effect in stimulating interest were Dr. W. Jordan's Studies and Recitations of the Nibelunge, which comprised the Siegfried Saga, and Hildebrandt's Return. Especially of value is Richard Wagner's series of operas, The Ring of the Nibelung, =284-288=. In painting, Schnorr von Carolsfeld's wall pictures illustrative of the Nibelungenlied, in the royal palace at Munich, are well known; also the illustrations of the four operas by J. Hoffmann, and by Th. Pixis.

=282-283.= Historically, =Siegfried= has been identified, variously, with (1) the great German warrior Arminius (or Hermann), the son of Sigimer, chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who inhabited the southern part of what is now Hanover and Brunswick. Born 18 B.C. and trained in the Roman army, in the year 9 A.D. he overcame with fearful slaughter the Roman tyrants of Germany, defeating the Roman commander Varus and his legions in the Teutoburg Forest in the valley of the Lippe; (2) Sigibert, king of the Ripuarian Franks, who in 508 A.D. was treacherously slain while taking a midday nap in the forest; (3) Sigibert, king of the Austrasian Franks whose history recalls more than one event of the Sigurd and Siegfried stories; for he discovered a treasure, fought with and overcame foreign nations,--the Huns, the Saxons, the Danes,--and finally in consequence of a quarrel between his wife Brünhilde and his sister-in-law Fredegunde, was, in 576 A.D., assassinated by the retainers of the latter; (4) Julius, or Claudius Civilis, the leader of the Batavi in the revolt against Rome, 69-70 A.D. It is probable that in Sigurd and Siegfried we have recollections combined of two or more of these historic characters.

Mythologically, =Sigurd= (of the shining eyes that no man might face unabashed) has been regarded as a reflection of the god Balder.

=Gunnar= and =Gunther= are, historically, recognized in a slightly known king of the Burgundians, Gundicar, who with his people was overwhelmed by the Huns in 437 A.D.

=Atli= and =Etzel= are poetic idealizations of the renowned Hunnish chieftain, Attila, who united under his rule the German and Slavonic nations, ravaged the Eastern Roman Empire between 445 and 450 A.D., and, invading the Western Empire, was defeated by the Romans in the great battle of Châlons-sur-Marne, 451. He died 454 A.D.

=Dietrich of Berne= (Verona) bears some very slight resemblance to Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, who, between 493 and 526 A.D., ruled from Italy what had been the Western Empire. In these poems, however, his earlier illustrious career is overlooked; he is merely a refugee in the court of the Hunnish king, and, even so, is confounded with uncles of his who had been retainers of Attila; for the historic Theodoric was not born until two years after the historic Attila's death.

These historic figures were, of course, merely suggestions for, or contributions to, the great heroes of the epics, not prototypes; the same is true of any apparently confirmed historic forerunners of Brynhild, or Gudrun, or Kriemhild. The mythological connection of these epics with the Norse myths of the seasons, Sigurd being Balder of the spring, and Hogni Höder of winter and darkness, is ingenious; but, except as reminding us of the mythic material which the bards were likely to recall and utilize, it is not of substantial worth.

In the Norse version, the name =Nibelung= is interchangeable with the patronymic =Giuking=,--it is the name of the family that ruins Sigurd. But, in the German version, the name is of purely mythical import: the Nibelungs are not a human race; none but Siegfried may have intercourse with them. The land of the Nibelungs is equally vague in the German poem; it is at one time an island, again a mountain, and in one manuscript it is confounded with Norway. But mythically it is connected with Niflheim, the kingdom of Hela, the shadowy realm of death. The earth, that gathers to her bosom the dead, cherishes also in her bosom the hoard of gold. Naturally, therefore, the hoard is guarded by Alberich, the dwarf, for dwarfs have always preferred the underworld. So (according to Werner Hahn, and others) there is a deep mythical meaning in the Lay of the Nibelungs: beings that dwell far from the light of day; or that, possessing the riches of mortality, march toward the land of death.

=284-288.= Wagner finished this series of operas in 1876. For a translation the reader is referred to the four librettos, Englished by Frederick Jameson (Schott & Co., London); or to the series published by Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., New York.

