Chapter III: Part 3

This also is often accomplished even at long distances, but not in the same way. Then the shot that succeeds must be well timed to get the bird’s body into the thickest of the pellets, and one of the reasons why the body is not plastered is that from most angles of impact, on a coming bird, the body shots glance off, and only the head, neck, and wing shots tell. The only great chance of smashing winged game that occurs is in near shots at going-away game, and then, whether a man holds a cylinder or a choke bore, he will assuredly give lots of “law,” even if, in doing so, the game passes out of sight.

There is an idea that the killing circle from a gun can be mapped out by geometric progression. That is to say, that if lines are drawn from the muzzle to the extremity of a 40 inch circle at 40 yards, you will be able to measure off, or calculate, the killing circle for straight-away game at any distance. That is not so. At the nearer distances the size of the killing circle is regulated by the pellets that, at 40 yards, are outside of it altogether. There they are too thinly scattered to count for chances. Thus the killing circle of a cylinder and of a full choke have no relationship to each other, or to geometric progression of the spread of pellets for each distance.

The author has measured many patterns at different distances, and he believes that the following table shows very truly the diameters of the killing circles covered, on the basis of that pattern which was regarded as thick enough to kill game in the cylinder days. That is to say, the latter sort of gun was tried at 40 yards where it spread fairly evenly over a 40 inch circle. But its proper distance was 30 yards, and at that range nothing else at any other distance gives the shooter an equal chance with No. 6 shot.

FOR STILL, OR STRAIGHT AWAY, OR STRAIGHT COMING GAME. THE SIZE OF THE
KILLING CIRCLE BASED ON A MINIMUM 100 PELLETS IN A CIRCLE OF 30 INCH
DIAMETER

┌────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┐ │ Description of gun and │ At 20 │ At 30 │ At 40 │ At 50 │ At 60 │ │ size of shot. │ yards. │ yards. │ yards. │ yards. │ yards. │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Cylinder and No. 6 shot.│22 in. A│35 in. A│40 in. B│ none │ ... │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Even spreading choke │20 in. A│26 in. A│30 in. B│37½ in. │45 in. C│ │ bore and No. 6 shot │ │ │ │ C │ │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Centre clustering choke │20 in. A│25 in. A│28 in. B│34 in. C│40 in. C│ │ bore and No. 6 shot │ │ │ │ │ │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Cylinder and No. 5 shot │21 in. A│34 in. A│ none │ ... │ │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Even spreading choke │19 in. A│25 in. A│30 in. A│37½ in. │ none │ │ bore and No. 5 shot │ │ │ │ B │ │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │Central clustering choke│19 in. A│24 in. A│27 in. A│35 in. B│ none │ │ bore and No. 5 shot │ │ │ │ │ │ └────────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┘

In the above table each circle of shot has been marked with a reference letter, which is intended to imply—

A, that all pellets will have enough strength to kill if they only hit the body, and in direct line for a vital.

B, that only the fastest pellets in the load will have enough strength to kill by body shots, and that at least half the pellets will only have enough strength to kill if they hit head, neck, or wing.

C, that none of the pellets will kill by body wounds, but only the small number that chance to hit head, neck, or wing.

The pellets that come under the description applied to C can be greatly extended beyond the distances named, and at ranges to which it would be foolish to apply the term “killing circles.” Thus the author has seen a roe deer killed at 60 yards with No. 6 shot from a 12 bore. Lord Walsingham has made four consecutive shots with No. 5 shot at wild ducks at an average range of about 88 yards, or, to be accurate, at 84½ yards, 89 yards, 84 yards, and 114 yards. But these lucky shots in vital spots do not affect the question, except to show that it is difficult to apply a limit to the killing power of even weak pellets when they strike head, neck, or wing. Outside the zone marked A one is certain to do some wounding without killing the game, but although many pellets will hit without being straight for vital spots, others will probably kill the same bird. But in the C zone it is always two or three chances on wounding to one chance of killing.

The reason for attempting to draw a distinctive line between these zones for the different guns and loads is that there is far too much unhealthy, random shooting at game, which gives rise to prolonged agony, while the sportsman is dining well, and, as he believes, sleeping the sleep of the just. Even on the baser score of economy and next year’s sport, it is wise to wound no more game than human blundering compels, and not to lay ourselves out to wound by attempting to kill when the chances are so bad that the wild shooter would not risk them upon a horse-race, much less in a mere commercial speculation.

There has often been controversy on the difference of penetration from a choke bore and a cylinder. When penetration was taken by recording the number of sheets of paper, or boards, pierced by one pellet, or even by three, the choke bore always won. But really this was merely a double counting of pattern, because when two guns shoot with the same velocity of shot, that which has the best pattern will also have most pellets through. That is how it came to be settled by the public London gun trials that choke bores had materially the most penetration. As a matter of fact, nobody knows which has most penetration. Sometimes the number of sheets pierced by half the shot which hit a penetration testing pad will be in favour of one, and sometimes of the other gun, and moreover the difference in piercing by the pellets of the same discharge may be as much as two to one.

