Chapter II: Part 2

ST. CLÉMENT. Established about 1750. Little is known of this _fabrique_. There are some specimens of the 18th century in the Sèvres Museum; also some others of later date, 1819 and 1823.

TOULOUSE. Established in the 18th century. The ware is very similar in style to early Rouen pottery. A large hunting bottle, with loops for suspension, painted with blue flowers, and bearing round the neck the inscription "Laurens Basso a Toulousa Le 14 Maÿ 1756," was formerly in the possession of the late Mr. C. W. Reynolds.

NIDERVILLER.[2] Established in 1760, by Jean Louis, Baron Beyerlé. The ware is in the German style, potters from Germany having been employed in its production, and is remarkable for the richness and delicacy of its decoration, which most frequently consists of flowers in bouquets and garlands. His fayence figures and groups are well modelled. About 1780, four years before Beyerlé's death, the factory was purchased by General Count Custine, and carried on by him under M. Lanfray, principally for the manufacture of porcelain, which will be subsequently referred to.

Fig. 81. Vase with cover, one of a pair; urn shape, painted to resemble deal, with medallions containing landscapes in rose _camaïeu_, and borders of bay leaves. It bears the mark of Count Custine; date about 1774; height 17-3/8 inches.

DOUAI. Two brothers of the name of Leech, from England, were engaged, in 1782, by M. George Bris, of Douai, to superintend the manufacture of English pottery on a large scale, in a factory (now a Normal School) in the Rue des Carmes. It was one of the first of the kind established in France. The chief workmen, who came originally from England, instructed pupils, who carried the new process to Chantilly, Forges, and other places in France.

VINCENNES. In 1768 M. Maurin des Abiez undertook a manufacture of fayence in the manner of Strassburg, it being well known that there did not exist in France any fayence comparable to it in beauty and solidity; he had purchased the secret, and brought to Paris a staff of workmen who had been engaged at Strassburg. He acquired possession of the Château de Vincennes for twenty years. Pierre Antoine Hannong was engaged as director, and the works were carried on for four years, until 1771, when the factory got into difficulties and was closed.

SARREGUEMINES.[3] Established about 1770 by Paul Utzschneider. The beautiful fayence produced here is in imitation of porphyry, jasper, granite, and other variegated hard marbles, and was sometimes cut and polished by the lathe; it was also made with white raised figures on blue in the style of Wedgwood, and a third kind was red ware like the Japanese. The name is impressed on the ware.

ST. AMAND-LES-EAUX, near Valenciennes. Founded about 1750 by M. Fauquet, and continued by his son. The latter occupied himself especially with the gilding of his ware, which gave his neighbours the opportunity of saying he melted all his louis-d'ors in making his experiments and ruined himself. In the revolution of 1789 he emigrated, and all his goods were confiscated. In 1807 he attempted to revive the _fabrique_, and advertised that the St. Amand works were in full activity, making white fayence in the style of Rouen.

Fig. 82, an inkstand, with ink and pounce pots and drawer, painted on a grey ground with blue and white flowers under the glaze; about 1760-80.

SCEAUX PENTHIÈVRE. In 1753, Jacques de Chapelle established a manufactory of a particular sort of fayence, of which he alone possessed the secret. The ware is in the style of Strassburg, its prevailing colours being pink and green; it is painted with flowers, but more carefully finished, and with landscapes and other forms of decoration.

BOURG-LA-REINE. Established in 1773 by Messrs. Jacques and Jullien, who removed hither from Mennecy. The early ware is very similar to that of Sceaux. Besides the white fayence for domestic use, more artistic pieces were produced, painted on the enamel after it had received a slight baking; this ware is principally in imitation of the Italian.

CREIL. A manufactory of fine fayence, worked in the 18th century by M. S{t} Criq, made opaque porcelain and stoneware in the English style, and transferred prints on to the ware.

MONTEREAU. In 1775, Messrs. Clark, Shaw, & Co., obtained letters patent to carry on a manufactory of English fayence, called Queen's ware, from clay found in the vicinity. This ware had a very extensive sale, and dealt a severe blow to the manufacture of French fayence. It soon spread over France, and was extensively made at Toulouse, Creil, Sarreguemines, and other places.

LILLE. A manufactory of fayence, was founded in 1696, by Jacques Feburier, of Tournai, and Jean Bossu, of Ghent, who made a ware _à la façon de Hollande_.

Another important manufactory of fayence was established in 1711, by Barthélemy Dorez and Pierre Palissier; it continued in active work for nearly a century. A third fayence manufactory was founded in 1740 by J. Masquelier, and was continued in the same family until 1827. A fourth was established in 1744, by M. Chanou, who made a brown earthenware called _terre du St. Esprit_, in the English fashion. There were also two other factories here in the 18th century.

GERMANY

The pottery of Germany consists of two distinct classes: the fayence with opaque white stanniferous glaze, and that which to a great extent is called in England stoneware, in Germany _Steingut_, and in France _grès_ or sandstone. These epithets exactly describe the quality of the latter ware. It is very serviceable for domestic utensils, such as drinking bottles and vessels of everyday use, and is covered with a thin transparent glaze, effected by throwing common salt into the kiln when the ware is nearly baked--the salt vaporised by the heat surrounds the vessels, and acting upon the silica of their surfaces produces a thin gloss of silicate of soda over the ware, rendering it perfectly impervious.

NUREMBERG (_Nürnberg_). The celebrated Veit Hirschvogel, of Schlettstadt, was born in 1441, and died in 1525; he was a great potter, contemporary with Luca della Robbia, of Florence. The early pieces of pottery are somewhat like maiolica, but the colours are brighter, green predominating in many specimens; figures in relief in niches are frequently seen on vases. Several chimney-pieces of this ware of the 15th century are still in existence, one is in the castle of Salzburg, and many pieces treasured up in museums are supposed to have been made by Hirschvogel himself. The Nuremberg pottery of the 16th and 17th centuries is not uncommon. Hirschvogel was succeeded by his sons and a host of continuators. Fayence of the 18th century is also met with, painted with scriptural subjects, sometimes in blue _camaïeu_, sometimes in other colours.