=298. Homer= is also called Melesigenes, son of Meles--the stream on which Smyrna was built. The Homeridæ, who lived on Chios, claimed to be descended from Homer. They devoted themselves to the cultivation of epic poetry.

=Arion.= See George Eliot's poem beginning

Arion, whose melodic soul
Taught the dithyramb to roll.

=Other Greek Poets of Mythology= to be noted are =Callimachus= (260 B.C.), whose Lock of Berenice is reproduced in the elegiacs of Catullus, and from whose Origins (of sacred rites) Ovid drew much of his information. Also =Nicander= (150 B.C.), whose Transformations, and =Parthenius=, whose Metamorphoses furnished material to the Latin poet. With Theocritus should be read =Bion= and =Moschus=, all three masters of the idyl and elegy. See Andrew Lang's translation of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus; and the verses by Dobson and Gosse with which Lang prefaces the translation. =Lycophron= (260 B.C.) wrote a poem called Alexandra, on the consequences of the voyage of Paris to Sparta. The Loves of Hero and Leander were probably written by a grammarian, =Musæus=, as late as 500 A.D.

=Translations of Greek Poets.= The best verse translations of Homer are those of Chapman, Pope, the Earl of Derby, Cowper, and Worsley.

An excellent prose translation of the Iliad is that of Lang, Leaf, and Myers (London, Macmillan & Co., 1889); of the Odyssey, that by Butcher and Lang (London, Macmillan & Co., 1883); or the translation into rhythmical prose by G. H. Palmer (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1892).

=The Tragic Poets.= Plumptre's translations of Æschylus and Sophocles, 2 vols. (New York, Routledge, 1882); A. S. Way's translation of Euripides, into verse (London, 1894); Wodhull, Potter, and Milman's translation of Euripides in Morley's Universal Library (London, Routledge, 1888); Potter's Æschylus, Francklin's Sophocles, Wodhull's Euripides, 5 vols. (London, 1809). Other translations of Æschylus are J. S. Blackie's (1850); T. A. Buckley's (London, Bohn, 1848); E. A. A. Morshead's (1881); and Verrall's;--of Sophocles: Thos. Dale's, into verse, 2 vols. (1824); R. Whitelaw's, into verse (1883); Lewis Campbell's Seven Plays, into verse (1883);--of Euripides: T. A. Buckley's, 2 vols. (London, Bohn, 1854-1858); and Verrall's.

=Other Poets.= Lang's prose translation of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus; C. S. Calverley's verse translation of Theocritus (Boston, 1906). Pindar,--Odes, transl. by F. A. Paley (London, 1868); by Ernest Myers (London, 1874). Translations of Greek Lyric Poets,--Collections from the Greek Anthology, by Bland and Merivale (London, 1833); The Greek Anthology, by Lord Neaves, Ancient Classics for English Readers Series (London, 1874); Bohn's Greek Anthology, by Burges (London, 1852).

On Homer, Hesiod, Theocritus, the tragic poets, Pindar, etc., see also Collins' excellent series of Ancient Classics for English Readers, Philadelphia (Lippincott); and the series entitled "English Translations from Ancient and Modern Poems," by Various Authors, 3 vols. (London, 1810). Also W. C. Wilkinson's College Greek Course, and College Latin Course, in English (1884-1886). Of Æschylus read the Prometheus Bound, to illustrate =15=; the Agamemnon, Choëphori, and Eumenides, to illustrate =193=, =228-230=; and the Seven against Thebes, for =187=. Of Sophocles read [OE]dipus Rex, [OE]dipus at Colonus, Antigone, with =182-185=, etc.; Electra, with =228=; Ajax and Philoctetes, with the Trojan War; Women of Trachis, with =162=. Of Euripides read Medea, Ion, Alcestis, Iphigenia in Aulis and in Tauris, Electra.