Chronographic testing for time over a range has never proved very satisfactory, for the instrument makes but one record of time for 300 different pellets, which are known to vary in velocity over some ranges by 300 foot-seconds, and in striking velocity by 200 foot-seconds.

This was brought out by the late Mr. Griffith, who as manager of the Schultze gunpowder works had great opportunities, and took them. Powder-makers may very well use the chronograph in testing powders at 10 yards range. At this range Mr. Borland of the E.C. Company informed the writer that he could never find a difference between small shot and large pellets; which goes to prove that at the distance they have not scattered longitudinally enough to make the chronograph the absurdity it becomes when it records one time for 300, all various.

But once the chronograph was used for small shot on the right principle. This was when Mr. Griffith applied it to his revolving target experiments.

┌───────────┬────────────────────────────────────┬────────────────────┐ │Description│ Length of shot column at these │ How the length of │ │of gun and │ ranges in yards as previously │column was obtained.│ │ load. │ accepted. │ │ ├───────────┼──────┬──────┬────┬─────┬─────┬─────┼────────────────────┤ │ 〃 │ 10 │ 20 │ 30 │ 40 │ 50 │ 60 │ 〃 │ ├───────────┼──────┼──────┼────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼────────────────────┤ │Choke bore │ │ │ │ │ │ │By actual │ │ 12 gauge,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ measurement on the│ │ 49 grains│ │ │ │ │ │ │ Griffith revolving│ │ Schultze,│ 2¼ │4 feet│ 6¾ │ 3¼ │ 4¼ │ 4½ │ targets, assuming │ │ and 1⅛ │ feet │ │feet│yards│yards│yards│ velocity of shot │ │ oz. shot │ │ │ │ │ │ │ to be only 200 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ f.s.—the same as │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ that of target │ │ 〃 │ │ │ │ │ │ │By multiplying the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ length of actual │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ measurement as │ │ │ 11 │ 19 │ 27 │ 33 │ 35 │ │ above by the ratio│ │ │ feet │ feet │feet│feet │feet │ │ of shot speed at │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the end of the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ range above the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 200 f.s. of the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ revolving targets │ ├───────────┼──────┼──────┼────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼────────────────────┤ │The same │ │ │ │ │ │ │As in first line │ │ gun and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ above │ │ load, but│ 20 │ 40 │ 6 │ 9 │ 12 │ 4¼ │ │ │ with only│inches│inches│feet│feet │feet │yards│ │ │ 42 grains│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Schultze │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ powder │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 〃 │8 feet│ 15 │ 22 │ 28 │ 29 │ ... │As in second line │ │ │ │ feet │feet│feet │feet │ │ above │ ├───────────┼──────┼──────┼────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼────────────────────┤ │Cylinder │ │ │ │ │ │ │As in first line │ │ gun 12 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ above │ │ bore, 42 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ grains of│ 2¾ │5 feet│ 7½ │ 4 │ 4½ │ 4¾ │ │ │ Schultze │ feet │ │feet│yards│yards│yards│ │ │ powder, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ and 1⅛ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ oz. shot │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 〃 │ 11 │ 22 │ 28 │ 35 │ 30 │ ... │As in second line │ │ │ feet │ feet │feet│feet │feet │ │ above │ └───────────┴──────┴──────┴────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴────────────────────┘

_This table is only inserted because the figures contained in it have hitherto formed the bases of public knowledge and calculation; it is corrected and superseded by another on page 44. Its errors consist in no deduction for the natural spread of the pattern and in the multiple adopted being based on the striking velocity of the first five per cent. of pellets._

He did this to discover the longitudinal spread of the shot pellets at various distances. If ever the chronograph could be used for taking differing shot velocities, this appears to be the way. But it has never been repeated, and some results appear to throw doubt upon their own accuracy. The various lengths of the shot spread on the targets moving at 200 f.s., at right angles with the line of fire, were as follows upon the top lines. On the bottom lines in the table the shot pattern spread, caused by the 200 feet per second, is multiplied by the ratio of greater speed of shot than the 200 foot-seconds of the revolving target. So that in the following table the bottom lines, in respect of each gun, represent something near the true length of shot column at each distance. The speeds taken in the foregoing table can be gathered from the Griffith figures on the next page. But if, for the 30 yards range, the truer mean speed of the shot column is wanted, this is equal to the striking velocity of the most forward pellets and the velocity of the rear of the column added together, and divided by two. For this calculation there is a slight inaccuracy originating in the following tables, because the striking velocity of the rear pellets has been taken at the full range, instead of at the length of the shot column less than the full range. This position can only be found by trial and error. It will vary the results by a yard or two. Inches have been disregarded in the tables.

It is often said that we want guns to send their shot up all together, but if we had so to time our “letting off” as to cause the game to fly on to a knife edge, with the shot spread out like a tea-tray, it is doubtful whether we should hit oftener than with a rifle. Lord Wolseley tells of seeing an officer who by means of a soldier’s rifle killed a wild goose flying high overhead.

