Chapter III: Part 3

OUDE LOOSDRECHT, situated between Utrecht and Amsterdam, was the next town where porcelain was successfully made. It sprang from the ashes of Weesp, and in 1772 became a company, with the Rev. De Moll at its head; after his death, in 1782, the concern passed into the hands of his partners, J. Rendorp, A. Dedel, C. Van der Hoop, Gysbz, and J. Hope, and was by them removed, in 1784, to Oude Amstel. The ware is of fine quality, decorated in the Saxon style; specimens are frequently met with, having gilt borders and a light blue flower between green leaves.

AMSTERDAM. Fig. 179. Painted in lake _camaïeu_ with birds and trees; the mark, lion, in blue.

OUDE AMSTEL. On the death of the Rev. De Moll in the year 1782, the manufactory of Loosdrecht was removed to Oude Amstel (Old Amstel), near Amsterdam, and carried on with redoubled zeal by the same company, directed by a German named Däuber, about 1784. It flourished under his direction for a few years, and produced a fine description of porcelain, but it gradually declined, in consequence of the large importations from England which inundated the country. In 1789 it came into the hands of J. Rendorp, C. Van der Hoop, and Gysbz, still remaining under Däuber's direction, but it was entirely demolished at the close of the 18th century.

THE HAGUE. About the year 1775, a porcelain manufactory for both hard and soft paste was opened at The Hague, under the direction of a German named Leichner or Lynker. The works ceased in 1785 or 1786.

Fig. 182 bears the mark of a stork in blue; diam. 9-1/2 in.

BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG

BELGIUM

TOURNAI. Established in 1750 by Peterinck. For some time previous to 1815 the works were carried on by M. Maximilien de Bettignies, who, in consequence of the annexation of Tournai to Belgium, ceded it in that year to his brother Henri, and established another factory at St. Amand-les-Eaux. Soft paste, which has been discontinued for many years in every other _fabrique_ in France, is still made at both places, and they consequently produce the closest imitations of old Sèvres _pâte tendre_.

Fig. 184 is painted in blue; mark, crossed swords and three crosses; diam. 9-1/2 in.

Fig. 185 is painted with birds; mark, crossed swords and four crosses, in gold; height 4-3/8 in.

BRUSSELS. There was a manufactory of hard paste porcelain here towards the end of the 18th century.

LUXEMBURG

A factory for hard paste porcelain was established at Sept Fontaines about 1806, by the brothers Boch. Both pottery and porcelain were made here, including plates, vases, figures, &c.

FIG. 188.--TWO FIGURES OF "THE SEASONS." _With mark, B. L._]

RUSSIA

At St. Petersburg, an Imperial china manufactory was established in 1744, by the Empress Elizabeth Petrowna, with workmen from Meissen. Catherine II. patronised the works, and in 1765 enlarged them considerably, under the direction of the minister, J. A. Olsoufieff, since which this _fabrique_ has held a distinguished place among European manufactories. The paste is hard and of a blueish cast, finely glazed, and it betrays its Dresden origin.

MOSCOW, 1720. The potter Eggebrecht, who had undertaken a manufactory of delft at Dresden, by direction of Böttcher, had, after that was discontinued, left to go to Moscow, and, being acquainted with some of the processes for making porcelain, commenced manufacturing it at Moscow.

A porcelain manufactory was established at TWER, by an Englishman named Gardner, in 1787, and another by A. Popoff.

KORZEC, in Volhynia. About 1803, Mérault, a chemist of the Sèvres manufactory, went to direct the _fabrique_ at Korzec, taking with him a laboratory assistant named Pétion. After carrying it on for a few years, Mérault abandoned the direction, and returned to France.

BARANOWKA, in Volhynia. A small factory existed here at which the porcelain clay found in the neighbourhood was used.

SWEDEN

MARIEBERG. This manufactory produced porcelain (_soft paste_), as well as fayence. In quality as well as in decoration the porcelain is like that of Mennecy-Villeroy in France. The industry was established by Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State, in 1750, and altogether ceased about 1780.

DENMARK

COPENHAGEN. This manufactory was commenced by an apothecary of the name of Müller, in 1772, and Baron von Lang, from the Fürstenberg manufactory, is said to have been instrumental in forming it. The capital was raised in shares, but the factory not being successful, the Government interfered, and it became a royal establishment in 1775, and has remained so ever since.

FRANCE

ST. CLOUD. A factory was established here about 1695 for the production of porcelain, at which time M. Morin was proprietor, and M. Chicanneau director of the works.

According to letters patent of 1702, granted to the heirs of Chicanneau, his widow, Barbe Courdray, and her children, were interested in the works; their father had made many experiments and attempts to discover the secret of true porcelain, and from the year 1696 had produced some nearly equal to the porcelain of China. His children, to whom he imparted the secret, successfully continued the fabrication, and were permitted to manufacture porcelain at St. Cloud, or in any other part or parts of the kingdom, except Rouen and its faubourgs. In 1712 a renewal of the patent took place for ten years, and in the meantime the widow Barbe Courdray married a M. Trou.

In 1722 letters patent were granted for twenty years more to Jean and Jean Baptiste Chicanneau, Marie Moreau, the widow of Pierre Chicanneau (third son) and Henri and Gabriel Trou, children of Barbe Courdray by her second marriage. About this time serious disagreements occurred between the two families, and they separated, Gabriel and Henri Trou remaining at St. Cloud, patronised by the Duke of Orleans; while Marie Moreau opened another establishment in the Rue de la Ville l'Évêque, Faubourg St. Honoré, directed by Dominique François Chicanneau. In 1742 another _arrêt_ granted privileges for twenty years to both these establishments, and Marie Moreau dying in 1743 left Dominique her business.

The manufactory at St. Cloud was destroyed by fire (the act of an incendiary) in 1773, and the manufacture ceased, the proprietors not being able to raise sufficient funds to rebuild it.

