Chapter III: Ephod with Breastplate Folded and Attached (3)

Rabelais,[456] describing the temple of the oracle of the “Dive Bouteille,” says that of its seven columns the first was of sapphire; the second, of jacinth; the third, of “dyamant”; the fourth, of the “male” balas-ruby; the fifth, of emerald, “more brilliant and glistening than were those which were set in place of eyes in the marble lion stretched before the tomb of King Hermias”; the sixth column was of agate, and the seventh of transparent selenite, “with a splendor like that of Hymettian honey, and within appeared the moon in form and motion such as she is in the heavens, full and new, waxing and waning.” We are then told that these stones were attributed to the seven planets by the Chaldæans, as follows:

Sapphire Saturn
Jacinth Jupiter
Diamond Sun
Ruby Mars
Emerald Venus
Agate Mercury
Selenite Moon

Some of these attributions differ from those usually made and may represent another tradition.

PLANETARY INFLUENCES OF STONES[457]

Jasper Venus and Mercury.
Sapphire Jupiter and Mercury.
Emerald Venus and Mercury.
Chalcedony Jupiter, Mercury, and Saturn.
Sardonyx Saturn and Mars.
Chrysolite Mercury and Venus.
Beryl Venus and Mars.
Topaz Saturn and Mars.
Chrysoprase Mercury and Venus.
Jacinth Mars and Jupiter.
Amethyst Mars and Jupiter.
Pearl Venus and Mercury.
Carbuncle Mars and Venus.
Diamond Jupiter.
Agate Venus and Mars.
Alectoria Sun.
Turquoise Venus and Mercury.
Chelidon Jupiter.
Ætites Sun.
Dionesia Saturn.
Hematite Mercury.
Lapis-lazuli Venus.
Armena Mercury and Venus.
Garnet Sun.
Amber Sun.
Jet Saturn.
Lyncurius Sun.
Crystal Moon and Mars.
Bezoar Jupiter.
Armenia Jupiter.
Selenite Moon.
Magnet Mars.
Judaica, }
Hegolite or } Mercury.
Cogolite }
Iris Jupiter.
Halcyon Saturn and Mars.
Asbestus Saturn.
Sarcophagus Moon.
Arabian, white Moon.
Arabian, green Jupiter.
Hyena Sun.
Androdamas Moon.
Pyrites:
Copper-colored Sun, Venus.
Gold-colored Sun.
Silver-colored Moon.
Tin-colored Moon, Saturn.
Ash-colored Jupiter.
Calatia Moon.
Stalactite Venus.
Thenarcus Sun.
Carnelian Jupiter, Mars, Venus.
Opal Sun, Mercury.

Fixed stars associated with precious stones:[458]

Diamond. Caput Algol 18° of Taurus.
Crystal. The Pleiades 24° of Taurus.
Ruby, carbuncle. Aldebaran 3° of Gemini; also the Hyades.
Sapphire. The Goat 15° of Gemini.
Beryl. Sirius 10° of Cancer.
Garnet. Heart of Lion 23° of Leo.
Magnet. Tail of the Great Bear 8° of Scorpio; also the Pole Star.
Topaz. Right and left wing of Raven 8° of Libra.
Emerald and Jasper. Spica Virginis 17° of Libra.
Amethyst. Scorpion 3° of Sagittarius.
Chrysolite. Tortoise 8° of Capricorn.
Chalcedony. Tail of Capricorn 15° of Aquarius.
Jacinth. Shoulder of Equis Major 18° of Pisces.
Pearl. Umbilicus Andromedæ 20° of Aries.
Sardonyx. Same as Topaz.

Images and virtues of the constellations as engraved on gems:[459]

URSA MAJOR, URSA MINOR, AND DRACO. Both bears are represented in the folds of a serpent, the Great Bear in the upper and the Lesser Bear in the lower folds. In almost all the signs. Nature: Ursa Major, Mars and Venus. Ursa Minor: Saturn. Draco: Saturn and Mars. Renders the wearer wise, cautious, versatile, and powerful.