Fig. 86. Jug, of enamelled earthenware, in various colours, with figures in low relief; attributed to Veit Hirschvogel; height 13 in.

Fig. 87. Dish, painted in the centre with Christ rising from the tomb; signed with the painter's name Glüer, 1723.

LEIPZIG. In the convent of St. Paul, which was built in 1207, there was a frieze of bricks, covered with tin enamel glaze, representing in relief the heads of Saints and Apostles, 20 in. by 15 in., 2-1/2 in. thick. On the demolition of the convent a selection of these was deposited in the Dresden Museum; they are of Byzantine character, in green enamel shaded with black; the hair, beard, and eyes of the figures are coloured.

STREHLA. A manufactory for earthenware was in existence here for many centuries. A pulpit of enamelled earthenware still exists, supported by a life-size figure of Moses, ornamented with eight plaques of religious subjects and figures of the four Evangelists, bearing the name of the potter and the date 1565.

OBERDORF. A factory was carried on by a potter named Hans Seltzman; a very fine stove made by him, with an inscription and dated 1514, is in the Palace at Füssen, in Bavaria. Many other places throughout Germany were equally famous in the 16th and 17th centuries, for the manufacture of stoves, as AUGSBURG, MEMMINGEN, &c.

BAYREUTH. The manufacture of a brown stoneware with Renaissance medallions, arabesques, &c., in relief flourished here in the 16th century. At a later period, fine fayence was produced, painted in blue _camaïeu_. The designs are delicately traced with a brush on a fine paste; the forms are canettes, jardinières, &c. At the end of the 18th century a _fabrique_ of fayence was carried on by a Herr Schmidt, who assiduously copied the English ware; there are specimens in the Sèvres Museum bearing the counterfeit mark of "Wedgwood."

Fig. 88. Coffee-pot and cover, chocolate coloured ground, decorated with gilt scrolls; F, the cypher of Frederick the Great, under a crown in front; about the middle of the 18th century; height 9 in.

COLOGNE (_Köln_). The stoneware made here in the 16th century is better known throughout Europe than any other description of pottery; its durability for domestic uses and the elegant character of its ornamentation in relief, caused it to be sought for everywhere. The _grès de Cologne_ has been confounded with the _grès de Flandres_, which latter name is given erroneously and indiscriminately to all stoneware of German manufacture, notwithstanding the German inscriptions the pieces bear and the arms of German cities and families. The best and most highly finished decorative _grès_ or stoneware cruches were undoubtedly made in Germany, if not at Cologne. The clay for making the Cologne ware came from Langerwehe between Düren and Aix-la-Chapelle. The manufactory was not actually in Cologne, but in the vicinity, possibly at FRECHEN, and at LAUENSTEIN, where a factory was established in the 18th century.

There were also factories at SIEGBURG and LIMBURG.

All the ware was made in moulds, and it must be borne in mind that the vessels were not always made at the date indicated upon them, for the moulds were used successively through a series of years, and it is no uncommon occurrence to find two different dates upon the same piece. Some of the finest specimens known bear the name of Baldem Mennicken, a potter dwelling at RAEREN in the ancient Duchy of Limburg, which town until the treaty of 1814 was part of Holland, and it is probable that the stoneware produced here indicates the origin of _grès de Flandres_.

GRENZHAUSEN, in Nassau. There was a factory here about 1780, where _grès_ or stoneware was made; it is of a fine quality and easily mistaken for the more ancient _grès_. The forms are usually plates, dishes, and jugs, in which the decoration consists of a fine blue enamel on grey ground, with incuse ornaments executed by hand.

Fig. 92, a jug of reticulated pattern, is engine-turned, and enriched with brilliant enamel colours, 18th century.

Fig. 93, a large fountain, is purple blue and white, 16th century; height 30 in.

KREUSSEN, a town of Bavaria, has long been noted for its pottery. The _grès_ of the 17th century, called _Kreussener Steingut_, is of a dark brown colour, in the forms of cylindrical mugs, tankards, &c., with figures in relief round them, painted in bright coloured enamel.

Fig. 94, a tankard, has a chocolate-coloured ground, with coloured enamel ornaments and figures of the Emperor and the Electors of Germany on horseback, dated 1696.

BUNZLAU, in Silesia. _Grès_ was made here in the 16th and 17th centuries. The products of the 18th century are distinguished by ornaments in relief, flowers, coats of arms, &c., sometimes gilt. At the present time an extensive trade is still carried on in the manufacture of chocolate and coffee pots, usually covered with a brown glaze, and lined with white. There is preserved a monster coffee-pot, 15 feet high, made at this place in the 18th century.

HARBURG, on the Elbe, opposite Hamburg, is noted as the residence of Johann Schaper, who was born towards the end of the 16th century. His exquisite paintings of landscapes and figures are usually in Indian ink or sepia _en grisaille_, the colours being fixed by heat.

Fig. 95, a cruche of fine fayence, painted with a landscape in grey _camaïeu_, is signed "_Joh. Schaper_"; it has a white ground with flowers and fruit in natural colours; date about 1640; height 8-1/2 in.

SCHERZHEIM, in Würtemberg. The Wintergursts, father and son, were celebrated potters here, and made fayence from the beginning of the 17th century; it is from their manufactory that the table services, of which each piece represents an animal or a vegetable, were made.

LAUENSTEIN, near Coblenz. A manufactory was established in 1760; the _grès_ or stoneware made here was of grey and blue, ornamented with incuse patterns; it was made in large quantities, and carried by the Rhine boats to the markets in Holland, where it met with a ready sale.

HÖCHST, near Mainz. Enamelled fayence was made here in the beginning of the 18th century, at a factory founded by Gelz of Frankfort. The manufactory ceased in 1794, but a potter named Dahl established one in the vicinity. He made statuettes and other ornaments.

