Chapter VIII: Section VI: Drugs, Including Narcotics and Other Medicinal Substances

The COCA PLANT. _Cocculus Indicus_.

BETEL LEAF.

The ARECA PALM; extensive use of the nuts in the East
as a masticatory.

Narcotic properties.

Catechu, or Cutch; its astringent properties.

Davy's analysis.

Value of the Areca nuts exported from Ceylon.

The POPPY: increasing consumption of Opium in this
country.

Production of the Drug in India.

Large revenue derived therefrom.

Variety of the poppy grown; system of culture pursued.

Various modes of consuming opium.

Its preparation and manufacture described.

Commercial varieties met with.

Requisites for the successful culture of the poppy for
opium.

The TOBACCO PLANT; species cultivated.

London's classification.

Analyses of various samples of tobacco; Statistics of
the culture in Brazil; extent of the consumption;
considerations of revenue; memorial of Liverpool
Chamber of Commerce.

Comparative consumption of tea, coffee and tobacco, per
head.

Imports and duty received on tobacco in the last five
years.

Consumption checked in England and France by the high
duties.

Imports, sales, and stocks, in Bremen for 10 years.

Culture and statistics in the United States.

Quantity exported from 1821 to 1850.

Countries from whence we received our supplies in 1850.

Particulars of the tobacco trade in 1850 and 1853.

Mode of culture pursued in Virginia.

General instructions for the planter.

Information as to growing Cuba tobacco.

History of the trade and cultivation in Cuba.

Statistics of exports from the Havana.

Culture of tobacco in the East.

Analysis of tobacco soils.

Progress of cultivation and shipments in Ceylon.

Manila tobacco and cigars.

Production in the Islands of the Archipelago.

Suggestions and directions for tobacco culture in New
South Wales.

Its value and extensive use as a sheep wash.

Excellence of the product and manufacture in New South
Wales; culture of tobacco in South Australia.

MISCELLANEOUS DRUGS.

Poisons.

ALOES: varieties of the plant; culture and manufacture
in Socotra, Barbados, and the Cape Colony.

ASAFOETIDA.

CAMPHOR.

CINCHONA BARK: commercial varieties of CALUMBA ROOT.

COLOCYNTH.

CUBEBS.

GAMBOGE.

GENTIAN.

IPECACUAN.

INTRODUCTORY.

The want of a practical work treating of the cultivation and manufacture of the chief Agricultural Productions of the Tropics and Foreign Countries, has long been felt, for not even separate essays are to be met with on very many of the important subjects treated of in this volume.

The requirements of several friends proceeding to settle in the Colonies, and wishing to devote themselves to Cotton culture, Coffee planting, the raising of Tobacco, Indigo, and other agricultural staples, first called my attention to the consideration of this fertile and extensive field of investigation.

Professor Solly, in one of the series of Lectures on the results of the Great Exhibition, delivered before the Society of Arts, early last year, made some practical remarks bearing on the subject:--

"If (he said) you were to place before any manufacturer specimens of
all the substances which could be employed in his particular
manufacture, and if you could tell him from whence each could be
procured, its cost, the quantities in which he might obtain it, and
its physical and chemical properties, he would soon be able to
select for himself the one best suited for his purposes. This,
however, has never happened in relation to any one art; in every
case manufacturers have had to make the best of the materials which
chance or accident has brought before them. It is strange and
startling, but nevertheless perfectly true, that even at the present
time there are many excellent and abundant productions of nature
with which not only our manufacturers, but, in some instances, even
our men of science, are wholly unacquainted. _There is not a single
book published which gives even tolerably complete information on
any one of the different classes of vegetable raw produce at present
under our consideration_. The truth of these remarks will be felt
strongly by any one who takes the trouble to examine any of these
great divisions of raw materials. He will obtain tolerably complete
information respecting most of those substances which are known in
trade and commerce; but of the greater number of those not known to
the broker, he will learn little or nothing. Men of science, for the
most part, look down upon such knowledge. The practical uses of any
substances, the wants and difficulties of the manufacturer, are
regarded as mere trade questions, vulgar and low--simple questions
of money. On the other hand, mere men of business do not feel the
want of such knowledge, because, in the first place, they are
ignorant of its existence, and secondly, because they do not see how
it could aid them or their business; and if it should happen that an
enterprising manufacturer desires to learn something of the
cultivation and production of the raw material with which he works,
he generally finds it quite impossible to obtain any really sound
and useful information. In such cases, if he is a man of energy and
of capital, he often is at the cost of sending out a perfectly
qualified person to some distant part of the globe, to learn for him
those practical details which he desires to know. This is no
uncommon thing; and many cases might be stated, showing the great
advantages which have arisen to those who have thus gained a march
upon their neighbours."