The boundary lines of the various signs are carried up to the pole, and any constellation that is within these lines is considered to belong to the respective sign; thus, every constellation belongs to one or more signs.

CORONA BOREALIS. A royal crown, with many stars; sometimes the crowned head of a king. Sign: Sagittarius. Nature: Venus and Mercury. Engraved on the stone of one who is fitted for honors and knowledge, it gives him great favor with kings.

HERCULES. A man with knees bent, holding a club in his hand and killing a lion; sometimes a man with a lion’s skin in his hand or on his shoulder and holding a club. Sign: Scorpio. Nature: Venus and Mercury. Engraved on a stone that brings victory, like the agate, it renders the wearer victorious in all conflicts in the field.

CYGNUS. A swan with outstretched wings and curved neck. In the North. Nature: Venus and Mercury. Renders the wearer popular, increases knowledge, and augments wealth. Cures gout, paralysis, and fever.

CEPHEUS. A man girt with a sword and holding his hands and arms extended. Sign: Aries. Nature: Saturn and Jupiter. Causes pleasant visions if placed beneath the head of a sleeping person.

CASSIOPEIA. A woman seated in a chair and with hands extended in the form of a cross; sometimes with a triangle on her head. Sign: Taurus. Nature: Saturn and Venus. Restores the sickly, worn body to health, gives quiet and calm after labor and procures pleasant and tranquil sleep.

ANDROMEDA. A young girl with dishevelled hair, and hands hanging down. Sign: Taurus. Nature: Venus. Reconciles husband and wife, strengthens love, and protects the human body from many diseases.

PERSEUS. A man holding a sword in his right hand and the Gorgon’s head in his left. Sign: Taurus. Nature: Saturn and Venus. Guards the wearer from misfortune and protects, not only the wearer but the place where it may be, from lightning and tempest. Dissolves enchantments.

SERPENS. A man in the folds of a serpent and holding its head in his right hand and its tail in his left. Sign: Taurus. Nature: Saturn and Venus. Antidote to poisons and to the bites of venomous creatures.

AQUILA. A flying eagle with an arrow beneath his feet. Sign: Cancer. Nature: Jupiter and Mercury; the arrow, however, is of Mars and Venus. Preserves former honors, adds new ones, and helps to victory.

PISCES or DELPHINUS. Figured in relief (?) Sign: Aquarius. Nature: Saturn and Mars. If this engraved gem be attached to nets it causes them to be filled with fish, and it renders the wearer fortunate in fishing.

PEGASUS. Some represent the half of a winged horse; others the whole figure and without a bridle. Sign: Aries. Nature: Mars and Jupiter. Gives victory in the field, and makes the wearer swift, cautious, and bold.

CETUS. Figure of a large fish with curved tail and capacious gullet. Sign: Taurus. Nature: Saturn. Renders the wearer fortunate on the sea and makes him prudent and agreeable. It also restores lost articles.

ORION. With or without armor, man holding a sword or a scythe in his hand. Sign: Gemini. Nature: Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars. Gives the wearer victory over his enemies.

NAVIS. A ship with prow curved back and spread sails; sometimes with and sometimes without oars. Sign: Leo. Nature: Saturn and Jupiter. Renders the wearer fortunate in his undertakings; he runs no risk on sea or water, neither can he be injured by water.

CANIS MAJOR. Figure of a dog for coursing hares, with a curved tail. Sign: Cancer. Nature: Venus. Cures lunacy, insanity, and demoniacal possession.

LEPUS. Figure of a hare with ears pricked up and the feet represented as though in swift motion. Sign: Gemini. Nature: Saturn and Mercury. Cures frenzy and protects from the wiles of demons. The wearer cannot be hurt by a malignant spirit.

CENTAUR. Half-figure of a bull, bearing a man on whose left shoulder rests a lance, from which depends a hare. In his right hand the man holds a small, supine animal with a vessel attached to it. Sign: Libra. Nature: Jupiter and Mars. Gives constancy and perpetual health.