DRESDEN. A manufactory was established at Meissen, on the Elbe, about 12 miles from Dresden, by Augustus II., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706; to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt produced a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary and gilt by the goldsmith. It was made from a kind of brown clay found at Meissen. This red ware, made by Böttcher, was a fine stoneware, having opacity, grain, and toughness.

Another kind of pottery was made at the beginning of the 18th century, in imitation of the Japanese; it was called the red pottery of Dresden.

TEINITZ (Bohemia). A manufactory was carried on in this small town in the 18th century by a potter named Welby.

Fig. 97. A plate painted in bistre _camaïeu_ with the Discovery of Calisto by Diana. It has an elegant border in grey, with richly gilt designs, resembling the gilding of Vienna. Date about 1800.

FRANKENTHAL. Paul Hannong, driven from Strassburg in 1753, in consequence of the Vincennes monopoly, founded a manufactory here in the following year for hard paste porcelain; he also made great quantities of fayence, usually decorated with flowers, as at Strassburg. It was called "Poterie du Rhin."

ARNSTADT (Gotha). A factory was established here about the middle of the 18th century. A fayence jug, painted in blue _camaïeu_, with St. George and the Dragon, coloured flowers on the sides, and a purple and green check border, is in the British Museum.

KIEL was noted for its fayence about 1770; the factory was under the direction of J. Buchwald, who had been master potter at Marieberg, 1761 to 1765; a few years after, probably in 1767 or 1768, he became director of the Kiel manufactory. The paintings of landscapes and flowers in colours are well finished.

HOLLAND AND LUXEMBURG

HOLLAND

Delft, a town between the Hague and Rotterdam, was celebrated for its earthenware at a very early period. The exact date of its commencement is not known, but there is a record of a certain Herman Pietersz, a fayence maker, being married in 1584, consequently pottery was being made in the town towards the end of the 16th century. At this period the decorated Dutch pottery showed Italian influence in its design, and it is recorded that a painter on pottery named Vroom studied his art in Italy.

After the middle of the 17th century the industry increased rapidly, and reached its greatest prosperity about 1680, when there were about thirty different factories, and the ware was decorated by highly skilled artists. No one was allowed to establish a factory unless he had obtained a licence from the Guild of S{t}. Luc.

To this period belong famous potters, such as P. J. Van Kessel of "The Metal Pot"; Abram de Kooge of "The Old Moor's Head," who decorated landscapes in blue _camaïeu_; and Albrecht de Keizer, with his two sons-in-law, Jacob and Adrian Pynaker, of "The Three Porcelain Bottles," who were the first to imitate oriental porcelain. Other potters of note at this time were the Eenhorns, father and two sons, the Kleftyns, and the five Kams.

By the middle of the 18th century, owing to the competition of English pottery, the Delft industry was already on the wane. In 1780 the factories were reduced to one half their former number, and by 1808 only seven existed. All these gradually succumbed, and now only one factory, "The Old Porcelain Bottle," remains.

The forms of the Delft ware are very varied; among other curious efforts the potters produced musical instruments. There are four fayence violins extant, all painted in blue _camaïeu_, with figures in Dutch costume of the 17th century, dancing and singing, musicians and kermess scenes, in the manner of Gerard Lairesse, with cupids and Renaissance ornaments as borders.

The decorated pieces of Ter Himpelen, although rarely signed, are much prized; he painted fairs and marine subjects on square plaques, about the year 1650. So also are those of Piet Viseer, a celebrated colourist, who flourished about 1750; and of Van Domelaar, who painted Chinese landscapes, &c., about 1580.

Fig. 99, a cruche, is painted in blue _camaïeu_, with a musical party, in the costume of about 1670.

Fig. 100, a teapot, is painted in polychrome with Chinese landscapes and flowers on a black ground. It has the mark of Louwys Fictoor. Late 17th or early 18th century.

Fig. 101, a vase, is painted in blue with flowers, in imitation of a Chinese type. The mark of Ghisbrecht Lambrechtse Kruyk. Later half of 17th century.

Fig. 102, a plate painted with figures in blue, is one of a set of twelve representing the tobacco industry.

UTRECHT. There was a manufactory of tiles here, founded in 1760; they were decorated in blue or violet, _en camaïeu_, in imitation of Delft; the manufactory was closed in 1855.

AMSTERDAM. A German Jew of Breslau, named Hartog, known as Hartog Van Laun, and another, named Brandeis, established a manufactory of fayence near the gate of Weesp, at Amsterdam. The ware is heavy, not very artistic, and usually in blue _camaïeu_. Fig. 103, a fruit dish, is painted in blue, with a man and woman seated.

OVERTOOM. A manufactory of fine fayence was established in 1754, in the parish of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam; it lasted ten years. The Barons Van Haeren and Van Palland were the proprietors, and Ariel Blankers was the director. The fayence, though heavy, was of a fine white enamel and of good forms; besides table and tea services, groups of birds, modelled from nature, statuettes, &c., were made.

LUXEMBURG

An important _fabrique_ was established at Luxemburg by the brothers Boch, in 1767, who had removed from Audun le Riche in France. They made various descriptions of earthenware, as well as fine fayence, and largely imitated the English Queen's ware.

RUSSIA AND SWEDEN

RUSSIA

ST. PETERSBURG. About the year 1700, Peter the Great, during his stay at Saardam, induced some potters of Delft to emigrate to St. Petersburg, where he established a manufactory. We have no information on the subject, except a notice of it in the "_Connaissances Politiques_," of Beausobre, published at Riga in 1773: "There is also among the porcelain manufactories at St. Petersburg a _fabrique_ of fayence, on the other side of the Neva, where they make every description of vessels of correct design and in good taste. A private gentleman of Revel has also established at his own cost, near this city, a _fabrique_ of fayence, and has obtained painters and potters from Germany."

SWEDEN

RÖRSTRAND, a suburb of Stockholm, where a factory for earthenware was established in 1726. The works were at first under the direction of Jean Wolf. He was succeeded by C. C. Hünger. In 1772 they were managed by Nordenstople, and later by Geyer.

FIG. 105.--VASE AND COVER.]