CHANTILLY. This manufactory was founded in 1725 by Ciquaire Cirou, under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, as appears by letters patent dated 1735, who was succeeded by Antheaume and others. The porcelain was highly esteemed, and there was hardly any object which they did not produce, from the lofty vase to the simplest knife handle. The Chantilly pattern was a great favourite for ordinary services; it was called "Barbeau," and consisted of a small blue flower running over the white paste.

ROUEN. Louis Poterat, Sieur de St. Ètienne, of St. Sever, at Rouen, obtained letters patent in 1673, stating that he had discovered processes for fabricating porcelain similar to that of China, and wares resembling those of Delft; but the former was of a very rude character and never arrived at any perfection.

After the establishment at St. Cloud had commenced selling porcelain, the proprietors of the Rouen manufactory appear to have revived their porcelain in the hopes of competing with them, but with no good result.

MENNECY-VILLEROY. This important manufactory was established in 1735 by François Barbin, under the patronage of the Duc de Villeroy. The early specimens are similar to the _porcelaine tendre_ of St. Cloud, of a milky translucent appearance.

Barbin was succeeded about 1748 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, and the manufactory continued in a flourishing state until 1773, when on the expiration of the lease it was removed to Bourg-la-Reine.

SCEAUX PENTHIÈVRE, near Paris. Established in 1750 by Jacques Chapelle; it was situated opposite the Petit Châtelet, and was under the patronage of the Duc de Penthièvre. It was carried on by Glot in 1773. The Prince-Protector died in 1794, but the production of _pâte tendre_ ceased before that time.

ARRAS. Established in 1782 by the Demoiselles Deleneur, under the patronage of M. de Calonne, Intendant de Flandre et de l'Artois; it only lasted a few years.

BOULOGNE-SUR-MER. Established by M. Haffringue, in the 19th century, with the kaolin of Limoges.

ÉTIOLLES (Seine-et-Oise), near Corbeil. Established in 1768, by Monnier, for soft paste porcelain. The works lasted only a short time.

LILLE. Established in 1711 by Barthélemy Dorez and Pierre Pelissier, his nephew, natives of Lille. The porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of this time was like that of St. Cloud, but in the Delft style, the favourite ornamentation being Chinese designs. At a later period (in 1784) a manufactory of hard porcelain was established by Leperre Durot, under the patronage of the Dauphin; it was styled "Manufacture Royale de Monseigneur le Dauphin." The porcelain of Leperre Durot is richly adorned with gold and with carefully painted bouquets of flowers.

M. Roger succeeded Leperre Durot, and in 1792 he sold his interest in the works to Messieurs Regnault and Graindorge; they were, however, soon ruined, and the establishment was closed.

BOURG-LA-REINE. Started in 1773 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, who removed thither on the expiration of their lease at Mennecy. It was in active existence, making china purely of an industrial character, in 1788.

CLIGNANCOURT. Established in 1775 by Pierre Deruelle, under the patronage of Monsieur le Comte de Provence, brother of the king (afterwards Louis XVIII.).

FIG. 213.--CUP AND DISH.

FIG. 214.--MILK JUG.]

LUNÉVILLE. A factory called "Manufacture Stanislas" was established in 1731. It lasted only a short time, but a later manufactory, founded about 1769, was celebrated for its productions.

Paul Louis Cyfflé, sculptor, obtained, in 1768, letters patent for fifteen years, by virtue of which he established another manufactory for superior vessels of the material called _terre de Lorraine_, and in the following year a new privilege was granted for making groups and statuettes with his improved paste, under the name of _pâte de marbre_.

ORLEANS. Established by M. Gerréault in 1753, under the protection of the Duc de Penthièvre; the porcelain first made here was of the soft paste, but hard paste was subsequently produced. Gerréault was succeeded by Bourdon _fils_ about 1788, Piédor, Dubois, and lastly, Le Brun, from 1808 to 1811.

NIDERVILLER. Established about 1760 by Baron de Beyerlé. After successfully carrying on this branch for several years, he attempted hard porcelain in 1768, and procured potters and artists from Saxony. Three or four years before his death, which happened in 1784, the estate was bought by General de Custine. This new proprietor continued the _fabrique_, under the direction of M. Lanfray, who paid especial attention to the production of fine porcelain; the fabrication of statuettes was greatly increased.

FIG. 215.--BOWL, COVER, AND STAND. _Mark, heraldic label in blue._]

After the decapitation of the unfortunate de Custine, his estates, being forfeited to the Republic, were sold on the 25 Germinal, An X (1802), to M. Lanfray, and carried on by him until his death in 1827, when the manufactory was sold to L. G. Dryander, of Saarbrücken. For many years he continued to make porcelain, as well as fayence groups and statuettes, but the distance of his _fabrique_ from the kaolin of St. Yrieix prevented him from competing successfully with those of Limoges, and this branch was abandoned.

BOISSETTE, near Melun. A factory was established in 1777 by Jacques Vermonet père et fils, but it lasted only a short time.

CAEN, Normandy. Established and supported by some of the principal inhabitants, at the time of the French Revolution (about 1793), when several workmen from Sèvres came to join it. It was carried on for a few years, but no market being found for the ware, the factory was discontinued at the commencement of the last century. It is hard paste, and equal to that of Sèvres, and of the same forms.

VALENCIENNES (Nord). By an Order of Council, dated 24th May 1785, M. Fauquet was permitted to carry on a manufacture of porcelain at Valenciennes. He was originally established at St. Amand in the manufacture of fayence as early as 1775, and probably carried on both works simultaneously.

ST. AMAND-LES-EAUX. Founded by M. Maximilien de Bettignies in 1815, for the manufacture of _pâte tendre_ porcelain like the old Sèvres. He was formerly proprietor of the Tournai manufactory, which he ceded to his brother Henri when that city became re-annexed to Belgium.

STRASSBURG. About the year 1752, Paul Hannong obtained the secret of true porcelain from Ringler, and started a factory here, but in consequence of the monopoly of Sèvres he was compelled to relinquish it, and in 1753 removed to Frankenthal, where he greatly flourished under the protection of the Elector Palatine Carl Theodore.