Keeping the line of flight for such a shot would not be difficult, but the timing and allowance in front could not often be so cleverly arranged. That is the reason why there is a good deal of doubt whether we want to decrease the length of shot columns, and besides, if we did wish it, probably it could not be done. It is observable that the extra half-dram measure of powder materially increased the choke bore’s lengths of shot columns. It also had a very great influence in the increase of velocity at all distances.

The length of the column of shot from the cylinder gun is longer than the spread from the choke bore, and the longer the range the longer is the column; but strangely, at long range, according to these trials, one striking velocity of the first pellets in the load was exactly the same as that of the last pellets to strike the revolving target, although mean velocities for the range were very different. This almost shakes confidence in this chronographic record, but as the penetration tests always show more variation between pellets than the differences in any of these revolving target and chronographic records, it may be that the apparent paradox of pellets getting farther behind but nevertheless maintaining the same speed as those in front can be explained by a constant change of leaders, and if so, also of followers necessarily.

These phenomena do not occur except at the extreme distance of 55 yards, and they are totally absent even at that distance with the choke bore and 49 grains charge. It seems therefore only to be possible when the pellets have dropped to a low velocity. At shorter ranges there is sometimes an impact difference of 200 feet a second between the pellets of the same load. So that it is material to know the force of the whole charge, and the time up the range of the leading pellets is no guide, as differences equal to 320 f.s. have occurred in one load.

STRIKING VELOCITY AT VARIOUS RANGES IN FOOT-SECONDS

_on Mr. Griffith’s authority_

┌────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┐ │ │ By the │ By the │ │ By the │ By the │ │ │fastest │next 25 │ By 45 │mean of │ last 3 │ │ │ 5 p.c. │p.c. of │p.c. of │ the │p.c. of │ │ │ of │pellets.│pellets.│ bulk. │pellets.│ │ │pellets.│ │ │ │ │ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │15 yards choke (42)│ 1013│ 987│ 974│ 952│ 813│ │ 〃 choke (49)│ 1050│ 1013│ 1042│ 965│ 798│ │ 〃 cylinder (42)│ 1003│ 955│ 962│ 923│ 742│ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │25 yards choke (42)│ 825│ 792│ 779│ 748│ 684│ │ 〃 choke (49)│ 890│ 840│ 806│ 809│ 699│ │ 〃 cylinder (42)│ 810│ 769│ 750│ 724│ 615│ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │35 yards choke (42)│ 691│ 661│ 660│ 632│ 523│ │ 〃 choke (49)│ 737│ 699│ 699│ 672│ 564│ │ 〃 cylinder (42)│ 672│ 632│ 636│ 619│ 504│ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │45 yards choke (42)│ 581│ 560│ 549│ 536│ 489│ │ 〃 choke (49)│ 633│ 598│ 592│ 573│ 527│ │ 〃 cylinder (42)│ 561│ 538│ 523│ 494│ 488│ ├────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ │55 yards choke (42)│ 377│ 365│ 362│ 344│ 342│ │ 〃 choke (49)│ 478│ 462│ 457│ 427│ 418│ │ 〃 cylinder (42)│ 382│ 374│ 378│ 370│ 382│ └────────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┘

As these are the only chronographic tests of shot pellets ever made with a view of finding out what really takes place, the striking velocities of the various proportions of the load at different distances are given here. But although this represents the only use of the instrument for this purpose, on truly scientific principles, ever recorded in print, the author would be sorry to affirm the absolute accuracy of the instrument on this or any other occasion, although the relative accuracy of one record to the other is much more likely to be correct.

The (42) and (49), after the description of the gun in the table on p. 41 refers to the load of Schultze powder, and in all cases 1⅛ oz. of shot No. 6 was used.

In order to arrive at striking velocity from these trials, it was necessary to compare the time taken at one range with that taken at another range by a different cartridge.

That in some cases the leading pellets are recorded as slower than those behind them, is not, as would at first sight appear, an absolute disproof of accuracy, because it may be that the leading pellets are constantly dropping back, and others are becoming leaders. Obviously the fastest pellets lose speed at the greatest rate, and obviously, also, the leading pellets get least help and give most to their neighbours, by setting up air disturbance, or a breeze, in the direction of the load.

We all know from paper pad and strawboard tests that the penetration of pellets from the same discharge often varies as two to one. Some of these records do not confirm this; but as they can only be accurate on the assumption of that which must be true—the fluctuation of relative positions of the pellets in flight—this adds to their value, because that assumption is also required to explain the greater known variation in penetration than the most indicated in these tables of speed.