Fig. 104, a butterboat, leaf-shaped, is painted with flowers; dated 1771.

STOCKHOLM is the same manufactory as Rörstrand, but the mark was altered when the latter town was united to the capital.

MARIEBERG, near Stockholm. The second Swedish pottery was established in 1750, on the expiration of the monopoly of Rörstrand, by M. Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State. The fayence was something like Delft ware, and it was also ornamented with transfer printing.

Fig. 105, a vase and cover, is coloured in relief; date about 1770.

Fig. 106, a plate with pierced border, has a shield of arms and flowers; dated 1768.

CONTINENTAL PORCELAIN

Porcelain has this distinguishing characteristic, that when held up to a strong light it appears translucent, unlike fayence, which is perfectly opaque. Its fracture is hard and white internally, like a broken piece of alabaster.

Porcelain of soft paste has the appearance of an unctuous white enamel like cream; it is also to the touch of a soft, warm, and soapy nature, something like the surface of fine fayence. The _pâte tendre_ is also soft in another sense, being unable to bear so great a degree of heat in the furnace as hard porcelain. The soft paste may, therefore, be easily cut or scratched with a steel point or a file, which would have no effect upon the hard paste; it is consequently liable to become much scratched by frequent use. The hard paste or true porcelain is of the whiteness of milk; it feels to the touch of a hard and cold nature, and is somewhat heavier than the soft; underneath the plates and other pieces the rim or edge is left unpolished, or without glaze.

The painting upon porcelain is executed after the ware has been baked. Whilst in a biscuit state, the piece to be painted is dipped into a diluted glaze; it readily absorbs the water, leaving on the surface a thin coating of components which quickly dries into a solid shell, uniformly thick over all its parts, and sufficiently firm to bear handling without being rubbed off during removal into the seggar or case which protects it in the kiln.

The amateur must be upon his guard in collecting porcelain, and not place too much reliance on the marks which he may find upon the ware. When the mark is not indented on the paste, or baked with the porcelain when at its greatest heat (_au grand feu_), it gives no guarantee of its genuineness. The mark was nearly always affixed before glazing. It is necessary in forming a correct judgment of the authenticity of a piece of valuable china, such as Sèvres, that many things be taken into consideration: First, above all it is most important to be satisfied whether the porcelain be of hard or soft paste, and whether such description of paste was made at the particular epoch represented by the mark; then, if the decoration be in keeping with the style adopted at the time indicated, the colours, the finish, and various other _indicia_ must also be taken into consideration.

ITALY

FLORENCE. The first successful attempt in Europe to imitate porcelain was made at Florence as early as 1580, under the auspices of Francesco I. de' Medici, but it was not so hard as that of China; that is to say, it was not composed of _kaolin_ and _petuntse_, but was a soft paste and _translucent_, which is one of the principal tests of porcelain. For some reason, the manufacture of this porcelain was abandoned after the death of the inventor.

Fig. 107, a cruet for oil and vinegar, has scroll ornament in blue; on either spout A and O (Aceto and Olio). About 1600.

Fig. 108, a bowl, is painted inside and out with blue flowers. About 1600.

DOCCIA. The manufactory was founded in 1735 by the Marquis Carlo Ginori, contemporaneously with the manufactory at Sèvres. About 1760 it rose to great importance, and large groups were executed from the models of the most celebrated sculptors. In 1821 the moulds of the Capo di Monte porcelain were transferred to Doccia.

About 1860 the fabrication of the imitative Capo di Monte ware of the 18th century, in coloured _mezzo-rilievo_, was brought to great perfection, as well as the successful imitation of the maiolica of Xanto and Maestro Giorgio of the 16th century, by the invention and introduction of metallic lustres in the colouring.

Fig. 109, a teapot, is painted with flowers and purple border.

Fig. 110, a basin, has a band of flowers in relief. Diameter 5-1/2 in.

NAPLES--CAPO DI MONTE. This manufactory was founded by Charles III. in 1736. It is considered of native origin, as the art, which was kept so profound a secret in Dresden, could, at that early period, have scarcely had time to be introduced here, and the character of its productions are also essentially different. The king himself took great interest in it, and is said to have worked occasionally in the manufactory. The beautiful Capo di Monte services and groups in coloured relief are of the second period, _circa_ 1760.

Fig. 111, a vase, has green ornaments, on gold ground, and medallions of figures.

Fig. 112, a saucer, bears a portrait of Ferdinand IV. and legend.

Fig. 113, a cup and saucer, is painted with landscape and figures.

Fig. 114, a coffee-pot, has classical subjects.

TREVISO. There was a manufactory of soft porcelain probably established towards the end of the 18th century, carried on by the brothers Giuseppe and Andrea Fontebasso.

Fig. 115, an écuelle, with blue ground, has gold fret borders and oval medallions of Italian buildings, landscapes, and figures.

Fig. 116, the cup is painted with a garden scene, with a man and woman holding flowers, the former also holding a bird, the latter a cage.

TURIN--VINOVO. Vittorio Amedeo Gioanetti established a manufactory of porcelain at Vinovo or Vineuf in 1770. Attempts in this direction had been previously made, but they were unsuccessful, and it was not until Gioanetti applied himself to the manufacture that it succeeded. The ware was noted for its fine grain and the whiteness of its glaze, as well as for the colours employed in its decoration.

Fig. 117, an écuelle, is ornamented in gold, with initials and the Royal Arms.

VENICE. Porcelain of soft paste was made here probably about 1720.

The "Casa eccellentissima Vezzi" was founded by Francesco Vezzi, a goldsmith of Venice. He invested the sum of 30,000 ducats in a porcelain company, amongst whose shareholders were Luca Mantovani and others. The site of the Vezzi manufactory of porcelain was at S. Nicolo in Venice. How long after Vezzi's death it was carried on does not appear, but judging from the statements made to the Senate in 1765, it did not long survive him, and the secret of his process for making porcelain had evidently not been disclosed.