MARSEILLES. An important manufactory of porcelain was established here by Jacques Gaspard Robert about 1766. Porcelain was made also by Honoré Savy and Veuve Perrin, but was only of secondary importance. The works were closed about the period of the French Revolution in 1793.

PARIS. Rue Thiroux. Established in 1778 by André Marie Lebeuf, and the ware was called "Porcelaine de la Reine."

PARIS. Rue de Bondy. Opened in 1780 by Dihl and Guerhard, under the patronage of the Duc d'Angoulême, and the ware was called "Porcelaine d'Angoulême."

PARIS. Rue Fontaine au Roi. This factory, called "De la Courtille," was established in 1773 by Jean Baptiste Locré, who was afterwards joined by Russinger in 1784. The latter during the Revolution became sole director.

PARIS. Faubourg St. Honoré. A factory was established here by Veuve Chicanneau, _née_ Marie Moreau. The teapot, Fig. 224, was probably made at these works.

PARIS. Pont-aux-Choux. In 1784, Louis Honoré de la Marre de Villars opened an establishment for the manufacture of porcelain in the Rue des Boulets, Faubourg St. Antoine. It was afterwards disposed of to Jean Baptiste Outrequin de Montarcy and Edmé Toulouse, who in 1786 obtained a brêvet from the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, and authority to sign the productions with the letters L. P., and to take the title of _Manufacture de M. le Duc d'Orléans_. They were afterwards established in Rue Amelot, _au Pont-aux-Choux_, by which name the porcelain is generally known.

The former name ceased in 1793, with the condemnation of the Duke of Orleans, and the objects subsequently produced were inscribed merely "_Fabrique du Pont-aux-Choux_."

PARIS. Rue de Crussol. Established in 1789 by Charles Potter, an Englishman, and the ware was called the "Prince of Wales's China."

PARIS. Belleville. Originally established in 1790 by Jacob Petit; but later removed to Fontainebleau. The products of the first period were much esteemed, being well painted and well modelled, bearing Petit's mark; but the proprietor unwisely altered his original plan and imitated Dresden, counterfeiting also the mark of the crossed swords. Jacob Petit also made biscuit figures, birds' nests, flowers, &c.

PARIS. Rue du Faubourg St. Denis. Fabrique de Charles Philippe Comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. This manufacture was the most ancient of all those established in Paris. Hannong of Strassburg, who brought into France the secret of hard porcelain, formed the first establishment in 1769. Having obtained the protection of Charles Philippe, Comte d'Artois, it was called by his name. The factory belonged actually to Bourdon des Planches, who continued the manufacture of hard porcelain, &c., but the works were closed in 1810.

VINCENNES. There was a porcelain manufactory here in 1786, quite apart from the royal factory. It was directed by M. Le Maire, probably the same who founded that in Rue Popincourt, which was ceded to M. Nast in 1783. There were four establishments at Vincennes; the first by the brothers Dubois, subsequently transferred to Sèvres; the second by Maurin des Aubiez, in 1767; the third by Pierre Antoine Hannong; and the fourth that described above.

VINCENNES AND SÈVRES

The history of the celebrated manufactory at Sèvres must be traced back to that of St. Cloud, which was founded as early as 1695. Here Louis XIV. accorded his patronage and favour by granting exclusive privileges. In 1735 the secret of the manufacture was carried, by some of the workmen, to Chantilly, and for a time continued there by the brothers Dubois. They left in a few years, taking with them their secret, and settled at Vincennes, where a laboratory was granted them, but after three years they were dismissed.

In 1745, a sculptor, named Charles Adam, formed a company, and the scheme was approved of by the king, privileges being accorded them for thirty years, and a place granted for their works in the Château de Vincennes. In 1753 the privileges of Charles Adam were purchased by Eloy Brichard, and Louis XV. took a third share; hence the factory became a royal establishment. Madame de Pompadour considerably encouraged the ceramic art, and it arrived at the height of perfection. The buildings were found too small to meet the increasing demands for the beautiful productions, and in 1756 the works were removed to a large edifice at SÈVRES built expressly for the company.

A favourite decoration of Vincennes porcelain was flowers and birds, on a beautiful _bleu de roi_ ground, and cupids painted in _camaïeu_ of a single colour.

In 1760 the king became sole proprietor, and M. Boileau was appointed director.

In 1769, after Macquer had brought the making of hard paste to perfection, the manufacture was successfully established at Sèvres, and both descriptions of china continued to be made until 1804, when, Brongniart being director, soft paste was altogether discontinued, and declared to be "useless in art, of expensive manipulation, dangerous to the workmen, subject to great risk in the furnace, &c."

The principal colours used in decorating the ground of the Sèvres vases were:--

1. The _bleu céleste_, or turquoise, invented in 1752 by Hellot.

2. The rich cobalt blue, called _bleu de roi_, of which there were two varieties, the darker being designated _gros bleu_.

3. The _violet pensée_, a beautiful violet from a mixture of manganese, one of the rarest decorations of the _pâte tendre_.

4. The _rose Pompadour_ (called in England _rose Du-Barry_), a charming pink or rose colour invented in 1757 by Xhrouet of Sèvres.

5. The clear yellow or _jonquille_, a sort of canary colour.

6. The _vert pré_, or bright grass green.

7. The _vert pomme_, or apple green.

8. The _rouge de fer_, a brilliant red.

9. The _oeil de perdrix_ was at a later period a favourite ornament for the grounds of vases.

The forms are exceedingly varied, but names are assigned to each, either from the designers of the models or their special shapes or ornamentation; these may be found at length in _Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain_, 10th edition.

The beautiful _pâte tendre_ ware of Sèvres was always much esteemed, and never could have been produced at a reasonable price even at the time it was made, the expense of decoration as well as the risk in firing being so great. It was manufactured for royal presents or occasionally sold by express permission at exorbitant prices, which bore a more approximate value to the present exorbitant prices than is generally supposed.