=299. Roman Poets. Horace= (65 B.C.) in his Odes, Epodes, and Satires makes frequent reference and allusion to the common stock of mythology, sometimes telling a whole story, as that of the daughters of Danaüs. =Catullus= (87 B.C.), the most original of Roman love-poets, gives us the Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis (for selections in English hexameters, see =177= and =191=), the Lock of Berenice, and the Atys. =Manilius= of the age of Augustus wrote a poem on Astronomy, which contains a philosophic statement of star-myths. =Valerius Flaccus= (d. 88 A.D.) based his Argonautics upon the poem of that name by Apollonius of Rhodes. =Statius= (61 A.D.) revived in the brilliant verses of his Thebaid and his Achilleïd the epic myths and epic machinery, but not the vigor and naturalness of the ancient style. To a prose writer, =Hyginus=, who lived on terms of close intimacy with Ovid, a fragmentary work called the Book of Fables, which is sometimes a useful source of information, and four books of Poetical Astronomy, have been attributed. The works, as we have them, could not have been written by a friend of the cultivated Ovid.

=Translations and Studies.= For a general treatment of the great poets of Rome, the student is referred to W. L. Collins' series of Ancient Classics for English Readers (Philadelphia, Lippincott). For the Cupid and Psyche of =Apuleius=, read Walter Pater's Marius the Epicurean (London, 1885). Of translations, the following are noteworthy: Ovid,--the Metamorphoses, by Dryden, Addison, and others; into English blank verse by Ed. King (Edinburgh, 1871); prose by Riley (London, 1851); verse by Geo. Sandys (London, 1626). Virgil: complete works into prose by J. Lonsdale and S. Lee (New York, Macmillan); Æneid, translations,--into verse by John Conington (London, 1873); into dactylic hexameter by Oliver Crane (New York, 1888); the Æneids into verse by Wm. Morris (London, 1876); and by Theodore C. Williams (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.); Bks. 1-4, by Stanyhurst (Arber's Reprint) (1582); Æneis, by Dryden. Catullus: transl. by Robinson Ellis (London, 1871); by Sir Theodore Martin (Edinburgh, 1875). Horace: transl. by Theodore Martin (Edinburgh, 1881); by Smart (London, 1853); Odes and Epodes in Calverley's translations (London, 1886); Odes, etc., by Conington (London, 1872); Odes and Epodes, by Lord Lytton (New York, 1870); complete, by E. C. Wickham (Oxford, Clarendon Press); Odes, by A. S. Way (London, 1876) and Epodes (1898). Statius: Thebaid, transl. by Pope.

=300.= For =Scandinavian literature=, see footnotes to =300=, and references in =C. 268-282=.

=Runes= were "the letters of the alphabets used by all the old Teutonic tribes.... The letters were even considered magical, and cast into the air written separately upon chips or spills of wood, to fall, as fate determined, on a cloth, and then be read by the interpreters.... The association of the runic letters with heathen mysteries and superstition caused the first Christian teachers to discourage, and, indeed, as far as possible, suppress their use. They were therefore superseded by the Latin alphabet, which in First English was supplemented by retention of two of the runes, named 'thorn' and 'wen,' to represent sounds of 'th' and 'w,' for which the Latin alphabet had no letters provided. Each rune was named after some object whose name began with the sound represented. The first letter was F, Feoh, money; the second U, Ur, a bull; the third Th, Thorn, a thorn; the fourth O, Os, the mouth; the fifth R, Rad, a saddle; the sixth C, Cen, a torch; and the six sounds being joined together make Futhorc, which is the name given to the runic A B C."--MORLEY, English Writers, 1, 267. See also Vigfusson and Powell's Corpus Poeticum Boreale, 2, 691, under Runes and Rune-Stones; Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic-English Dictionary; and George Stephens' Old Northern Runic Monuments, 2 vols. (London, 1866-1868).

=301.= For =Translations of the Nibelungenlied=, see =C. 283=. For other German lays of myth,--the Gudrun, the Great Rose Garden, the Horned Siegfried, etc.,--see Vilmar's Geschichte der deutschen National-Litteratur, 42-101 (Leipzig, 1886). See also, in general, Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie (Göttingen, 1855); Ludlow's Popular Epics of the Middle Ages, 2 vols. (London, 1865); George T. Dippold's Great Epics of Mediæval Germany (Boston, 1891).