The Society of Arts, appreciating the importance of from time to time encouraging the introduction of new and improved products from our Indian and Colonial Possessions, has offered many gold medals as premiums for a great variety of staples from abroad.

The Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations brought together an immense variety of productions from tropical regions, of which the English public were comparatively ignorant. Attracting public attention, as these necessarily did, information on the best modes of cultivating and manufacturing them will be peculiarly valuable to the colonists, and is as eagerly sought after by many brokers, merchants and manufacturers at home.

In consequence of the recent liberal policy of Great Britain, the competition of foreign countries, the want of cheap and abundant labor, and other causes, those chief staples, Sugar and Coffee, which for a series of years formed the principal and almost exclusive articles of production in our colonies, and which had met with a ready and remunerative sale in the British markets, have either fallen off to an alarming extent, or become so reduced in price as scarcely to repay the cost of cultivation. The partial abandonment of the cultivation of these staples in our colonies has had the effect of crippling the agricultural and commercial enterprise of several of our most valuable foreign possessions, and throwing out of employment a number of persons: it behoves us, therefore, to direct attention to some of the many minor articles in demand;--to those indigenous or exotic products of the soil in tropical regions, which, being inexpensive in cultivation and manufacture, might be undertaken with a moderate outlay of labor and capital, and the certainty of a ready and remunerative sale in the European markets; and could moreover be attended to without neglecting or at all interfering with the cultivation of the leading staples.

It is evident that the export wealth of tropical regions must be chiefly agricultural, the soil and climate being peculiarly fitted for the culture of fruits, trees and plants yielding oils, gums, starch, spices, and other valuable products, which no art can raise cheaply in more temperate latitudes. The large and continued emigration of farmers and other enterprising persons from Britain and the Continent to Natal, the Cape Colony, Northern Australia, Ceylon, the East India Company's Possessions and the Straits Settlements, Brazil, New Granada, and the Central American Republics, Texas, the Southern States of North America, and other tropical and sub-tropical countries, renders information as to the agriculture and productions of those regions highly desirable. Even to the settlers in our West Indian possessions, most of whom have too long pursued the old beaten track of culture and manufacture, comparatively regardless of modern improvements and the results of chemical, scientific, and practical investigation, recent information on all these subjects, and a comparison of the practices of different countries, cannot fail to be useful.

There is much valuable information to be met with in detached papers and essays in the scientific periodicals of the day, and in colonial and other publications; such as the Transactions and Journals of the different agricultural and horticultural societies of the East and West Indies, the United States, Australia, &c., but none readily accessible for easy reference, and which the new settler, proceeding out to try his fortune in those fair and productive regions of the globe, can turn to as a hand book. I have had much experience in Tropical Agriculture, and for many years my attention has been mainly directed to this important subject, for which purpose I have kept up a large and extended correspondence with numerous agricultural, scientific and other societies abroad; with experienced practical men, and have also received the leading journals of all the tropical Colonies.

No one person could be expected to be thoroughly familiar with all the different modes of culture and preparation of every one of the numerous products to be described in this volume; but where my own agricultural experience (of several years in the West Indies and South America) was at fault, I have availed myself of the practical knowledge of those of my colonial friends and correspondents best informed on the subject, and am particularly fortunate in having many valuable essays on Tropical Agriculture scattered through the different volumes of my "Colonial Magazine."

The discussion of the best modes of culture, properties, manufacture, consumption, uses, and value of the commercial products of the vegetable kingdom cannot be without its value, and the attention of merchants and planters may be usefully directed to various articles, which will be profitable both in an agricultural and commercial point of view; many of which are already sources of wealth to other countries.