The above remarks have been founded on the comparison of the chronographic time of one load at one distance with that of another discharge fired 10 yards farther away; and the mean speed over the 10 yards has been taken as the striking velocity at the midway distance of the 10 yards. This is how Mr. Griffith worked out the striking velocities. And from his figures the length of the shot column can only be got at by making some use of a comparison between shots fired at one range and those fired at another. In other words, the length of shot column approximately found, as described, when divided by the difference of time between first and last pellets, brings out the average velocities of the shot column, at the instant of the leading shot striking the target, too high. That is to say, the previous length of column having been found too much, is taken merely as a basis, to indicate the position in the rear at the length of the column away from the target at which to search for the speed of the lagging pellets, and, with these found, and the speeds of the leading pellets already found, from the table upon page 41, the average speed has been discovered, and actual time between first and last being known, the length of column has been re-found in a way that must be as accurate as any records can be that are based on two different discharges and the chronograph.

Taking the length of the column of shot, it is clear that the difference of time in seconds between the first and last arriving pellets, divided by the length of the column in feet, will give the mean velocity of the shot column at the instant the first pellets struck the target. The amended figures are tabulated on the next page.

It has lately been attempted to show that Mr. Griffith’s measurements are not supported by the results on a target passing at 75 feet a second at right angles with the line of fire. But this speed is not enough to prevent the irregular spread of the shot pellets from misleading. In other words, the faster the movement of the target the less will the elongation of pattern depend upon the accident of pattern, and the more it will depend upon the length of shot column and its speed. Besides this, birds at 75 feet per second are not the difficult sort that people want to learn to kill in a wind.

In the following table it is seen that in one case the column is no longer at 50 yards than at 40 yards, and we may be quite certain shot columns are not so in reality:—

┌──────┬──────────┬──────────┬───────────────────────┬────────────────┐ │ │Difference│ │ │ │ │ │of time of│ │ │ │ │ │arrival of│Length of │ │ │ │ │ first 5 │column of │ Mean velocity over │ │ │Yards │per cent. │ shot as │ length of column, and │ │ │ of │and last 3│corrected │striking velocity at a │ Description of │ │range.│per cent. │ by the │ point half the length │ gun and load. │ │ │of pellets│ method │of column of shot from │ │ │ │ in │previously│ the end of the range— │ │ │ │fractions │explained.│ │ │ │ │ of a │ │ │ │ │ │ second. │ │ │ │ ├──────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────────┬───────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │As found by│As found by│ │ │ │ │ │ time from │ time from │ │ │ 〃 │ 〃 │ 〃 │uncorrected│ corrected │ 〃 │ │ │ │ │ length of │ length of │ │ │ │ │ │ column of │ column of │ │ │ │ │ │ shot. │ shot. │ │ ├──────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │Choke bore, 42 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ grains of │ │ 10 │·007 │ │ │ │ Schultze and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 1⅛ oz. No 6 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ shot. │ │ 20 │·0145 │ 12 feet│ 1034│ 863│ 〃 │ │ 30 │·022 │ 16 feet│ 1000│ 726│ 〃 │ │ 40 │·036 │ 22 feet│ 777│ 619│ 〃 │ │ 50 │·046 │ 22 feet│ 630│ 489│ 〃 │ │ 60 │·054 │ │ │ │ 〃 │ ├──────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │Choke bore, 49 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ grains │ │ 10 │·009 │ │ │ │ Schultze and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the rest same │ │ │ │ │ │ │ as above. │ │ 20 │·018 │ 16 feet│ 1005│ 884│ 〃 │ │ 30 │·027 │ 20 feet│ 1000│ 768│ 〃 │ │ 40 │·0425 │ 27 feet│ 776│ 647│ 〃 │ │ 50 │·05 │ 28 feet│ 700│ 555│ 〃 │ │ 60 │·059 │ │ │ │ 〃 │ ├──────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │Cylinder gun and│ │ │ │ │ │ │ 42 grains of │ │ 10 │·0117 │ │ │ │ powder and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ shot the same │ │ │ │ │ │ │ as above. │ │ 20 │·0222 │ 18 feet│ 990│ 812│ 〃 │ │ 30 │·034 │ 26 feet│ 823│ 769│ 〃 │ │ 40 │·049 │ 28 feet│ 714│ 583│ 〃 │ │ 50 │·057 │ 27 feet│ 526│ 484│ 〃 │ │ 60 │·057 │ │ │ │ 〃 │ └──────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────────┴────────────────┘

The only way that this extraordinary result can be explained is this: Mr. Griffith shot at his revolving targets set behind a hole of 4 feet diameter made in a steel plate, and the question arises, Would not any shot pellets that were only travelling at 382 feet a second drop out by the force of gravity, and never pass through the opening at all at the longer ranges? They would take a considerable fraction of a second to reach the 55 yards range, and pellets would drop a foot by the force of gravity in ¼ second, therefore some of them would not pass through the 4 feet opening. On this assumption, instead of the 50 yards columns of shot being of the lengths stated, they must be very much longer, with a continuous dropping of the weaker shot all up the range.