GREAT BRITAIN

POTTERY

The earthenware vessels made in England previous to the 16th century were of a very coarse description, rudely fashioned and usually devoid of ornament, sometimes cast in a mould in grotesque forms, and occasionally covered with a yellow or green glaze. Numerous specimens of early English cups are found in excavations in London and other parts of England, and may be identified by comparison with the vessels in Norman and mediæval manuscripts.

Although inexpensive, they were badly burned, and not very durable; and the German stoneware with a salt glaze was eagerly sought after throughout the 16th century, and imported in large quantities. These stone pots were usually impressed with the arms of German towns; a rose or other device in front, and a ferocious bearded visage under the spout. They were derisively called bellarmines, after the celebrated Cardinal Bellarmin, who in the 16th century made himself so conspicuous by his zealous opposition to the Reformed religion.

These bellarmines were in general use throughout England in the 16th and beginning of the 17th century at inns and public-houses for serving ale to the customers. The importation of these stone pots was always monopolised by the potters of Cologne, near which city they were made. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth we find one William Simpson presenting a memorial that he may be allowed to bring "the drinking stone pottes made at Culloin" into this country, and requesting permission to make similar stone pots in England; but he was not successful in his suit.

In 1626, however, two other potters, named Rous and Cullyn, merchants of the city of London, obtained the exclusive privilege of making stone pots and jugs in this country, and a patent was granted them for fourteen years; the preamble states that "heretofore, and at this present, our kingdom of England has been served with stone pottes, stone jugges, and stone bottells, out of foreign parts, from beyond the seas."

STAFFORDSHIRE

When Dr. Plot wrote his natural history of this county in 1686 there were very few manufactories of pottery; he only speaks of one at Amblecott and another at Wednesbury; but he says: "The greatest pottery they have in this country is carried on at Burslem, near Newcastle-under-Lyme." The earthenware made here towards the end of the 17th century was of a very coarse character, and the decoration extremely rude, consisting merely of patterns trailed over the surface in coloured clay, technically termed _slip_, diluted to the consistence of syrup, so that it could run out through a quill. The usual colours of these slips were orange, white, and red, the orange forming the ground and the white and red the paint. After the dishes had been thus ornamented they were glazed with lead ore beaten into dust, finely sifted, and strewed over the surface, which gave it the gloss but not the colour. The vessels remained twenty-four hours in the kiln, and were then drawn for sale, principally to poor cratemen, who hawked them at their backs all over the country.

The forms of these vessels were tygs or mugs, with two or more handles for passing round a table, candlesticks, dishes, &c. The earliest names found upon them are Thomas and Ralph Toft, William Talor, Joseph Glass; all names still known in Staffordshire.

BURSLEM. The family of WEDGWOOD was of long standing at Burslem, and many members of it were employed in making pottery long before the birth of the great potter, Josiah Wedgwood. His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, as well as many of his other relations, were all engaged in the trade. Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, at Burslem; he was the youngest of thirteen children; his father, Thomas Wedgwood, died when Josiah was only nine years old. His eldest brother, Thomas, succeeded his father as a potter, and Josiah was bound apprentice to him in 1744, after the expiration of which he left his brother's house to make knife handles, imitation agate, and tortoiseshell small wares, at Stoke. Here, in 1752, he entered into partnership with John Harrison, which only lasted two years.

Next Josiah Wedgwood went into partnership with Thomas Whieldon of Fenton Low, one of the most eminent potters of his day, and they remained together five years; while here Wedgwood also produced that fine green glaze which covered his dessert services, in imitation of leaves.

At the expiration of the partnership in 1759 Wedgwood returned to Burslem, and commenced business on his own account at the "Churchyard" works. He soon became so successful that he was compelled to enlarge his establishment, and to take over the "Ivy House" works. He engaged the services of his cousin, Thomas Wedgwood, who had gained his experience at the Worcester works, and in 1765 he took him into partnership, and three years later Thomas Bentley joined the firm. The first ware which gained him reputation was his fine cream-coloured ware, which remained a staple article from 1762 down to the time of his decease, and after royalty had approved of it the name was changed to Queen's ware.

Wedgwood also produced, about this date, a sort of red ware, formed of the same ochreous clay as was used by the Elers nearly a century before; it required no glaze except what it derived from friction on the wheel and lathe, and was covered with engine-turned ornament; and in 1766 he began to make a black ware, which he called basaltes or black Egyptian. The business increased so much that he was obliged to open a new manufactory at ETRURIA in 1769.

In 1773 he made "a fine white terra-cotta of great beauty and delicacy, suitable for cameos, portraits, and bas-reliefs"; this was the forerunner of the jasper ware, which became by constant attention and successive improvements the most beautiful of all his wares. In 1776 the solid jasper ware was invented, which, however, attained its greatest perfection ten years later. In the manufacture of this elegant ware Wedgwood largely employed sulphate of barytes, and for many years derived great profits, none of the workmen having any idea of the nature of the material upon which they were operating, until a letter containing a bill of parcels referring to a quantity of the article fell into the hands of a dishonest servant, who told the secret, and deprived the inventor of that particular source of emolument: for when the same article was made by those who employed inferior workmen, to whom they only paid one-fourth of the salary given by Wedgwood, the price of jasper ware became so reduced that he was unable to employ those exquisite modellers whom he had formerly engaged to superintend that branch of the manufacture.

In 1785 a "jasper dip" was introduced, in which the white clay vessels were dipped, and received a coating of jasper, instead of being jasper throughout. This was considered a great improvement, and caused an increase of 20 per cent. in the price.

Flaxman was engaged by Wedgwood and Bentley as early as 1775, and he furnished them with drawings and models. After Bentley's death in 1780 Flaxman's fame as a sculptor obtained him more important work, but still, as time permitted, he worked for Wedgwood up to the time of his departure for Rome in 1787.