=302. Egyptian.= See Birch's Guide to the First and Second Egyptian Rooms, British Museum; Miss A. B. Edwards' A Thousand Miles up the Nile (London, 1876).

_For the principal divinities, see Index to this work._

=303. Indian.= Max Müller's translation of the Rig-Veda-Sanhita; Sacred Books of the East, 35 vols., edited by Max Müller,--the Upanishads, Bhagavadgita, Institutes of Vishnu, etc., translated by various scholars (Oxford, 1874-1890); Müller's History of Sanskrit Literature (London, 1859); Weber's History of Indian Literature (London, 1878); H. H. Wilson's Rig-Veda-Sanhita, 6 vols. (London, 1850-1870), and his Theatre of the Hindus, 2 vols. (London, 1871); Muir's Sanskrit Texts, and his Principal Deities of the Rig-Veda, 5 vols. (London, 1868-1873); J. Freeman Clarke's Ten Great Religions (Boston, 1880); the Mahâbhârata, translated by Protap Chundra Roy, Nos. 1-76 (Calcutta, 1883-1893). See Indian Idylls, by Edwin Arnold; The Episode of Nala,--Nalopákhyánam,--translated by Monier Williams (Oxford, 1879). Of the Râmâyana, a paraphrase (in brief) is given by F. Richardson in the Iliad of the East (London, 1870). Sir William Jones' translation of the Sakuntala; E. A. Reed's Hindu Literature, with translations (Chicago, 1891), W. Ward's History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos, 3 vols. (London, 1822). On Buddhism, read Arnold's Light of Asia.

_For the chief divinities of the Hindus, see Index to this work._

=304. Persian.= J. Freeman Clarke's Ten Great Religions; Johnson's Oriental Religions; Haug's Essays on the Sacred Language, Literature, etc., of the Parsis, by E. W. West (Boston, 1879). In illustration should be read Moore's Fire-Worshipers in Lalla Rookh.

FOOTNOTES:

[422] For assistance in collecting references to English poetry the author is indebted to Miss M. B. Clayes, a graduate of the University of California.

[423] Popular etymology. The suffix _[=i]on_ is patronymic.

[424] Popular etymology. The root of the name indicates _Fire-god_.

[425] For Latin names, see Index or Chapters II-V.

[426] The Olympian Religion (_No. Am. Rev._ May, 1892). See his Juventus Mundi.

[427] Furtwängler (Meisterw. d. gr. Plastik) condemns the ægis.

[428] This _dawn_ theory is certainly far-fetched.

A FEW RULES FOR THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK AND LATIN PROPER NAMES

[These rules will cover most cases, but they are not intended to exhaust the subject. The reader is referred to the Latin grammars and the English dictionaries.]

I. _Quantity._ The reader must first ascertain whether the second last syllable of the word is long. In general a syllable is long in quantity:

(1) If it contains a diphthong, or a long vowel: _Bau_-cis, Ac-_tae_-on, _M[=e]_-tis, O-_r[=i]_-on, _Fl[=o]_-ra.

(2) If its vowel, whether long or short, is followed by _j_, _x_, or _z_, or by any two consonants except a mute and a liquid: _A´_-jax, Meg-a-_ba´_-zus, A-_dras´_-tus.

_Note (a)._ Sometimes two vowels come together without forming a diphthong. In such cases the diæresis is, in this volume, used to indicate the division: _e.g._ Men-e-l[=a]'-_üs_, Pe-n[=e]'-_üs_.

_Note (b)._ The _syllable_ formed by a short vowel before a mute with _l_ or _r_ is sometimes long and sometimes short: _e.g._ Cle-o-_p[=a]'_-tra, or Cle-op´-_[)a]_-tra; Pa-_tr[=o]'_-clus, or Pat´-_r[)o]_-clus.

II. _Accent._

(1) The accent may be principal, or subordinate: Hel^{2}-les-pon´-tus.