It is often asked how it happens that so few fast driven birds are wounded. They are either killed or not hit as a rule, even when they are high up. Another query is as often heard: “Why are fast birds more difficult than slow ones?” It appears that one answer can be supplied from the tables already given to both questions. It is often said that it is difficult to lead “tall” birds enough, but the farther away game is, the slower the gun has to move in order to race, and beat it, so that this is evidently not the explanation. Taking the corrected length of the various columns of shot at most of the ranges above 30 yards, and comparing the average speeds of the fag end pellets, as given in the table, with the distance they have to go, while the bird has merely to go from 2 to 4 feet to get out of their line, it will be found that game at 60 feet per second cannot get clear of any part of the shot column if it is timed properly, whereas game at 100 feet per second will clear about 40 per cent. of the length of column in some cases, and only incur danger from 60 per cent. as he flies through it. This seems to be ample reason for the greater difficulty of fast game.

Here are a few examples with the 42 grain charge: allowing 6 inches for half the length of the bird, and adding this to the diameter of flying shot column at various ranges, it is found that in order to get clear while the shot column is passing, the bird at 60 feet per second takes .041 of a second. At 100 feet rate of flight he will take .025 of a second, and the shot takes but .022, so that the game does not get an advantage here at 30 yards. But at 40 yards the slow bird takes .05 of a second and gets no advantage; the fast one takes .03 of a second, and here the time of the column is .036, so that, however good the timing, the bird misses some shot. At 50 yards it is still worse for the slow bird, which takes .062 of a second to get through, and better for the fast one, that takes only .037 of a second, when the shot occupies .046 of a second for the whole column to pass.

There is not much difference for the 49 grain charge from the choke bore. At 30 yards the shot column takes .027 of a second to reach the distance after the first pellets are up. The 60 feet a second bird takes .041 of a second, and the 100 feet per second bird takes but .025, or a less period than the shot column. At 40 yards the slow bird takes .050 and the fast one .030 of a second, and the shot occupies .042 of a second. At 50 yards the times are .062 for the slow bird and .037 for the fast one, and the period taken by the shot column is .050 of the unit of time; so that at the longer range the best timing possible would only give the game 37/50 of the shot he would have as a slow bird.

The cylinder bore, with its longer column of shot and wider spread as well, is a little different in effect. At 30 yards the period occupied between first and last pellet is .034 of the second, and the slow game takes .050, and the fast .030 of a second. At 40 yards .049 is the period for the pellets; and .062 and .037 of a second those for the quick and tardy game, so that there is twelve parts in every 49 of the shot rendered useless in spite of the best possible timing and the truest of allowances in front. At 50 yards the shot pellets occupy .057 of a second for the rearguard to come up to the distance, and the game takes respectively .075 and .045 of a second for the slow and the fast. So that, again, one gets all the benefit as if he were still, and the other cannot do so under any circumstances.

In the last case, at 40 yards, every misjudgment of distance to allow ahead by 1 foot is equivalent to .016 of a second off the total of .049 second occupied by the shot column, so that 3 feet of error will be equivalent to a total miss for the slow bird, whereas for the fast bird every foot of error is equivalent to .010 of a second, and 5 feet of error in judgment in allowing in front, may enable you to hit with the tail end of the shot column, but only to wound most likely.

The best shot gun experiments ever made with the chronograph, therefore, show that if you have to aim 5 feet in front, and do aim 10 in front, you do not necessarily totally miss at 40 yards; whereas if, instead of aiming 5 feet too much in front, in like circumstances, the gunner aimed 5 feet behind, or, in other words, dead on the mark with a still gun, a hit would be impossible: the game would never be in the line of the shot after the trigger was pulled. This would be so, even although the gun was following round with the bird; so as to ensure no loss consequent on the time occupied by the pull of the trigger. It is clearly better to aim greatly too much in front than a little too much behind.

Even before the author ever engaged in driving game, he had shot at the first bird of a covey and killed the last one, 7 or 8 yards behind. In shooting driven game this is not an uncommon experience for beginners, and is a very useful lesson; for nobody has ever had the opposite experience, and killed the first bird when shooting at the last. But when this shooting at the pigeon and killing the crow occurs, it is not always because of so vast a misdirection as is suggested. Five feet of error at least may be accounted for by the longitudinal spread of the shot, besides something more for the lateral spread. Indeed, two birds in the same covey, one 8 feet behind the other, have been killed at one shot; but it rarely happens. Nevertheless, when one of the two is much the further away, as well as behind, then a bird a very much greater distance than 8 feet behind the one shot at and killed, may also fly into the shot, and die too. In practice, however, it is very much easier to miss a whole pack of grouse that look to be near enough together to kill a dozen at a shot. If one tries to do a bit of “browning,” it is generally not the birds that are “done brown.” If it is not the survival of the fittest that has evolved grouse that look so much nearer together than they are, it must be a wise provision of nature in the interests of sportsmanship.