CANIS MINOR. Figure of a dog, sitting. Sign: Cancer. Nature: Jupiter. Guards from dropsy, pestilence, and the bites of dogs.

SACRARIUS TURUBULUS (ARA). An altar with burning incense. Sign: Sagittarius. Nature: Venus and Mercury. Gives the wearer power to recognize spirits, to converse with them, and to command them; also confers chastity.

HYDRA. A serpent, having an urn at its head and a raven at its tail. Sign: Cancer. Nature: Saturn and Venus. Gives riches and all good gifts to the wearer and makes him cautious and prudent.

CORONA AUSTRALIS. An imperial crown. Sign: Libra. Nature: Saturn and Mars. Augments wealth and makes the wearer gay and happy.

AURIGA. A man in a chariot, bearing a goat on his left shoulder. Sign: Gemini. Nature: Mercury. Makes the wearer successful in hunting.

VEXILLUM. A flag flying from the extremity of a lance. Sign: Scorpion. Gives skill in war and confers victory in the field.

FIGURES OF THE PLANETS

SATURN. An old man holding a curved scythe in his hand and with
a not very heavy beard. Engraved on a stone of the
nature of Saturn, it renders the wearer powerful and
augments his power continually.

JUPITER. A seated figure, sometimes in a chariot, holding a staff
in one hand and a spear in the other. It renders the wearer
fortunate, especially if engraved on a Kabratis stone,
and he easily gains what he wishes, especially from
priests. He will be raised to honors and dignities.

MARS. Represented sometimes with a banner and sometimes
with a lance or other weapon. He is, indeed, always
armed and at times mounted on a horse. Gives victory,
boldness in war, and success in everything, especially if
engraved on an appropriate stone.

SUN. Sometimes as the solar disk with rays, sometimes as a man
in a chariot, and this occasionally is surrounded by the
signs of the zodiac. Renders the wearer powerful and a
victor; this gem is prized by hunters.

VENUS. Many forms, among them that of a woman with a voluminous
dress and a stole, holding a laurel in her hand. Gives
skill in handling affairs and usually brings them to a
successful issue; removes the fear of drowning.

MERCURY. Figure of a slender man, usually with a beautiful beard,
but sometimes without. He has winged feet and holds the
caduceus. Increases knowledge and confers eloquence. It
aids merchants, enabling them to acquire wealth.

MOON. Various forms. Sometimes as a crescent, sometimes as a
young woman in a chariot and holding a quiver, and at
others as a woman with a quiver and following the chase
with dogs. Aids the fortunes of those who are sent on an
embassy, and enables them to acquire wealth and honor
thereby. Is said to confer speed and facility in
undertakings and a happy issue.[460]

When Hudibras attacked and overcame the sorcerer Sidrophal, he rifled the latter’s pockets of all his mystic treasures. Among these were

Several constellation stones,
Engraved in planetary hours,
That over mortals had strange powers,
To make them thrive in law or trade,
And stab or poison to evade,
In wit and wisdom to improve,
And be victorious in love.[461]

These manifold influences exerted by the stars and planets through the medium of the gems, not only concerned those actually present in a material form, but also those that were seen in dreams, and interpretations of such dreams are given by old writers.

It is studded with precious and semi-precious stones and engraved gems, dating from various epochs, the pious offerings of those whose prayers have been answered. The figure is 85 cm. (33½ inches) high and is of gold in a core of wood. Probably of the tenth century. Two of the four crystal balls adorning the seat are said to replace golden doves. Rock-crystal was especially dedicated to the moon.]