Josiah Wedgwood died on the 3rd of January 1795, in his 65th year.

In 1773 RALPH SHAWE of Burslem took out a patent for chocolate-coloured ware, striped with white and lined with white, glazed with salt. He afterwards transferred his factory to France.

RALPH WOOD was established at Burslem about 1730, and was succeeded about 1750 by his son AARON WOOD, who served his apprenticeship to Thos. Wedgwood; he was a very clever cutter of moulds for stoneware plates and dishes, with raised pattern borders, &c., which have been erroneously termed Elizabethan. Cream ware is said to have been invented by him. He was succeeded, about 1770, by his son ENOCH WOOD, who was also a sculptor, and made many busts of eminent men. His successors were Wood and Caldwell, who continued the manufacture of busts and groups.

MOSES STEEL was a manufacturer at Burslem in 1715. The name of a descendant is found on a vase, with blue ground and white figures in relief, in the style of Wedgwood, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

SHELTON. ASTBURY of Shelton, early in the 18th century, made red crouch, and white stoneware. It is said he derived his knowledge of mixing the clays by pretending to be an idiot and obtaining employment at the Elers' manufactory at Bradwell; after gaining their secret, he set up in business against them.

The first use of calcined flints as an ingredient in the composition of pottery is attributed to the younger Astbury; it led to the manufacture of fine fayence, and paved the way for the great improvements afterwards achieved by Wedgwood.

SAMUEL HOLLINS of Shelton established about 1760 a manufactory of fine red ware teapots; he procured the clay from Bradwell. He was succeeded about 1777 by T. and J. HOLLINS.

The NEW HALL CHINA WORKS at Shelton owed their origin to the purchase of Champion's (Cookworthy's) patent by a company of potters in 1777, and were the first porcelain manufactory in Staffordshire. The ware made here was not of a fine character; inferior artists were employed in its production, and it was never held in any great esteem. The manufacture consequently soon fell to decay, after many changes. The mark is the name of the works in a double ring.

BRADWELL. A potter to whom Staffordshire was indebted for great improvements in the ware was JOHN PHILIP ELERS, who about 1690 came over from Holland and settled at Bradwell. He was descended from a noble family of Saxony.

Elers was a clever chemist, and discovered the art of mixing the clays of Staffordshire to greater perfection than had ever before been attained. He manufactured to a considerable extent an improved kind of red pottery, in imitation of that of Japan, while by the addition of manganese to the clays, he made a fine black ware, which a century afterwards was adopted and improved by Wedgwood.

HANLEY. Shaw mentions a Mr. MILES of Miles's Bank, Hanley, who produced the brown stoneware about 1700. There is in the Victoria and Albert Museum a fayence barrel of brown glaze with gilt hoops, dating apparently from the first half of the 18th century, and it is impressed with the name of Miles (see Fig. 251).

ELIJAH MAYER of Hanley was a contemporary of Wedgwood. He was noted for his cream-coloured ware and brown-line ware, but he produced many other varieties. A vase of unglazed drab terra-cotta, with festoons, &c., in relief, coloured (see Fig. 252).

He also produced basaltes ware tea services, with animals, &c., in relief.

PALMER of Hanley was a great pirate of Wedgwood's inventions, and Mrs. Palmer, who seems to have been the active manager of her husband's business, engaged persons surreptitiously to obtain Wedgwood and Bentley's new patterns as soon as they arrived at the London warehouse, for the purpose of copying them. Palmer had a London partner of the name of NEALE. They imitated Wedgwood's black Egyptian vases and other inventions, and eventually his Etruscan painted vases. In 1776 Palmer failed, and the business was carried on by Neale & Co., who by some means discovered the secret of the jasper body. They became formidable rivals of Wedgwood.

J. VOYEZ of Hanley was a clever artist; he was employed by Wedgwood and afterwards by Neale and Palmer.

FENTON. THOMAS WHIELDON of Fenton established a pottery in 1740; besides the common household articles, he made fancy marbled ware. Aaron Wood and Josiah Spode were his apprentices, and Josiah Wedgwood was in partnership with him until 1759.

TUNSTALL. ENOCH BOOTH of Tunstall, and JOHN WARBURTON of COBRIDGE in the same county, were extensive potters, and first made cream-coloured pottery by the use of fluid glaze introduced by Booth.

WILLIAM ADAMS of Tunstall was a favourite pupil of Wedgwood, and while with him executed some of his finest specimens of jasper ware. He afterwards went into business on his own account, and carried on an extensive trade.

LANE END. JOHN TURNER of Lane End made a fine description of ware, and his productions were the most successful imitation of Wedgwood's jasper, with ornaments in relief, and only second to the latter's in excellence; he also made a fine white stoneware.

LONGPORT. The Messrs. DAVENPORT of Longport made great improvements in the manufacture of earthenware; they were celebrated especially for their stone china. The manufactory was established in 1793, and has been successfully carried on up to the present day in the same family.

LANE DELPH (now Middle Fenton). MILES MASON of Lane Delph early in the last century produced some fine ware. The ironstone china was brought to great perfection by Charles James Mason, and the forms were of a high quality, very much resembling porcelain.

STOKE-ON-TRENT. THOMAS MINTON established a manufactory at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1791; he was apprenticed to Turner of Caughley as an engraver. His productions were of the useful kind, viz., services for the table, in imitation of common nankin. He died in 1836, and was succeeded by his second son, the celebrated Herbert Minton, who brought the potter's art to great perfection. He largely increased the business, and manufactured articles in earthenware, hard and soft porcelain, and parian. Reproductions of Italian maiolica, Delia Robbia, Palissy, and Henri II. ware were also extensively made by him. He died in 1858, and was succeeded by Michael Daintry Hollins and Colin Minton Campbell, his nephew and heir. The founder's grandsons afterwards succeeded to the business; the firm of Messrs. Minton & Co. still exists, but there are no members of the family now connected with it.