From what has been said, it will be gathered that when game is crossing fast, wounding is caused by bad timing. The game is either through the shot column before much of it has reached his line of flight, or he has not reached the shot column when the majority of it has passed his line of flight. In either case he gets but a small proportion of the shot pellets correct timing would have given to him. Wounding zones and killing circles as applied to straight-away game have little to do with it. Provided timing is right, superficial “wounding zones” help the kill, because the game that passes through them also passes through the bulk of the shot column before or after. Even patchy patterns on the whitewashed plate may be quite evenly distributed to the game flying through the section of the column of pellets. One thing that is perhaps worth noting is that if the head of the column of pellets, or first arrivals of the pattern, surround crossing game evenly, the bird will have so short a distance to go that he may be out of the circumference of the shot column before a quarter of the pellets have come up to his line of flight, and if he loses a tail feather and drops a leg it will not be because of a large wounding zone of shot in the superficial target sense; indeed, a larger wounding zone of that kind might help in such a case: the fault will be because the game had not to fly through the whole section of the column of shot.

ACTIONS OF GUNS

The actions of guns were at one time so important that gun-makers were selected by reason of the merit of their patents. The tendency of the early actions to part from the barrels at the false breech was so great, that actions became of the first importance. Patents are now run out, and consequently every gun-maker can select the best and make it, and may be trusted to do so provided the weapon is to be paid for at a figure that pays for best work and best material. If this is not the case, still the gun-maker will put in the best action that can be made for the money to be charged; in other words, he will put in the cheapest good design of action, but not necessarily good workmanship. When dovetails are used to join up the barrels and the false breech, it is not because the design of action is not good enough to do without them, but simply that the workmanship or fitting is not good enough. Often the third grip does not fit, and is only for show.

EJECTORS

What has been said of actions applies also to ejectors. If all the patents have not run out, plenty of good ones have done so, and the gun-maker has a great choice and nothing to pay for it.

The principle of the ejector is that with split extractors there is a connection between the fall of the tumbler or hammer and an ejecting mechanism, or lock in the fore end of the gun. The opening or closing of the gun after firing is made to cock the tumblers, strikers, or hammers, and also to put the ejector at full cock, or otherwise bring it ready for action, then when a shot is fired the fallen hammer or tumbler, or its re-cocking, is made to react on the ejector at that stage of the opening gun when the extractors have already moved the empty cartridge-case. The undischarged cartridges are therefore extracted, but not ejected, and the used cases are ejected.

SAFETY OF GUNS

The safety bolt placed upon hammerless shot guns is very necessary. It ought, when placed at safety, to prevent the lock springs working, and should prevent the possibility of the scear being released from the catch, or bent, or scear catch. Mr. Robertson, proprietor of Messrs. Boss & Co., has shown conclusively that a slight rap on the lock plates will disconnect any scear catch, and so let off the gun when not at safety, unless it is also protected with an interceptor, which is moved out of the way of the falling tumbler, or striker, only by the pull of the trigger. Mr. Robertson’s own single-trigger action is also a safety action, even when very light trigger pulls, such as 1 lb., are employed.

The strength of barrels is assured by the proof of them at the London, Birmingham, and foreign proof houses, with loads and charges larger than for service. Anyone in doubt about purchasing guns and rifles would be well advised to write to the Proof Master for the literary matter issued for the protection of the public and guidance of the trade. This changes from time to time, but at present it gives very full information of the meaning of the various foreign proof marks as well as of our own.

CROSS-EYED STOCKS

It is often suggested that a thumb-stall which stands up and blocks the fore sight from the left eye is an assistance to right-shouldered shooters, and sometimes it is. But as it has no effect on the manner of bringing up the weapon, it must require revision to get the correct aim if the weapon is not brought up correctly. The author thinks that a long course of shutting the left eye will _force_ the right eye into becoming governing eye by habit. Some people have neither eye greatly the governor, so that each has an influence on the manner of the “present,” and helps to fix the point the gun is brought up to. This point may be half-way between the extended lines from the two eyes to the foresight, and permits of no real alignment until the gun is moved after presentation, which is always slow. For such men nothing but shutting one eye will be of much use, but for those who have a controlling left eye it is different, and a cross-eyed stock, or shooting from the left shoulder, is to be recommended. Those who have a control eye need not necessarily be able to see the game with it. Provided they see the latter with one eye and take alignment of the breech and fore sight with the control eye, that is enough. If the eyes are pairs—that is, not crossed—and produce on the brain but one image of an object focused, then the direction of the alignment over or upon the game or target is accomplished in the brain, and the hands obey. That is to say, the left eye may be unable to see the sights, and the right eye may be unable to see the game, but as the images on both are superimposed on the brain the aim is quite correct for normal eyes. A beginner thinks this impossible, but if he uses a thumb-stall, and blocks the fore sight from the left eye, and puts a card over the muzzle, so as to block the right eye from seeing the target, and then focuses the latter, and not the fore sight, he will soon become unconscious that he is blocking out anything from either eye.