Many Oneirocritica, or “dream-books,” were written or compiled in the early centuries of our era, one of the most noted being the work of Artemidorus, who flourished in the second century A.D. Every object seen in a dream was given a special meaning, and it is interesting to note that Artemidorus believed dreams of rings or other ornaments, as well as of precious stones, to be of favorable significance only for women. Such dreams indicated marriage for unmarried women, and the birth of children for those already married. If a woman was both wife and mother when she saw sparkling jewels in her dream, then the vision portended the acquisition of great wealth. Artemidorus here sagely remarks that women are by nature devoted to riches and passionately fond of ornaments. For men, on the other hand, to dream of jewels was an ill omen; probably because it foreshadowed the necessity of buying them for a good friend or a faithful wife.[462]

Another of these dream-books, probably composed in the eighth century A.D., appears under the name of Achametis and is of Arabic origin. Many of the interpretations in this book are referred to a Hindu source, and among these are visions of crowns that appear to kings. Such a dream, in itself, usually portended increased power and success for the sovereign, but this depended upon the color and character of the jewels which adorned the crown. For example, we read that if the gems were red and of the kind known as lychnites (carbuncles or rubies), the dream indicated that the king would have great joy and good fortune and would be more feared by his enemies than before; but if he saw blue gems in the crown, it was a bad omen, foreshadowing the loss of part of his kingdom. If the stones were of a light green hue (the color of the leek), the king would gain a great name in the world, both by his good faith and by the greatness of his kingdom; for, the writer adds, “this color in precious stones is universally accepted as signifying good-faith and religious devotion to God.”[463]

There is signified by dreaming of

Agates A journey.
Amber A voyage
Amethysts Freedom from harm.
Aquamarines New friends.
Beryls Happiness in store.
Bloodstones Distressing news.
Carbuncles Acquirement of wisdom.
Carnelians Impending misfortune.
Cat’s-eyes Treachery.
Chalcedony Friends rejoined.
Chrysoberyls A time of need.
Chrysolites Necessary caution.
Coral Recovery from illness.
Crystal Freedom from enemies.
Diamonds Victory over enemies.
Emeralds Much to look forward to.
Garnets The solution of a mystery.
Heliotropes Long life.
Hyacinths A heavy storm.
Jacinths Success.
Jasper Love returned.
Jet Sorrow.
Lapis-lazuli Faithful love.
Moonstones Impending danger.
Moss-agates An unsuccessful journey.
Onyx A happy marriage.
Opals Great possessions.
Pearls Faithful friends.
Porphyry Death.
Rubies Unexpected guests.
Sapphires Escape from danger.
Sardonyx Love of friends.
Topaz No harm shall befall.
Tourmalines An accident.
Turquoises Prosperity.

If precious stones be so combined in a ring, or other jewel that the initial letters of their names spell words significant of a tender sentiment or implying good fortune, or else the name of someone dear to the giver of the jewel, this is also supposed to strengthen their astral or planetary influence and to render them more potent charms. In the following examples the gems in the first column are the more expensive, those in the second column being comparatively inexpensive ones.

ACROSTICS FORMED WITH STONES

In France and England, during the 18th century, rings, bracelets, brooches, etc., were often set with gems the first letters of which, combined, formed a motto or expressed a sentiment. The following is a list of those that may be used in this way. The choice of stones afforded here brings these pretty devices within the reach of all.

FAITH

Fire-opal. Feldspar.
Alexandrite. Amethyst.
Iolite. Idocrase.
Tourmaline. Topaz.
Hyacinth. Heliotrope.

HOPE

Hyacinth. Hematite.
Opal. Olivine.
Pearl. Pyrope.
Emerald. Essonite.

CHARITY

Cat’s-eye. Carbuncle.
Hyacinth. Hematite.
Aquamarine. Amethyst.
Ruby. Rose quartz.
Iolite. Idocrase.
Tourmaline. Topaz.
Yellow sapphire. Yu (Jade).

GOOD LUCK

Golden beryl. Garnet.
Opal. Onyx.
Olivine. Obsidian.
Diamond. Dendrite.

Lapis-lazuli. Labradorite.
Uralian emerald. Unio pearl.
Cat’s-eye. Carnelian.
Kunzite. Krokidolite.