Materials for making porcelain were to be obtained in the Venetian dominions, but not such as to produce the _hard_ or Oriental porcelain; they were therefore procured from Saxony, as were probably also some of the workmen, which will account for the fact that the "Casa eccellentissima Vezzi" produced both _hard_ and _soft_ paste.

The pieces made at the Vezzi manufactory are painted with masquerades, grotesque Chinese figures and decorations in relief, flowers, birds, arabesques, and geometrical patterns and colours, statuettes, &c., especially in the Venetian red which pervades all the decorations, the handles, borders, and mouldings being sometimes covered with silver or platinum, producing the effect of oxidised metal mountings. Another striking peculiarity in the decoration of porcelain of this period is a border of black or coloured diaper work formed by crossed lines, having in the interstices small gilt points or crosses bordered by scrolls. These specimens are mostly of hard paste in the form of bowls, plates, tureens, &c.

A beautiful example of this porcelain is represented in Fig. 118, a vase and cover of hard paste painted in lake _camaïeu_, heightened by gold, with a continuous landscape; the peculiar border, noticed above, with marks and interlaced bands, is shown on the cover; the edges, knob, and flutings are raised and plated with silver or platinum.

After the Vezzi manufactory had ceased to exist we have no documents to prove that any efforts were made to introduce the manufacture of porcelain into Venice until December 1757, when a petition was presented to the Venetian College by Frederick Hewelcke & Co., who stated that the sale introduced and directed by them in Dresden of Saxon porcelain had been carried on in a very flourishing manner, but that in consequence of the then existing war (the Seven Years' War, which commenced in 1756), they had been obliged to abandon Saxony and to seek refuge in a foreign country.

On the 18th of March 1758, a decree granted to the Hewelckes the privileges they had requested. It seems that the undertaking proved eventually to be unfortunate, and at the termination of that war, which had brought them to Venice, they returned to their native country.

In 1765, the Senate granted to Giminiano Cozzi, in the Contrada di San Giobbe, Venice, protection and pecuniary assistance in carrying out a manufacture of porcelain. Cozzi's first efforts were directed towards the imitation of the Oriental ware; and a very large trade was carried on by him for nearly fifty years. He produced statuettes in biscuit, in glazed white porcelain, and coloured groups, vases, &c. The gilding on Cozzi's porcelain is especially fine, the pure gold of the sequin having been used in its decoration.

The manufactory ceased to exist in 1812.

NOVE. The manufacture of porcelain at Nove may be traced back as far as the 12th January 1752, when Pasqual Antonibon brought from Dresden a certain Sigismund Fischer to construct a furnace for making porcelain in the Saxon style.

From this time forward he continued his experiments, and must have made great progress in the art, for in February 1761 he had three furnaces, of which one was for Saxon (_ad uso di Sassonia_), the other two for French porcelain (_ad uso di Francia_).

In 1762, Antonibon submitted specimens of his porcelain to the Board of Trade, and petitioned that the patent rights which had been conceded to Hewelcke should be extended to him. At that time, the report states, Antonibon had at Nove a manufactory, rich in buildings, machinery, and tools. The capital embarked in it was estimated at 80,000 ducats, and so great was the sale of his products that he gave employment to 150 men and their families, in addition to 100 people employed in his retail business, carried on at his three shops in Venice. This extensive manufactory was, however, principally for maiolica.

On the 7th April 1763, a decree was made in his favour; and he appears to have set earnestly to work in his manufacture of porcelain. His competitor, Hewelcke, shortly after deserted Venice; but he had a more formidable rival in Giminiano Cozzi, who obtained a decree for making porcelain in 1765, in which Pasqual Antonibon's manufacture is noticed, the Senate declaring it to be the duty of the magistrate to make such arrangements as would lead to an amicable understanding between the rival manufacturers and their workmen.

Pasqual Antonibon and his son Giovanni Battista continued the fabrication of porcelain until the 6th February 1781, when they entered into partnership with Signor Parolini. The same manufacture, _con sommo onore dell'arte_, was continued by them until the 6th February 1802, when it was leased to Giovanni Baroni, who produced some very charming pieces both in form and decoration; but in a few years, from being badly conducted, it began to fall off, and by degrees it went to decay and was abandoned. The "Fabbrica Baroni," however, lingered on for more than twenty years.

An example of the Baroni _fabrique_, in porcelain, with female figure handles, and painted with classical subjects, is given. (See Fig. 121.)

On 21st May 1825, the old firm of "Pasqual Antonibon and Sons" resumed the works, the actual proprietors being Gio. Batt. Antonibon and his son Francesco; they continued the manufacture of porcelain until 1835, but all their efforts to sustain it were ineffectual; they could not compete with the porcelain manufactories of France and Germany, so they were compelled to abandon the factory.

SPAIN

MADRID--BUEN RETIRO. This manufactory (_Soft Paste_), called "_La China_," was founded by Charles III. in 1759, in the gardens attached to his palace, EL BUEN RETIRO, at Madrid. It was organised by workmen whom he brought with him from Naples. The early ware produced here consequently resembles that of Capo di Monte.

The royal manufactory was taken possession of by the French, and the place converted into a fortification, which surrendered in 1812 to the Duke of Wellington. It was subsequently blown up by Lord Hill when the misconduct or perfidy of Ballasteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid.

Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, recreated _La China_, at La Mancha, once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares; but this factory also has ceased to exist, at least as regards artistic merit.

ALCORA. The Comte de Laborde, in his _View of Spain_, in 1808, says, "On ne fait de Porcelaine (en Espagne) qu'à Alcora et à Madrid: celle d'Alcora est très commune, on en fait très peu." In confirmation of this assertion M. Chas. Davillier, on a visit to Spain, saw an engraving of a furnace for baking porcelain with this inscription: "Modele de four pour la porselene naturele, fait par Haly pour M. le Comte d'Aranda Alcora, 29 Juin 1756." The works are also noticed by Don Antonio Ponz, _Viaje de España_, in 1793.