The introduction of new objects of industry into the colonial dependencies of the British Empire, is no longer considered a mere subject of speculation, but one well worthy the attention of the eye of science; and the fostering hand of care is beginning to be held out to productions of nature and art, which, if not all equally necessary to the welfare of man, yet certainly merit the attention of the cultivator and capitalist, and have great claims on the scientific observer, and on those interested in raising the manufactures of our country to a higher standard.

Few who have not investigated this subject are aware of the immense number of countries lying in the equatorial and tropical ranges of the torrid zone, many of which, from the value and importance of their indigenous productions, have already attracted considerable notice, and to which still more attention will be directed by European nations as the value of their various products becomes more extensively known.

The homeward commerce which we carry on with our numerous Colonies, with our Indian Possessions, and with foreign countries, is principally in articles furnished by the vegetable kingdom, such as the cereal grains, wheat, rice, maize, &c.; vegetables used in preparing dietetic drinks and distilled liquors, as tea, coffee, cacao, and the sugar cane, grapes, &c.; spices and condiments; drugs; dyes and tanning substances, obtained from the bark, leaves, fruit, and roots of various herbs and trees; the expressed or distilled oils of different plants; fruits in the green, dried, or preserved state; starches obtained from the roots or trunks of many farinaceous plants; fibrous substances used for cordage, matting, and clothing, as cotton, Indian hemp, flax, coco-nut coir, plantain and pine-apple fibre; timber and fancy woods. These substances, in the aggregate, form at least nine-tenths in value of the whole imports of this country. There are also several products of the animal kingdom dependent on vegetable culture, which might be brought into this category, such as silk and cochineal. Very few of these products of the vegetable kingdom come to us in any other than an unmanufactured state; they are shipped to this country as the chief emporium and factory of the world, either for re-export or to be prepared for consumption by the millions to whom they furnish employment, sustenance, and articles of clothing.

It is a wise ordination of Providence, that the different nations of the earth are as it were mutually dependent on each other for many of the necessaries and luxuries of life, and the means of progress and civilization. Commerce is thus extended, the various arts and manufactures improved by comparison and competition; and the acres yet untilled in distant lands hold out strong inducements for immigration, their climate and products affording health, freedom, and independence to the over-tasked and heavily taxed artisan and agriculturist of Europe. Although the systems of tropical agriculture, generally pursued, are peculiar and effective, yet there is no doubt that much improvement remains to be carried out in the practices adopted, in the implements employed, and the machinery used for preparing the crops for shipment. In the British Isles our insulated position, limited extent of country, unsettled climate, and numerous population, aggregated in dense masses, have compelled us to investigate and avail ourselves of every improvement in agriculture, arts and manufactures, which experience, ingenuity, and a comparison with the customs of other countries, have placed at our disposal.

If we except sandy deserts, and some of the interior portions of the polar regions, it will be found that there is scarcely any country but what is capable of improvement. Indeed, so extensive are the resources of agriculture, that further improvements may be most easily effected.

Let us then examine and ascertain what new objects may be improved upon, and if by our speculations only one single article, either for food or use, is added to those already in use, or those that are already cultivated be improved upon, it is equivalent to an increase of our wealth.

An eminent writer has truly remarked that "Agriculture is the parent of Manufactures, seeing that the productions of nature are the materials of art."

In the economy of Providence every fragment of creation seems to unfold, as man progresses in the arts of life, unbounded capabilities of adaptation to his every want. We have, indeed, daily illustration of the truth of that trite and homely adage, that "nothing is made in vain."

That quaint old English poet, Herbert, who flourished in the fifteenth century, in a short poem on "Providence," has graphically described, in his unique vein, the sentiment which forces itself upon us in view of the numerous discoveries of the age in which we live:--

"All countries have enough to serve their need.

* * * * *

----The Indian nut alone
Is clothing, meat and trencher, drink and can,
Boat, cable, sail, and needle, all in one."

"The addition (it has been well observed) of even a single flower, or an ornamental shrub, to those which we already possess, is not to be regarded as a matter below the care of industry and science. The more we extend our researches into the productions of nature, the more are our minds elevated by contemplating the variety as well as the exceeding beauty and excellence of the works of the Creator."