As the ability of the eyes has had to be referred to here, it may be well to remark that any normal eyes can see the shot in flight against the sky, and this ability has been used to advantage in coaching shooters. To see this phenomenon, stand slightly behind the shooter, and look for a little darkening of the sky in the direction of the aim; it will be easily seen about the time the shot has spread to a foot, or so, diameter. Whether anyone can see the shot much nearer than 15 yards or farther away than 20 yards is questionable; the spread of the pellets reduces the dark shade-like appearance, and it vanishes. Consequently, experts who see clay birds apparently in the middle of the pellets may be quite correct at short distances, and appearances may be absolutely wrong for game or clay targets at distances farther away than the shot can be detected. The bird may have flown another two yards by the time the shot intersects its line of flight. Consequently, this ability of the coach to see the shot should only be relied upon at about 20 yards range.

SINGLE-TRIGGER DOUBLE GUNS

The idea of a single trigger to double guns cannot be said to have occurred to anyone as an original conception, since it was natural that at the first attempt to build those toys (as Colonel Thornton considered double guns, when he was upon his celebrated Highland tour), the inventor must have exercised some ingenuity to supply these first double guns with two triggers. It was as natural to attempt to make double barrels with one trigger as for a duck to swim. First, because single barrels were the fashion, and second, because single-trigger double pistols were made and were successful. It was, however, at once discovered that the action of the double pistol would not do; it let off both the shoulder gun’s barrels apparently as one. For a century afterwards repeated attempts were made to overcome this double discharge, and many patents were taken out on the strength of the inventor having discovered “the real, true cause” of the involuntary discharge of the second barrel, by the pull off that was intended to actuate only the first. However, the problem remained commercially unsolved until Mr. Robertson, of Boss & Co., of St. James’s Street, overcame the difficulty, and took out a patent, about 1894, for an action that prevented the unintentional double discharge. The great success of this action led to some hundred patents being taken out between that year and 1902. But most of them were afterwards dropped, and found not to effect the prevention of the double discharge for which they were designed. As a matter of fact, the reason of the involuntary discharge of the second barrel was not understood, not even by Mr. Robertson, who had, by trial and error, arrived at a perfect system of overcoming the difficulty, without being aware of what really occurred.

In the autumn of 1902 the author contributed some letters to _The County Gentleman_, which explained the difficulty; but his discovery, for such it has proved to be, was hotly disputed in a correspondence led by some of the leaders of the gun trade. This was by no means wonderful, although it is disconcerting for a discoverer to be treated as “past hope” when he is so unfortunate as to make a find that can do him no good, but ever since must have saved much in work and patent fees to the gun trade.

The accepted view of involuntary pull prior to this discovery was that after the shot from the first barrel, recoil jumped the gun away from the finger, and then the shoulder rebounded the gun forward on to the stiff finger, which, being struck by the trigger, let off the second barrel. The author for some time previous to 1902 had become conscious that this explanation was open to question. However, it was not until he sat down and worked out the times of recoil and finger movement, that he felt safe in challenging so generally accepted a statement. But this calculation proved to him that, so far from rebound causing the unwished-for “let off,” the latter occurred in one-twentieth of the time occupied by the recoil backwards. However, the author’s powers of persuasion failed to convince everybody, and for this reason the editor of _The County Gentleman_, with the assistance of Mr. Robertson, of Boss & Co., and of the late Mr. Griffith, of the Schultze Powder Company, formed a committee of experts to test the point by chronographic examination. Results were published in _The County Gentleman_ on December 6, 1902, and were to the effect that the second discharge came in one-fiftieth of a second after the first discharge, but that the recoil backwards, before rebound could occur, took from four different shooters respectively .32, .29, .34, and .38 of a second, or, roughly, an average of one-third of a second. So that it was demonstrated that the rebound from the shoulder had nothing whatever to do with the involuntary pull. The true and now always accepted cause was as the author had stated it to be—namely, that the recoil jumped the trigger away from the finger in spite of the muscular contraction that still continued after the let off of the first barrel; that this muscular contraction continued to act and again caught up the trigger, as soon as the pace of recoil was diminished by the added weight of the shoulder, and so the finger inflicted a heavier blow or pull on the trigger than in the first pull off. In the first pull it was finger pressure, in the next it was pressure acting over distance, and was measurable in foot-pounds, as work or energy is measured. This proved to be the correct solution.

Consequently, a good single trigger is one that prevents this finger blow from discharging the second barrel. It is impossible to prevent the blow itself, but quite easy to prevent it letting off the second lock. There are at least three principles employed for doing this.

The first is called the three-pull system; it is based on the necessity of either the voluntary second pull, or involuntary blow (as the gun may be loaded or unloaded), for intercepting the trigger connection which the subsequent release of the trigger allows a spring to place in readiness to receive the third trigger pull, and act on the second tumbler; this pull in the unloaded gun is observed to be a third pull, and in the loaded one is only observable as a second pull, because the second has been given involuntarily, and not consciously.

The double-pull actions are different in principle. Most of them are based upon a lengthening of the time between the first let off and the connections with the second lock coming into position for contact with the trigger. In other words, they are time movements, based upon the knowledge that the second pull, or impact of trigger and finger, came very quickly, and that to delay the intermediate connecting link between trigger and second lock until after this unconscious impact rendered it inoperative.