GERMANY

DRESDEN. The celebrated porcelain manufactory at Dresden, or rather at Meissen (in its vicinity), was established by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of true porcelain, that is, hard paste. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706, and to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt was a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary, and ornamented by gilding; it was a fine stoneware, having the opacity, grain, and toughness of pottery. Later, Böttcher succeeded in discovering the mode of making true porcelain by the accidental detection of the kaolin necessary for the purpose. In consequence of this important discovery, Augustus II. established the great manufactory at Meissen, of which Böttcher was appointed Director in 1710, and about 1715 he succeeded in making a fine white porcelain. The first decorations upon this ware were very imperfect, consisting of a blue colour under the glaze, in imitation of Nankin blue porcelain. It was under Horoldt's direction, in 1720, that paintings of a superior character, accompanied by gilding, and medallions of Chinese figures were introduced, and magnificent services completed. In 1731, Kändler, a sculptor, superintended the modelling of animals, groups, vases, &c., while other artists painted birds, insects, and copies of paintings principally of the Flemish school. The best productions emanated from the Dresden manufactory from 1731 to 1756.

Kändler modelled men and animals of the natural size, as well as peacocks, herons, pelicans, and other birds. Among the pieces produced about this time by, or under the direction of, Kändler, at Meissen was Count Bruhl's tailor mounted upon a goat, with all the implements of his trade about him. This vain man had a great desire that his likeness should be executed in porcelain at the royal manufactory, and his request was complied with, but probably not in such a way as to gratify his vanity, for not only the tailor but his wife were thus immortalised, _aere perennius_, in porcelain. In 1754 Dietrich became Director, and he was succeeded in 1796 by Marcolini, whose beautiful productions are well known. Porcelain of his period is always distinguished by a star underneath crossed swords. In spite of the precautions taken at Meissen to prevent the secret becoming known--the penalty being death, or perpetual imprisonment in the Castle of Königstein--some workmen escaped to reveal it elsewhere.

The white Meissen porcelain was sometimes ornamented by private persons, especially by a Baron Busch, Canon of Hildesheim, who was the only person possessed of the secret of engraving with a diamond on china.

BERLIN. This manufactory for _Hard Paste_ was established by Wilhelm Caspar Wegeli in 1751, in the Neue Friedrichsstrasse. It was carried on for about ten years, but it never remunerated the originator, and he abandoned it in 1761, when Gottskowski, a celebrated banker, became the purchaser, and removed the works to Leipziger Strasse; assisted by his capital, they were brought to great perfection.

Johann Ernst Gottskowski obtained the secret of porcelain from Ernst Heinrich Richard, who had been employed by Wegeli. Gottskowski did not personally manage the manufactory, but placed it under the management of the Commissioner Grunenger, which led to his employment from the year 1763 to 1786 as the head of the royal porcelain manufactory at Berlin.

In 1763, Gottskowski gave up to the king the whole of his factory of porcelain, receiving 225,000 dollars, and entering into a contract for the sale of his secrets.

With a view to encouraging the manufacture in his kingdom, the king made presents of superb services of Berlin china to several German princes in the year 1766. When Frederick the Great occupied Dresden, in the seven years' war, he expatriated many of the best modellers and painters to form his royal manufactory; among these were Meyer, Klipsel, and Böhme. The king also transported great quantities of the clay and a portion of the collection. Independently of this, and the better to insure employment for the five hundred persons engaged in the processes, he restricted the Jews resident in any part of his dominions from entering into the marriage state, until each man had obtained a certificate from himself, which was only granted on the production of a voucher from the Director of the manufactory that porcelain to a given amount had been purchased, and that there was reasonable cause for granting the indulgence. Of course the Jews more readily disposed of their purchases than the general dealers, and the device was attended with favourable results. To insure the success of the establishment and extend its operations, Frederick embraced every opportunity that was presented; and it was so well supported that in 1776 seven hundred men were constantly employed, and it is said that three thousand pieces of porcelain were made daily.

In 1769 an order was published permitting a lottery company to purchase annually to the amount of 90,000 dollars.

About 1872, the Berlin Royal Porcelain Manufactory was working seven kilns, and employing three hundred workmen; the annual produce amounted on an average to half a million finished articles, value 150,000 Prussian dollars. The superintendence was entrusted to Herr Kolbe (who succeeded Herr Frick in the direction), under whom were Dr. Eisner as chemist, Herr Mantel as master modeller, and Herr Looschen as head painter.

HÖCHST, a town situated on the Main, and now in Nassau, belonged to the Electors of Mainz. A manufactory was founded in 1746 by J. C. Göltz and J. F. Clarus, two merchants of Frankfort, assisted by A. von Löwenfinck, but they were unsuccessful, and called in Ringler, of Vienna, who had escaped from the manufactory. During the Electorate of Johann Friedrich Karl, Archbishop of Mainz, their porcelain ranked among the first in Europe. About 1760 the celebrated modeller Melchior was engaged, and some very elegant statuettes and designs for vases, &c., were produced. Melchior left the manufactory about 1785, and his successor, Ries, was not so skilful, and all his figures having disproportionate heads, the so-called "thick-head" period commenced. Christian Gottlieb Kuntze was another celebrated worker in this _fabrique_. On the invasion of the French under General Custine in 1794, all the materials were sold by auction.

FRANKENTHAL, in Bavaria. Established in 1754, by Paul Hannong, who, having discovered the secret of hard porcelain, offered it to the royal manufactory at Sèvres, but the authorities not agreeing as to the price, the offer was declined, and they commenced persecuting him--for in that year a decree forbade the making of translucent ware in France except at Sèvres--and Hannong was compelled to go to Frankenthal, leaving his fayence manufactory at Strassburg in charge of his sons. In 1761 the factory was purchased by the Elector Carl Theodore, and it attained great celebrity, which it maintained until he became Elector of Bavaria, in 1777. It then declined, and all the stock and utensils were sold in 1800 and removed to Greinstadt. The following chronogram denotes the year 1775:--

VARIANTIBVS · FLOSCVLIS · DIVERSI · COLORES ·
FABRICÆ · SVB · REVIVISCENTIS · SOLIS · HVIVS ·
RADIIS · EXVLTANTIS ·
IN·FRANKENTHAL· [star]

It occurs on a porcelain plate, Fig. 139, having in the centre the initials of Carl Theodore, interlaced and crowned, within a gold star of flaming rays; radiating from this are thirty divisions, and on the border thirty more, all numbered and painted with small bouquets, _en camaïeu_, of all the various shades of colour employed in the manufactory.