FOREVER

Fire-opal. Flèches d’amour.
Opal. Onyx.
Ruby. Rutile.
Emerald. Essonite.
Vermeille. Verd antique.
Essonite. Epidote.
Rubellite. Rose quartz.

REGARD

Ruby. Rubellite.
Emerald. Essonite.
Garnet. Garnet.
Alexandrite. Amethyst.
Ruby. Rock-crystal.
Diamond. Demantoid.

_ZES_

Greek, meaning “Mayest thou live.”

Zircon. Zonochlorite.
Emerald. Essonite.
Sapphire. Sard.

MIZPAH

Moonstone. Moldavite.
Indicolite. Idocrase.
Zircon. Zonochlorite.
Peridot. Pyrope.
Asteria. Aquamarine.
Hyacinth. Hematite.

FRIENDSHIP

Flèches d’amour. Feldspar.
Ruby. Rock crystal.
Indicolite. Idocrase.
Emerald. Epidote.
Nephrite. Nicolo.
Diamond. Diopside.
Sapphire. Sard.
Hyacinth. Hematite.
Iolite. Idocrase.
Pearl. Pyrite.

DEAREST

Diamond. Demantoid.
Emerald. Essonite.
Alexandrite. Amethyst.
Ruby. Rubellite.
Essonite. Epidote.
Sapphire. Spinel.
Turquoise. Topaz.

SOUVENIR

Sapphire. Sunstone.
Opal. Onyx.
Uralian emerald. Utahlite.
Vermeille. Verd antique.
Emerald. Epidote.
Nephrite. Nephrite.
Iolite. Indicolite.
Ruby. Rock-crystal.

BONHEUR

Beryl. Bloodstone.
Opal. Onyx.
Nephrite. Nephrite.
Hyacinth. Hematite.
Emerald. Essonite.
Uralian emerald. Utahlite.
Ruby. Rhodonite.

AMITIÉ

Alexandrite. Almandine.
Moonstone. Moonstone.
Indicolite. Indicolite.
Tourmaline. Topaz.
Idocrase. Idocrase.
Emerald. Essonite.

LOVE ME

Lapis-lazuli. Labrador spar.
Opal. Onyx.
Vermeille. Verd antique.
Emerald. Essonite.

Moonstone. Moonstone.
Essonite. Epidote.

_AEI_

Greek, meaning “forever,” “eternity.”

Alexandrite. Almandine.
Emerald. Essonite.
Indicolite. Idocrase.

An attractive engagement ring can be formed of a central diamond from which extend the rays of a five-pointed star. Between the rays are set the stones emblematic of the zodiacal sign, of the guardian angel of the month, of the planet control of the hour and also the two stones indicating the initial letter of the two Christian names. This ring is in the form of the mystic Pentagon, the grand symbol of constancy and durability, since the number five is composed of three, which signifies creative power, and two, which typifies the balance, that is, stability.

As, according to the old fancy, the influences due to the light emanations from the planets or fixed stars, or from the combination of the stars in a zodiacal sign, would have a peculiar and more or less intimate connection with the fate of one country rather than of another, an attempt is here made to give a characteristic stone for each country. In the case of the United States the various gem-stones found within the boundaries of each of the States of the Union are given. That this special influence was exceptionally potent in regard to those born in the countries in question was also taught and hence a national gem would have a greater talismanic power than any other for the natives of each separate country. For those who may feel a certain degree of sympathy for time-honored fancies, and who may perhaps also have a trace of superstition hidden away in some part of their consciousness, one of our State gems would have a similar significance.