(2) =The principal accent falls on the second last syllable (_penult_): Am-phi-tri´-te; or on the third last syllable (_antepenult_): Am-phit´-ry-on.=

_Note (a)_ In words of two syllables, it falls on the _penult_: Cir´-ce.

_Note (b)_ =In words of more than two syllables, it falls on the _penult_ when that syllable is long; otherwise, on the _antepenult_: Æ-n[=e]'-as, Her´-c[)u]-les.=

(3) The subordinate accent:

_Note (a)_ If only two syllables precede the principal accent, the subordinate accent falls on the first syllable of the word: _Hip^{2}-po_-cr[=e]'ne.

_Note (b)_ If more than two syllables precede the principal accent, the laws governing the principal accent apply to those preceding syllables: _Cas^2-s[)i]-o_-p[=e]'-a.

=_Note._ In the Index of this work, when the _penult_ of a word is long, it is marked with the accent; when the penult is short, the _antepenult_ is marked.= The reader should however bear in mind that a _syllable_ may be long even though it contain a short vowel, as by Rule I, (2), above.

III. _Vowels and Consonants._ These rules depend upon those of Syllabication:

(1) A vowel generally has its _long_ English sound when it ends a syllable: _He´-ro_, _I´-o_, _Ca´-cus_, _I-tho´-me_, _E-do´-ni_, _My-ce´-næ_.

(2) A vowel generally has its _short_ English sound in a syllable that ends in a consonant: _Hel´-en_, _Sis´_-y-_phus_, _Pol_-y-phe´-_mus_. But _e_ in the termination _es_ has its long sound: Her´_mes_, A-tri´-_des_.

(3) The vowel _a_ has an _obscure_ sound when it ends an unaccented syllable: A-chæ´-_a_; so, also, the vowel _i_ or _y_, not final, after an accented syllable: Hes-per´-_i_-des; and sometimes _i_ or _y_ in an unaccented first syllable: _Ci_-lic´-i-a.

(4) Consonants have their usual English sounds; but _c_ and _g_ are soft before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, and _[oe]_: _Ce´_-to, _Ge´_-ry-on, _Gy´-ges_; _ch_ has the sound of _k_: _Chi´_-os; and _c_, _s_, and _t_, immediately preceded by the accent and standing before _i_ followed by another vowel, commonly have the sound of _sh_: _Sic´_-y-on (but see Latin grammars and English dictionaries for exceptions).

IV. _Syllabication._

(1) The penultimate syllable ends with a vowel: _e.g._ Pe-_ne´_-us, I-_tho´_-me, _A´_-treus, Hel´-_e_-nus;

_Except when_ its vowel is followed by _x_ or by two consonants (not a mute with _l_ or _r_), then the vowel is joined with the succeeding consonant: _Nax_-os, _Cir_-ce, Aga-_mem_-non.

(2) Other syllables (not ultimate or penultimate) end with a vowel: _e.g._ _Pi_-ræ-us;

_Except when (a)_ the vowel is followed by _x_ or any two consonants (not a mute with _l_ or _r_): _e.g._ _Ix_-i´-on, Pel-o-_pon_-ne´-sus; _and when (b)_ the syllable is accented and its vowel followed by one or more consonants: _e.g._ _An_^2-ax-_ag´_-o-ras, Am-_phic´_ty-on, [OE]d-'i-pus.

_Note (a)._ But an accented _a_, _e_, or _o_ before a single consonant (or a mute with _l_ or _r_), followed by _e_, _i_, or _y_ before another vowel, is not joined with the succeeding consonant, and consequently has the long sound: Pau-_s[=a]'_-ni-as; De-_m[=e]'_-tri-us.

_Note (b)._ An accented _u_ before a single consonant (or mute with _l_ or _r_) is not joined with the succeeding consonant, and consequently has the long sound: _J[=u]'_-pi-ter.

(3) =All words have as many syllables as they have vowels and diphthongs.=

INDEX OF MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS AND THEIR SOURCES

[Ordinary figures refer to pages of the Text. Figures in italics preceded by _C._ refer to sections of the Commentary and incidentally to the corresponding sections in the Text.