NEUDECK, on the Au, and NYMPHENBURG. This factory was established in 1747, by a potter named Niedermayer. Graf von Hainshausen became its patron in 1754, and in 1756 he sent for Ringler, who organised the establishment, and it was then placed under the protection of the Elector Maximilian Joseph. On the death of his successor, Carl Theodore, in 1799, the Frankenthal manufactory was abandoned, and transferred to Nymphenburg, which is still a royal establishment, and well supported. The pieces are manufactured in white at Nymphenburg, but chiefly decorated at Munich and elsewhere; that is the reason why on the same piece the Nymphenburg mark is frequently found impressed, with the mark of some other factory painted in colour.

Fig. 141, moulded in relief and painted with flowers; marks, the coat of Bavaria, 1765 in gold, two leaves and I. A. H. in green; height 7-1/4 in.

Fig. 142, painted in colours; marks, the coat of arms of Bavaria, and A incised; diameter 3-1/4 in. and 5-1/4 in.

ANSPACH, a town which belonged to the Margraves of Anspach and is now in Bavaria. There was a factory here about 1760.

Fig. 143 is painted with figures in colour; signed "Schelk, pinx."; mark A in blue; diameter 3 ins. and 5-1/4 in.

BAYREUTH was under the same rulers as Anspach, and is now also in Bavaria. There was a manufactory here in the 18th century, but little appears to be known respecting it.

Fig. 144 is painted in colours, and gilt inside; mark, "Metzsch 1748 Bayr"; diameter 2-3/4 in.

KELSTERBACH, in Hesse. A manufactory for pottery was founded here about 1758, where later porcelain was also made. The works only lasted about sixteen years.

Fig. 145 is painted in colours; mark, H. D. under a crown, in blue; height 6-3/4 in.

THURINGIA. In the middle of the 18th century a number of small porcelain factories sprang up in this district. It is said that they owe their origin to a chemist named Macheleid, who discovered by accident a deposit of kaolin, and obtained permission from the Prince of Schwarzburg to establish a factory at SITZENRODA, which in 1762 was removed to Volkstedt.

CLOSTER, or KLOSTER, VEILSDORF, or VOLKSTEDT. The porcelain manufactory of Sitzenroda was transferred to Volkstedt, in Thuringia, in 1762, where it was farmed by a merchant named Nonne, of Erfurt, who greatly enlarged and improved the works. About the year 1770 it was carried on by Greiner. In 1795 more than 120 workmen were employed.

Fig. 148 is moulded in rococo style, and painted with flowers; mark, shield of Saxe-Meiningen between C. V.; length 12-1/2 in.

RUDOLSTADT. The factory at Volkstedt was afterwards removed to Rudolstadt, near Jena. Gotthelf Greiner had the direction of several of the other Thuringian manufactories; he died in 1797.

FULDA, in Hesse. A factory was established here about 1763 by Arnandus, Prince-Bishop of Fulda, for the manufacture of porcelain. The best artists were employed, and many grand vases, figures, and services of a fine white paste and handsomely decorated were produced.

FÜRSTENBERG. In Brunswick, established in 1750, by the help of Bengraf, who came from Höchst; he died the same year, and Baron von Lang, a distinguished chemist, undertook the direction of the works, under the patronage of Carl, Duke of Brunswick. The manufactory was carried on by the Government up to the middle of last century.

Fig. 154, a bust of Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick, grand-daughter of King George II., is in white biscuit; mark, F in blue, a running horse, and W; height 20-1/2 in.

Fig. 155. Portraits of O. D. Beckmann and A. L. Schlötzer; marked with a running horse and F; length 2-7/8 in.

LUDWIGSBURG, in Würtemberg. Established by J. J. Ringler in 1758, under the patronage of Carl Eugene, the reigning duke. It was celebrated for the excellence of its productions and the fine paintings on its vases and services, as well as for its excellent groups. This factory ceased in 1824.

Fig. 156 is painted with figures of Hope and Music in panels; mark, double C under a crown, in blue; height 5-1/4 in.

Fig. 157 is painted in lake _camaïeu_, with a landscape and buildings after Claude, and has a gilt, arabesque and scroll border.

REGENSBURG, or RATISBON. This factory was established about 1760.

GROSSBREITENBACH. A factory was established here about 1770 by Greiner. The demand for his porcelain was so great, that not being able to enlarge his works at Limbach, he started this as well as Veilsdorf and Volkstedt.

Fig. 159 is grey blue ware in imitation of Wedgwood, with classical group in white relief, bearing a wreath with the cypher F. G. C. under a crown; marks, "Breitenbach et Limbach," and "Gruber"; height 4 in.

FIG. 160.--SUCRIER, COVER, AND STAND.]

LIMBACH, Saxe-Meiningen. This manufactory was also under the direction of Gotthelf Greiner. It was established about 1762.

Fig. 160 is painted with flowers; mark, two letters L crossed; diameters 4-7/8 and 8-1/4 in.

GERA. A manufactory was founded here about 1780.

Fig. 161 is painted with festoons of pink flowers; mark, G in blue; height 6-1/4 in.

Fig. 162 is grained in imitation of oak, with medallions painted with views, "Schloss aus dem Kohlenhofe" on cup, and "Lauchstaedt vor dem Brunnen" on saucer; signed, "Rühlig Fec"; mark, G in blue; diameters 3 and 5-1/4 in.

BADEN-BADEN. A porcelain manufactory was established in 1753 by the widow Sperl and workmen from Höchst, with the patronage of the reigning Margrave, under Pfälzer. It ceased in 1778.

FIG. 163.--FIGURE OF BACCHUS. _In white biscuit._ Height 11 in.]