LIVERPOOL. Early in the 18th century, and probably much before that, Liverpool was noted for the manufacture of pottery. Little is known of its early history, and it was not until Mr. Jos. Mayer rescued from oblivion many interesting particulars that anything like a succinct account was published. In his interesting notice of the Art of Pottery in Liverpool, we learn that the most celebrated of the early potters was Alderman Thomas Shaw, who had works for making pottery in the beginning of the 18th century; several large plaques and monumental slabs of his make are in existence, dated from 1716 to 1756. About this time, there seems to have been a large demand for punch bowls; as these formed the principal ornaments on the sideboards of the middle classes, and especially on board the ships, which were constantly going and coming in the port, considerable pains were taken in decorating them, and many are still in existence painted with ships, convivial mottoes, and inscriptions.

Another important establishment was founded by Mr. John Sadler, the son of a painter, who had learnt the art of engraving.

He was the inventor, about 1752, of the method of transferring prints from engraved copper plates upon pottery, and in conjunction with Guy Green, proposed to take out a patent in 1756, the draft of which is still preserved, but they preferred keeping the invention secret to the doubtful security of patent rights.

Wedgwood availed himself of this new mode of decoration, and sent his Queen's ware weekly to Messrs. Sadler and Green to be printed.

RICHARD CHAFFERS was the principal manufacturer of Liverpool; he served his apprenticeship with Alderman Shaw, and in 1752 established a bank for the manufacture of blue and white earthenware and fine porcelain, which gained him great reputation; they were largely exported to our American Colonies (now the United States).

His porcelain works were established about the same time as those of Worcester and Derby, and his productions had a great sale in England.

The Liverpool establishments of PENNINGTON, PHILIP CHRISTIAN and RICHARD ABBEY were on an extensive scale, but towards the end of the eighteenth century only one of any importance survived, and that belonged to Messrs. WORTHINGTON, HUMBLE and HOLLAND, who in 1796 established a large manufactory on the south bank of the Mersey. As Wedgwood had christened his settlement Etruria they called theirs Herculaneum. A larger capital being required, in 1806 an increase of proprietors took place. The first wares made here were Queen's and blue printed ware. About 1800 the production of porcelain was commenced, the mark used being "Herculaneum," or "Herculaneum Pottery." About 1836, when the factory came into possession of Messrs. Case, Mort & Co., the mark used was a bird called the liver, which forms the crest of the Borough of Liverpool.

JACKFIELD, near Thursfield, in Shropshire. There was an old pottery here about 1760. The ware was of a red clay, with a brilliant black glaze, sometimes with scrolls and flowers in relief. Tea services are frequently seen. The jugs were known in the locality as "black decanters." About 1780 the works were taken by Mr. John Rose, and subsequently removed to COALPORT, on the opposite side of the Severn, where the well-known Salopian porcelain was made.

Fig. 265. A black glazed teapot inscribed "Richard and Ruth Goodin, 1769."

FULHAM. The first successful imitation of the _grès de Cologne_ was made by JOHN DWIGHT, an Oxfordshire gentleman, and in course of time it almost entirely superseded the importation from abroad. This great potter took out his first patent in 1671, and probably established a manufactory at Fulham in that year, which was successfully carried on through two patents of fourteen years each. The Fulham stoneware is of exceedingly hard and close texture, very compact and sonorous, covered with a salt glaze, of grey colour, ornamented with a brilliant blue enamel in bands, leaves, and flowers, having medallions of kings and queens of England in front, with Latin names and titles, or their initials only.

Dwight produced a great variety of objects, and brought the potter's art to a great perfection. The figures, busts, and groups are exquisitely modelled, and will bear comparison with any contemporary manufactures of Europe. A careful inspection will convince any unprejudiced mind of the erroneous impression which exists, that until the time of Wedgwood the potter's art in England was at a very low ebb, and that none but the rudest description of pottery was made, without any attempt to display artistic excellence. For here, a century before Josiah Wedgwood's time, we have examples of English pottery which would do credit to the atelier of that distinguished potter himself. John Dwight died in the year 1737, and with him also departed the glory of his manufactory at Fulham.

LAMBETH. The next important pottery in England in the 17th century was that of Lambeth. In the _History of Lambeth_ it is related that about 1650 some Dutch potters established themselves here, and by degrees the industry became important, for the village contained no less than twenty manufactories, in which were made the glazed pottery and tiles used in London and various parts of England. The ware was very much of the character of Delft, with a fine white creamy glaze, painted with landscapes and figures in blue.

The white bottles or jugs, upon which are written the names of wines accompanied by dates, were made here.

The trade flourished here for more than a century, until about 1780 or 1790, at which time the Staffordshire potters, by the great improvements they had made in the quality of their ware, and having coal and clay ready to their hand, were enabled to produce it at a cheaper rate, and eventually beat the Lambeth potters out of the field.

The Lambeth potters, about the end of the 17th century, appear also to have copied the forms of the Palissy ware, especially in large oval dishes with initials and dates. Fig. 267 is an example of one of these dishes.

YEARSLEY, in Yorkshire. A pottery of coarse character was made here in the 17th century. A factory was established by an ancestor of Josiah Wedgwood about the year 1700; and on the estate of Sir George Wombwell fragments of pottery, of a coarse brown ware, with lead glaze, have been frequently found on the site of the old manufactory.

There was also a manufactory established at the Manor-house, YORK, about 1665, of which little is known except the mention of its existence by Ralph Thoresby and Horace Walpole; although it is by the former erroneously called porcelain, the ware was actually a fine stoneware, with a salt glaze.

DON POTTERY. There was a pottery on the river Don, near Doncaster, established by Mr. John Green of New-hill, who came from the Leeds pottery about 1790. In 1807 some other members of his family joined the firm, and it was for a short time "Greens, Clark, & Co."

The Don Pottery was very similar to that of Leeds, frequently producing pierced work-baskets, vases, dinner, dessert and tea services, &c.