The mode of arrangement of the various subjects treated of involved some consideration; two or three plans were open for adoption. 1st. To describe the several products in the order of their agricultural importance or commercial value. 2nd. An alphabetical reference, in the style of a Dictionary or Encyclopædia; and 3rd. Classifying them under subdivisions, according to their particular or chief uses. The last seemed to me the most desirable and efficient mode, although open to some objections, from the variety of uses to which different parts of many plants were applied. Some, as cotton, indigo, sugar, coffee, tea, &c., would readily fall into their proper division, but others, as the coco-nut, plantain, &c., from the variety of their products, would come under several heads. I have, however, endeavoured to meet this difficulty by placing each plant or tree under the section to which its most valuable production seemed naturally to refer it.

There are very many plants and substances which have been passed over altogether, it being impossible, within the limits of a moderate sized volume, to bring under notice even a tithe of the valuable grasses, timber trees, cabinet woods, fruits, &c.; and I have confined myself in a great measure to those which either already are, or might easily be rendered, articles of commerce, of some importance. I have shown their present value by quoting the current prices, and brought down, as far as possible, the statistics of each article to the close of last year, thus rendering the work valuable by commercial references which could not be found collectively elsewhere.

There are some articles of commerce which could not properly be treated of in a work intended as a guide on agriculture and husbandry, for the tropical planter and cultivator, who purposes devoting his attention to the raising of useful crops and plants on his estate. The forests and jungles of the tropics abound in products of an useful character, the luxurious and spontaneous growth of nature, such as ebony, sandal wood, &c.; but these must be sought for by a different class of settlers; and the mahogany cutter of Honduras, the teak-feller of India, the gatherer of elastic gums, can scarcely be ranked with the cultivators of the soil.

I had originally intended to confine my remarks to staples of tropical growth, but I have been induced to depart from my prescribed plan by the importance of some of the commercial products of temperate regions, such as maple and beet-root sugar, wheat, the grain crops, and potatoes.

The system of agriculture, and modes of tillage, &c., of separate countries in the Eastern and Western hemisphere, notwithstanding their similarity of climate, are as opposite as if each country belonged to a different zone; and yet much may be learned by one of the other.

The only essentially useful division of seasons in countries within the tropics is into a wet and dry season, the former being the period of germination, the latter that of fructification.

The implements of agriculture required are for the most part few and simple, for no high tillage is necessary, the luxuriance of vegetation being so great that most of the products of the soil will grow indiscriminately throughout the year, and the only care of the husbandman, after the first preparation of the soil, is to keep down the vast growth of weeds, which might stifle the crops.

In tropical regions there is less demand for manures than in temperate climates, but still there are many additions to the soil that may profitably be made.

Firstly, that most important principle, which has only recently been practically inculcated, is in too many quarters entirely neglected, namely, returning to the soil the component parts taken off by various crops, and which is so generally practised in all good agricultural districts, by a careful rotation of crops. Liebig has well pointed out this: "It must be admitted (he says), as a principle of agriculture, that those substances which have been removed from a soil must be completely restored to it; and whether this restoration be effected by means of excrements, ashes, or bones, is in a great measure a matter of indifference." Again he remarks, "We could keep our fields in a constant state of fertility by replacing every year as much as we remove from them in the form of produce; but an increase of fertility, and consequent increase of crop, can only be obtained when we add more to them than we take away." Of all natural manures, therefore, the best for each description of plant is its own refuse, or ashes; enough of these can seldom, however, be obtained. But, as far as they can be restored, this principle is beginning to be acted upon by the sugar planters of the West Indies, who employ the waste leaves and ashes of the expressed stalk of the cane, after it has been used as fuel, to manure their cane-fields. The vine growers of Germany and the Cape also bury the cuttings of their vines around the roots of the plants. The cinnamon grower of the East returns the waste bark and cuttings of the shoots to the soil. And in the coco-nut groves of Ceylon, the roots of the trees are best manured with the husks of the nuts and decomposed poonac, or the refuse cake, after the oil has been expressed from the pulp. Analysis of soils is, perhaps, not so essential in countries where virgin land is usually in abundance, and the luxuriance of vegetation furnishes itself, by decomposition, abundant materials for replenishing the fertility of the soil. But there are some substances, such as muriate of soda, gypsum, phosphate, and other compounds of lime, which may be advantageously applied. Guano and expensive artificial manures, are seldom required, and, indeed, will not repay the planters for importing.