A third system is somewhat different, but is also a timer action. It is based upon having a loose or nearly loose piece, which is partly independent of the gun, and either by its lesser motion or want of movement, during the jump back of the recoiling gun, gets in the way of a further trigger movement, until the recoil of the gun is over, and the weak spring can replace the independent piece in its normal position again.

It has been said that the greatest advantage of a single trigger is the facility with which it can be removed and double triggers substituted. But this is merely what those gun-makers have said, who, being obliged to have a single-trigger action of their own for those who ask for them, have been too proud to pay a royalty for a good one, and have not felt quite safe in recommending their own to good customers.

The real advantages of a single trigger are many. First, one does not have to shift the grip of the gun for the second barrel. As explained above, recoil occupies one-third of a second, and one does not want to add to the jump of the gun during recoil by partly letting go, nor to be unready at the end of it, by still having to move the right-hand grip in changing triggers. In practice, the single trigger is also much the quicker. It is not necessary to say anything about cut fingers and their avoidance by the use of single triggers. But a wonderful advantage is in the more correct length of stock. If one’s gun-maker gave one a stock an inch too long, or short, in double triggers, he would be thought not to know his business. There is only one best length for everybody, but every double trigger has two lengths of stock, one an inch longer than the other.

The author is told that there are still some very bad single-trigger actions being made, but that is quite unnecessary when the best can be employed by paying a royalty, as some of the best gun-makers are in the habit of doing, or were, until the recent action Robertson _v._ Purdey was settled.

Probably it would be more correct to say that the principal advantage of a bad single trigger is that it can readily be exchanged for a good one. The author would not on his own authority speak of bad single triggers, because he has tried most of them, and had difficulty with none.

AMMUNITION

The time has not yet arrived for us to have a smokeless powder as regular in its action and as little affected by heat as black powder was, neither have we as free an igniting powder, which is of less moment.

Nitro powders have greatly improved of recent years, and would doubtless have continued the progress, but they have been brought up, and to a standstill, in the last two or three years by a sort of trade agreement, or an invention of “standard” loading, which may be supposed to have had its origin in the wholesale cartridge trade, since it is impossible that it can be good for sportsmen, or for those who try to fit shooters with their personal requirements, or, in other words, try to load a sportsman’s gun according to the individual requirements of gun and man.

We are still in the dark ages of “pressure” testing, or trying the strength of powders by the work they do upon plugs inserted through the walls of testing guns, and, outside, in contact with lead or other metal that the explosion, in moving the plugs, crushes. In doing this the powder-gas does “work” which would be correctly measurable in foot-tons, but is supposed to be measured in static pounds, which is similar to dropping a weight upon a scale balance and mistaking the weight for the work done by the drop. For instance, if we drop a pound weight a foot on to a scale balance, the work it does is equal to one foot-pound. But if we place it on the scale gently, it will just balance one pound on the other side. One is weight and the other is energy, which are not comparative terms. Yet in testing powders the fashion is to take the measure of some unknown proportion of the energy and to call it static pounds.

On the other hand, the fashion is to make the exactly contrary mistake in testing guns for shooting strength. The flattening of the shot pellets on a steel plate is the result of energy; here the flattening of lead by which “pressures” are erroneously taken is ignored and scouted, and velocity is considered the thing to judge by, although it is only the velocity of one pellet out of three hundred which, at 20 yards, vary by as much as 300 foot-seconds mean velocity.

In a lecture delivered by the late Mr. Griffith, of Schultze Company fame, it was said quite truly, and with proper pride, that the velocity of shot had increased during the last twenty years by 100 feet per second at 40 yards. During this time recoil has been reduced very much, only apparently in defiance of the law that action and reaction are equal and opposite.

Recoil is equal to the total momentum of shot, wads, and powder-gas, and what the powder people have done is to reduce that portion of recoil that was not represented by momentum of the shot, but was represented by the momentum of waste powder-gas.

Consequently, what has been got rid of in twenty years is some momentum of powder-gas, which has served two purposes—first, by permitting some extra strength of powder, to put some extra momentum into the shot pellets, and to somewhat reduce recoil in spite of this. That then was the tendency of the powder-makers, when suddenly they were brought to a standstill by a catchword, “standard” loading and “standard velocity.”

There would have been some sense in “standard velocities,” had it been impossible to increase velocities without also increasing recoil; but nobody believes that. The tendency has not only been the other way, but it represents the one and only great improvement in powders that has been made since nitro propellers were first invented. There is still a large proportion of recoil due to the “blast” after the shot has gone, or the momentum of lost powder-gas. It is not nearly abolished, and is only reduced. Consequently, it was no time to say, “Now we have arrived at perfection, and beyond this point it is a fault to go, and consequently we fix as a standard 1050 foot-seconds mean velocity at 20 yards as the correct velocity, above and below which nobody must attempt to carry ballistics of shot guns.” That may suit wholesale manufacturers, because it is a standard easy to accomplish in bulk, but here is what it means as a check to progress.