LEEDS. This ware was made by Messrs. Hartley, Greens, & Co. in 1770. It is of a sort of cream colour, and has much perforated or basket-work, sharply cut out of the borders in various patterns. Important centre-pieces with figures were also made here.

CASTLEFORD, about twelve miles from Leeds. Here David Dunderdale established works in 1790 for the finer kinds of pottery, especially Queen's ware and the black Egyptian.

SWINTON, near Rotherham. Initiated by Edward Butler in 1757, on the estate of the Marquis of Rockingham. In 1765 it was carried on by William Malpas, and in 1778 by Messrs. Bingley, Brameld, & Co., who enlarged the works, and made earthenware of a very superior quality. Rockingham teapots, of a mottled chocolate colour, glazed inside with white, were in great repute. But the aims of the Messrs. Brameld were of a higher character, and some works of artistic merit were produced. When the Rockingham works were closed in 1842 many of the moulds were purchased by Mr. John Reed, and transferred to the Mexborough pottery.

NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. There were some extensive manufactories here at the end of the 18th century for making Queen's ware, some of which is perforated like that of Leeds, and has wicker pattern borders. Some of the earthenware mugs have a pink metallic lustre, and are ornamented with transfer engravings. On the inside was usually a toad in relief.

ST. ANTHONY'S, about 2-1/2 miles from Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Established by Sewell & Donkin in 1780. Queen's ware and pink metallic lustre, also printed subjects, were produced; pierced wicker baskets, like that of Leeds, were also made.

NOTTINGHAM. Stoneware was made here in the first half of the 18th century; it usually has a dark brown glaze, with a slightly metallic lustre, is very hard and durable, and is frequently ornamented with outlines of stalks and flowers, especially the pink.

GREAT YARMOUTH. A potter named Absolon about 1790 decorated pottery of the cream colour. The favourite subjects are single flowers and plants, with their names on the back of the piece.

LOWESBY, in Leicestershire. A pottery was established by Sir Francis Fowkes, about the year 1835. Red terra-cotta with black enamelled ornaments, in imitation of Wedgwood, was made.

BRISTOL. At REDCLIFFE BACKS a manufactory of Delft ware was carried on in the 18th century by Richard Frank.

At TEMPLE BACKS, Bristol, Joseph Ring, son-in-law of Cookworthy (after the porcelain works had been relinquished in 1777), opened a manufactory called the "Bristol Pottery." It was continued for many years, and about 1820 it was occupied by Messrs. Pountney & Allies. The articles produced were similar to those of the superior potteries in Staffordshire.

FIG. 280.--TILES. _St. Mary Redcliffe Church._]

CADBOROUGH, near Rye in Sussex. A pottery was established here early in the 19th century for the manufacture of common sorts of pottery, but some vases of glazed ware of elegant forms were also produced. The works are now carried on at Bellevue Pottery, Rye.

SWANSEA. Established about 1750; it was greatly enlarged by George Haynes in 1780, who styled it the "Cambrian Pottery." In 1802 the works were purchased by Lewis Weston Dillwyn, and about 1810 an improved ware was made which was termed _opaque porcelain_; with the assistance of Young, a draughtsman employed in delineating natural history, the ware became remarkable for its beautiful and truthful paintings.

The early Swansea ware was elegant in form, and frequently covered with a deep blue glaze.

GREAT BRITAIN

PORCELAIN

The manufacture of porcelain in England began much earlier than has been generally supposed, and the invention was patented in England by John Dwight of Fulham in 1671, while that at St. Cloud was not patented until 1702, thirty years afterwards.

WORCESTER. Although this manufactory originated more than a century and a half ago, and has always been carried on by private enterprise, it is still in a flourishing state. It was established in 1751, chiefly through the exertions of Dr. Wall, a physician and a good practical chemist, who in conjunction with others formed the "Worcester Porcelain Company." The early productions were principally of the useful description, and were sold at a cheaper rate than the wares of Bow and Chelsea. About the year 1757, the important method of multiplying designs upon the biscuit ware by means of transferring impressions of engraved copper plates to the surface, was adopted at Worcester almost at the same time as at Liverpool, the invention being in fact claimed by both; but specimens are found bearing the names of Sadler and Green of Liverpool, and Richard Holdship and Robert Hancock of Worcester, dated in the same year. Bat printing succeeded the printing from engraved or etched plates. This new style was accomplished thus: instead of the design being first printed upon paper and then transferred, the plate was stippled with a fine point by London artists after designs of landscapes, shells, fruit, and flowers by Cipriani, Bartolozzi, Cosway, and Angelica Kauffmann, who were so fashionable about the end of the 18th century. The copper plate being carefully cleaned, a thin coating of linseed oil was laid upon it, and removed by the palm of the hand from the surface, leaving the oil in the engraved spots; instead of paper, bats of glue were used, cut into squares of the size of the engraving; one of these bats was pressed on to the plate, so as to receive the oil out of the engraved holes, and laid on to the china, transferring the oil to the surface; it was then dusted with the colour required, the superfluous colour being removed carefully with cotton wool, and the china was then placed in the kiln.

In 1783 the Worcester porcelain works were purchased by Mr. Thomas Flight, from whom they afterwards passed to Messrs. Flight and Barr; the principal painters at this time were: J. Pennington, who painted figures; S. Astles, flowers; G. Davis, exotic birds in the Chelsea style; Webster, landscapes and flowers; J. Barker, shells; Brewer of Derby, landscapes; while Thomas Baxter, an accomplished artist, painted figure subjects.

The Worcester works remained with Messrs. Flight & Barr until 1840, when the two principal manufactories of Worcester--that of Flight & Barr, and that of the Messrs. Chamberlain, were amalgamated; the plant and stock were removed to the premises of the latter, and the new firm was styled Chamberlain & Co. The last-named works were established by Robert Chamberlain in 1786; he was the first apprentice at the Old Worcester Porcelain Company, and he and his brother Humphrey took premises in High Street. At first they only decorated porcelain, which they bought of Turner of Caughley; but they afterwards manufactured largely on their own account, and their business increased to a great extent, being patronised by the royal family.