An experienced cultivator can generally judge by a superficial examination, aided by the situation, locality, and appearance of the soil, whether a certain portion of land is fitted for the profitable growth of any particular plant. Depth of soil, and facilities for deepening it, with the nature of the subsoil, so as to know whether it retains or parts with water, are also important considerations, because tap-rooted plants require free scope for penetrating deep into the ground.

A due supply of water is of vital importance to most crops--and therefore the extent and periods of the fall of rain are essential to be known, as it is not always possible to resort to irrigation. The quantity of labor required for previous tillage, cultivation, and harvesting of different crops, and the available supply, are primary essentials to be considered before entering upon the culture of any staple product, however remunerative it may appear in prospective. Facility and cost of transport to the nearest market or shipping port are the next desiderata to be ascertained, as well as a careful estimate of the cost of plant or machinery necessary.

It may be desirable at the outset to make a brief enumeration of the countries lying within the different zones, and the agricultural products of which come, therefore, more especially under the notice of the tropical planter.

Meyen, in his division of the horizontal range of vegetation into zones, extends--

1. The equatorial zone to fifteen degrees on both sides of the equator. In this division we shall find the Cape Verd Islands, Sierra Leone, Ascension, and St. Helena, the Republic of Liberia, the European and native settlements in the Gulf of Guinea, and on the western Coast of Africa, Abyssinnia, Zanzibar on the East Coast, Mocha and Aden in the Red Sea, the northern portion of Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Madras Presidency, Northern India, Ceylon and the Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Siam, Malacca, Singapore and the Straits Settlements, Cochin China, the Phillippine Islands, Borneo, Celebes and the Moluccas, Java and Madura, Banca, the Johore Archipelago, Timor and the eastern group of Islands, with New Guinea, a large portion of Northern Australia, the Marquesas, Society's and other oceanic islands. In South America the Republics of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela, British, French and Dutch Guiana, and a large portion of the empire of Brazil; Trinidad, Barbados, and most of the islands in the Carribean Sea.

This zone has a mean temperature of 78½ to 82½ Fahrenheit.

2. The tropical zone reaches from the 15th deg. on each side of the equator to the tropics in 23 lat. The mean temperature is 73½ to 78¾ deg. Summer temperature 80½ to 86 deg.; winter temperature in the eastern coast districts, 59 deg.

In this region is comprised the following countries:--Sandwich Isles, Canton, in province of China, Burmah, Calcutta, and a portion of the Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, Madagascar, Mauritius and Bourbon; the southern portion of Brazil, Cuba, St. Domingo, Mexico, and Central America.

3. The sub-tropical zone extends from the tropics 23 to 34 deg. of latitude. There are a number of tropical fruits in this region. The winters are mild and vegetation is green throughout the year. In the northern division of the zone palms and bananas grow on the plains. In this region is comprised all the extreme northern portions of Africa, coasting the Mediterranean, comprising Algiers and the Barbary States, Egypt, part of Persia, Cabool and the Punjab; the greater portion of China, Lower California, Texas, the South-Western States of America, the Bermudas, the Cape Colony and Natal, New South Wales, Southern and Western Australia--the Government settlements in the Northern Island of New Zealand, the largest portion of Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Argentine Republics, the Provinces of Brazil from St. Paul to Rio Grande, Madeira and the Canary Isles.

To define accurately the conditions of temperature which a plant requires to maintain it in a flourishing condition we must ascertain within what limits its period of vegetation, may vary, and what quantity of heat it requires. This most remarkable circumstance was first observed by Boussingault, but unfortunately we do not as yet possess sufficiently accurate accounts of the conditions of culture in the various regions of the earth, to enable us to follow out this ingenious view in all its details. His theory is, that the time required by a plant to arrive at maturity is as the inverse ratio of the temperature; therefore, knowing the mean temperature of any place, and the number of days which a plant takes to ripen, the time required at any other point more or less elevated, can easily be ascertained. Peter Purry, a native of Switzerland, who settled in Charleston in the eighteenth century, in a memorial to the Duke of Newcastle, then Secretary of State, sets out with this postulate, that "there is a certain latitude on our globe, so happily tempered between the extremes of heat and cold, as to be more particularly adapted than any other for certain rich productions of the earth; among which are silk, cotton, indigo," &c.--and he fixes on the latitude of 33 deg., whether north or south, as the one of that peculiar character.