GOTHA. Founded in 1780 by Rothenberg, and afterwards (1802) conducted by Henneberg.

RAUENSTEIN, in Saxe-Meiningen. A factory for hard paste was established here in 1760.

Fig. 164 is painted with flowers; mark, R--n; diameters 3 and 5 in.

WALLENDORF, in Saxe-Coburg. There was also a factory for hard paste established by Greiner and Haman here in 1762.

Fig. 165 is painted in dark blue, and with leaves in relief; mark, W, in blue; height 10 in.

AUSTRIA

VIENNA

This manufactory for _hard paste_ was founded about 1717. There are several traditions as to its origin: one is that a musician named La France, and a billiard-marker, named Dupuis, brought with them to Vienna, in October 1717, a certain Cristofle Conrad Hünger, who had been employed at Meissen as an enamel painter and gilder, and that in the following year they were joined by a man named Stölzel of Meissen, who was possessed of the secret, and became director. Another that it was a private enterprise set on foot by Claude du Pasquier, who obtained from the Emperor Charles VII. a privilege for twenty-five years. Major Byng Hall (_Adventures of a Bric-à-Brac Hunter_), however, says that it was established in 1718 by Claude Innocenz de Blaquier, who engaged one Stenzel or Stölzel to co-operate with him. With this object in view De Blaquier proceeded secretly to Meissen, where he contrived to scrape acquaintance with the arcanist in a coffee-house. He engaged with Stenzel in a game of billiards, taking care to lose, and thus he secured his object. Stenzel after some slight hesitation, accepted an offer of a thousand dollars to be paid yearly.

De Blaquier had to contend with many difficulties owing to his not being possessed of the secret, and at the end of the second year Stenzel not having been paid regularly according to his contract, returned to Meissen, after having maliciously destroyed many of the models. The works had consequently to be suspended. But De Blaquier, being a man of energy and determination, endeavoured by numerous experiments to discover the porcelain mixture, and his efforts were finally crowned with success.

After twenty-five years' labour De Blaquier decided in 1744 to offer the works to the Government.

The young Empress Maria Theresa resolved to support the factory, which promised to give occupation and profit to her subjects, honour and gain to the State. She therefore commanded that it should be taken by State contract from its owner, and that De Blaquier should receive the direction with a salary of 1500 florins a year.

From 1747 to 1790 was the best period for figures and groups, while from 1780 to 1820 painting on china became celebrated, the subjects being taken from paintings by Watteau, Lancret, Boucher, Angelica Kauffmann, and others.

In 1785 the most important improvements were made under the Baron de Lorgenthal or Sorgenthal; artists of the highest talents were employed, a first-rate chemist named Leithner was engaged to prepare the colours and gilding, the _chefs d'oeuvre_ of the early masters were copied, while the gilding was brought to a perfection which has never been surpassed.

After the death of the Baron in 1805, Neidermayer became Director. The manufacture continued in its flourishing condition until about 1815. From the year 1784 to the date of its extinction, it was the custom to mark every piece with the number of the year, which circumstance may be of great service to the connoisseur who seeks early specimens of Vienna porcelain. It is stamped without colour underneath the piece--or rather indented, the first numeral being omitted; thus the number 792 stands for 1792; 802 for 1802; and so on.

From 1827, under the direction of Scholtz, who followed Niedermayer, the manufactory began to decline, and what with economy, indifferent workmen, and bad artists copying from French models its doom was sealed. It gradually dwindled down to a second-rate factory, and in consequence of the great annual expense it was discontinued in 1864. The books on art belonging to the factory, and all the drawings of its most successful period, together with many of the models, the library, and the keramic collection, were given to the Imperial Museum in Vienna, to be retained as a lasting memorial of its celebrity.

Fig. 166 is painted in _camaïeu_ on purple ground, and gilt; mark, shield crowned; length of tray 12 in.

Fig. 167 is painted in colours and gilt, with busts of ladies, entitled "L'Hérisson" and "Fantaisie Moderne"; mark, the shield in blue; height 6 in.

Fig. 168 is painted in colours, with two nymphs in a landscape playing with the infant Bacchus; mark, the Austrian shield of arms, in blue; the painting attributed to Fürstler.

SCHLAGGENWALD, in Bohemia. This manufactory was established in the year 1810. George Lippert was the owner in 1842, and much improved the industry. Some pieces are marked "Lippert & Haas."

Fig. 170 is painted in colours, with medallions containing figures of Justice; mark, S; diam. 2-1/2 and 5 in.

HEREND, in Hungary. There was a manufactory of porcelain here towards the end of the 18th century, but particulars concerning its origin are not known.

Fig. 171 is painted in oriental style, with flowers, &c.; late 18th century.

SWITZERLAND

NYON, on the lake of Geneva. A manufactory was in full work here towards the end of the 18th century. It is said to have been established by a French flower painter named Maubrée, and several Genevese artists painted on the porcelain, occasionally marking it with a "G" or "Geneva" in full; but there never was a manufactory of china at Geneva itself.

ZÜRICH. Established here in 1763 by a few Zürich gentlemen, with the aid of a workman, named Spengler, from Höchst. Another German, Sonnenschein, a sculptor, was employed to model figures and groups. The factory was not a financial success. In 1793 the works were sold to a potter named Nehracher, and on his death in 1800 the works ceased.

FIG. 173.--CUP AND SAUCER. _With mark, fish in blue._]

Fig. 174 represents a soldier trampling on a Turk and unveiling a lady, martial and love trophies on the ground.

HOLLAND

WEESP. The first manufactory for porcelain in Holland was at Weesp, near Amsterdam. It was established in 1764 by the Count Cronsfeldt-Diepenbroick, who had by some means obtained the secret of the composition of hard paste. After existing seven years, the factory was closed in 1771. Notwithstanding the unsuccessful result from a commercial point of view, it was reopened by a Protestant minister, the Rev. De Moll, of Oude Loosdrecht, associated with some capitalists of Amsterdam, but the next year it was removed to Loosdrecht. The decorations are very much of the Saxon character.