These two works which were united in 1840, remained so until 1852, when Messrs. Kerr & Binns became the ostensible proprietors. In 1862 another Joint Stock Company was formed, Mr. R. W. Binns having the direction of the artistic department and Mr. Edward Phillips being general superintendent.

SWINTON, near Rotherham. The manufacture of porcelain at the ROCKINGHAM WORKS was introduced, under the patronage of the Earl Fitzwilliam, about the year 1823 by Thomas Brameld, who spared no expense in endeavouring to bring it to perfection. The china was of a superior description, and the painting and decoration were of a high character. In 1832 royal patronage was obtained and a magnificent service was ordered by King William IV.; instead, however, of placing the firm in a flourishing condition, it was actually the cause of its ruin, for the expense incurred by the engagement of first-class artists, and the super-abundance of gold employed in decorating the service, resulted in so great a loss that the manufacture was totally discontinued a few years after.

DERBY. The earliest manufactory was called "The Derby Pot Works," and was carried on at Cock Pit Hill by Messrs. John and Christopher Heath for pottery and porcelain. It is said to have been on an extensive scale, but little is known of its operations. The proprietors, who were bankers in Full Street, became bankrupt in 1780, when the stock was sold and the works discontinued.

The "Derby Porcelain Manufactory" was founded in 1751 by William Duesbury; the first productions were chimney ornaments, lambs, sheep, and services for the table, but it was probably not until he purchased the Chelsea works in 1769 that any great reputation was acquired, and few if any of the early specimens can be identified. Some beautiful examples of porcelain painted in the Chinese style were produced about this time, but as the rage for oriental ware seemed so prevalent, the proprietor, to insure the sale of his china, copied the Chinese marks as well as the style of decoration. Crown Derby was produced from 1780, and was continued by Bloor, the successor of Duesbury, as late as 1830. After the purchase of the Chelsea and Bow works, the Derby porcelain manufactory rose to great importance, the proprietors having of course retained the best workmen who had been engaged there. In fact, with all the models and moulds, the mixers, throwers, and painters of those two great establishments, the manufactory may be considered as the Chelsea and Bow works continued in another locality. Upon the death of William Duesbury, in 1785, his son William continued the business, and a third William Duesbury succeeded in the beginning of the last century. About 1815, Robert Bloor took over the works, which were altogether closed in 1848. An offshoot, however, is still carried on.

BURTON-ON-TRENT. A manufactory of earthenware was established here early in the last century, and from about 1839 porcelain was made for seven years.

WIRKSWORTH. A manufactory of china as well as pottery, established by a Mr. Gill, existed here about 1770, and continued for about twenty years.

PINXTON in Derbyshire. Established about 1795, by Billingsley in partnership with John Coke; the former was a practical potter, having been engaged at the Derby works as a flower painter, in which capacity he excelled; he brought with him a staff of workmen and their families, and the factory went on successfully for about five or six years, when Billingsley left; it was continued by Coke, and afterwards by Cutts the foreman, but was altogether discontinued about 1812. The ware made here by Billingsley was of a peculiar transparent character; and a favourite pattern was the French sprig or "Chantilly," being an imitation of the Angoulême china.

LOWESTOFT. According to Gillingham's _History of Lowestoft_, written in 1790, an attempt was made to manufacture porcelain there in 1756 by Mr. Hewlin Luson of Gunton Hall, he having found some fine clay on his estate suitable for the purpose, and in the following year Messrs. Gillingwater, Walker, Browne, Aldred, and Richman, established the Lowestoft porcelain works, which existed until 1802. The porcelain was of soft paste, and in 1902 fragments of it and moulds were found on the site of the factory. The theory that hard paste was made at Lowestoft or that Chinese porcelain was painted there has now been abandoned.

PLYMOUTH. About the year 1755 William Cookworthy commenced his experiments to ascertain the nature of true porcelain of hard paste, and searched with great perseverance throughout England for the materials which were the constituent parts of Chinese porcelain. At length a friend of his discovered on the estate of Lord Camelford, in the parish of St. Stephen's, Cornwall, "a certain white saponaceous clay, and close by it a species of granite or moorstone, white with greenish spots, which he immediately perceived to be the two long sought-for ingredients, the one giving whiteness and body to the paste, the other vitrification and transparency."

The patent was obtained in 1768, and the materials were described as growan stone and growan clay. The works were carried on for nearly six years, and consequently a considerable quantity of ware was made. Cookworthy engaged the services of a French artist, M. Soqui, whose ornamental delineations on the articles produced here were very beautiful. Some elegant salt-cellars and table ornaments in the form of open conch shells resting on a bed of coral, &c., all well modelled in hard paste, were favourites for the table.

Cookworthy and Lord Camelford continued to work this manufactory until 1774, when the patent right was sold and transferred to Richard Champion.

BRISTOL. A manufactory of _soft paste_ porcelain was founded at Bristol about 1750. Later Richard Champion, having in 1774 purchased Cookworthy's patent, opened a manufactory for _hard paste_. The ware was brought to great perfection, but the large outlay prevented its being remunerative, and in three or four years he sold his interest in the patent to a company of Staffordshire potters.

CAUGHLEY, near Broseley, Salop. Established in 1751 by a Mr. Brown, and afterwards carried on by a Mr. Gallimore. It was not until 1772 that it rose to any importance, when Thomas Turner commenced operations. He came from the Worcester porcelain manufactory; he was an engraver, and probably learnt his art from Robert Hancock.

The excellence of Turner's porcelain gained him great patronage. In 1780 he produced the celebrated "willow pattern," and completed the first blue printed table service made in England. Thomas Minton of Stoke assisted in the completion of it, being articled as an engraver at Caughley.

In 1799 Turner retired and John Rose became proprietor; the latter removed the works to Coalport about 1814 or 1815.