The following Table, showing the climate, duration and production of certain plants cultivated in tropical America, is from the proceedings of the Agricultural Society of Grenada. The second, column gives the altitude in English yards above the level of the sea. The third, the mean temperature by Fahrenheit's thermometer. The fourth, the average time required to commence bearing. The fifth, the number of plants in a Spanish "fanegada" of 170 varras, about 153 square yards. The sixth, the average duration of each plant. The seventh, the average produce of each plant in the year:--

-----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7
|Level of |Mn. Temp.| Time |No. of| |Average
|the Sea, to|Deg. Min.|Required|plants|Years |produce
-----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Cacao | }|81.17 |6½ | 1,156| 40 |1¼ lb
(_Theobroma |587 yds. }|46.00 |yrs | | |per tree
Cacao_) | }| | | | |
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Plantain {|630 yds. to|81.17 | 9 mths.| 3,613| 30 |50
(_Musa {|1077 |46.00 |9½ " | | |plantains
Paradisiaca_) {| |40.61 |11 " | | |
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+---------
Indian Corn {|1077 |81.17 | 90 days|28,900|Annual|238 for
(_Zea Mays_) {|1260 to |40.61 |110 " | | |every
{| 1890 |36to37.80|120 " | | |seed
{|2880 |25.20to27|180 " | | |
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Manioc or {|1077 |81.17 |10 mths |28,900|Bicen-|One
Cassava {|1195 |40.61 |12 " | |nial |cassava
{| |43.00 |120 days| | |weighing
{| | | | | |¾ lb.
{| | | | | |¼ oz.
{| | | | | |starch
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Coco nut | 630 |81.17 |5 yrs. | 452| 60 |4 bottles
(_Cocos | |46.00 |6 " | | |oil per
nucifera_) | | | | | |tree
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Tobacco {| 630 |81.17 |150 days|28,900|Annual|½ lb.
(_Nicotiana_ {|1077 |46.00 |170 " | | |_dried_
_tabacum_) {|1980 |40.61 |180 " | | |to each
{| |33.30 |225 " | | |5 plants
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Cotton {| 630 |81.17 |6½ mth |28,900|3½ |½ lb.
(_Gossypium_) {|1077 |46.00 |7 " | | |nett
{|1415 |40.61 |7½" | | |per
{| |34.61 |9 " | | |plant
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Coffee {| 230 |47 |24 mths | 5,300| 45 |1½
(_Coffea_ {| 630 |46 |25 " | | |lb.
_Arabica_) {|1077to 2250|37.80 to |28 " | | |per
{|2453 |39.60 |36 " | | |tree
{| |33.30 | | | |
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Sugar cane {| 630 |84.17 |11 mths.|28,900| 5 |10 percnt
(_Saccharum_ {|1080 |46.00 |12 " | | |sugar
_officinarum_) {| |41.40 |14 " | | |upon the
{| | | | | |weight
{| | | | | |of the
{| | | | | |raw cane
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Indigo {| 90 |48.60 |2½ " |57,800| 1½ |70 plants
(_Indigofera_ {| 630 |46.00 |3 " | | |produce
_tinctoria_) {|1077 |40.61 |3½ " | | |1 lb.
{| | | | | |coloring
{| | | | | |matter
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Potato {|1080 |38.70 |140 days|116,600 |4½
(_Solanum_ {|1980 |33.30 |165 " | |Annual|lb each
_tuberosum_) {|2700 |27.00 |210 " | | |plant
+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------
Wheat {| 567 |42.30 | 80 " |57,800|Annual|37 for
(_Triticum_ {|1170 |38.70 |100 " | | |every
_æstivum_) {|2520 |32.99 |120 " | | |seed
{| | | | | |planted
-----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------

The plantain bears at 1,529 yards, in a temperature of 61 deg. Fahrenheit, and requires fifteen months, but its cultivation is of little benefit in so high a latitude. It is the same with the cassava root. The cane at 1,160 altitude, in a temperature of 66 deg., gives no sugar; and indigo at 1,620 affords no coloring matter.