GEMS OF COUNTRIES

Alaska Garnet
Algiers Coral
Arabia Pearl
Austria-Hungary Opal
Belgium Crystal
Bohemia Garnet
Bokhara Lapis-lazuli
Bolivia Lapis-lazuli
Brazil Tourmaline (Brazilian emerald)
Burma Ruby
Canada Sodalite
Ceylon Cat’s-eye
Chili Lapis-lazuli
China Jade
Congo Dioptase
Denmark Agate
Egypt Peridot
England Diamond
France Pearl
Germany Amber
German West Africa Diamond
Greece Sapphire
Holland Diamond
Hungary Opal
India Pearl
Ireland Precious serpentine (Connemara)
Italy Coral
Japan Rock-crystal
Korea Abalone pearl
Madagascar Morganite
Mexico Obsidian
Morocco Coral
New England Tourmaline
New South Wales Opal
New Zealand Jade
Norway-Sweden Carnelian
Panama Agate
Persia Turquoise
Peru Emerald
Philippines Pearl
Portugal Chrysoberyl
Roumania Amber
Russia Rhodonite
Sandwich Islands Olivine
Scotland Cairngorm (smoky quartz)
Servia Coral
Siam Ruby
Sicily Amber
South Africa Diamond
Spain Emerald
Switzerland Rock-crystal
Turkestan Jade
Turkey Turquoise
United States Sapphire
Uruguay Amethyst

UNITED STATES STONES

Precious, semi-precious, or gem stones are found in nearly every State of the Union. The most important are enumerated below:

_Alabama_ Beryl, blue and yellow; smoky quartz.
_Arizona_ Agatized wood, azur-malachite, turquoise, garnet,
peridot.
_Arkansas_ Rock-crystal, smoky quartz, agate, diamond,
novaculite.
_California_ Agate, benitoite, californite, diamond, gold
quartz, tourmaline, abalone pearl, chrysoprase,
kunzite, morganite.
_Colorado_ Beryl, aquamarine, phenacite, garnet, amethyst,
agate, gold quartz, pyrite.
_Connecticut_ Beryl, yellow and green; rose quartz, tourmaline
_Delaware_ Pearl.
_Florida_ Chalcedony, conch pearl.
_Georgia_ Ruby, beryl, amethyst, gold quartz, garnet.
_Idaho_ Opal, agate, obsidian.
_Illinois_ Fluorite, pearl.
_Indian Territory_ Obsidian, pearl.
_Indiana_ Pearl.
_Iowa_ Fossil coral, pearl, chalcedony.
_Kansas_ Chalcedony.
_Kentucky_ Pearl.
_Louisiana_ Chalcedony.
_Maine_ Tourmaline, beryl, rose quartz, pearl, topaz,
amazonite, smoky quartz, rock-crystal.
_Maryland_ Beryl, clam-pearl.
_Massachusetts_ Beryl.
_Michigan_ Agate, hematite.
_Minnesota_ Chlorastrolite, thomsonite, agate.
_Mississippi_ Pearl, chalcedony.
_Missouri_ Pearl, fluorite, pyrite.
_Montana_ Sapphire, beryl, smoky quartz, agate, amethyst,
agatized wood, obsidian.
_Nebraska_ Chalcedony, pearl.
_Nevada_ Gold quartz, rock-crystal.
_New Hampshire_ Beryl, rock-crystal, garnet.
_New Jersey_ Fowlerite, willemite, prehnite, smoky quartz,
agate, pearl.
_New Mexico_ Turquoise, garnet, obsidian, peridot, rock-crystal.
_New York_ Beryl, brown tourmaline, rose quartz, fresh-water
pearl, clam-pearl, chondrodite.
_North Carolina_ Aquamarine, beryl, emerald, almandite garnet,
rhodolite, prope garnet, diamond, cyanite,
hiddenite, amethyst, ruby, sapphire, smoky quartz,
rock-crystal, rutile.
_North Dakota_ Chalcedony, agate.
_Ohio_ Fossil coral, chalcedony.
_Oregon_ Agate, obsidian, hydrolite.
_Pennsylvania_ Amethyst, beryl, sunstone, moonstone, amazonite,
almandite garnet, pyrope garnet, rutile.
_Rhode Island_ Hornblende in quartz, amethyst, rock-crystal.
_South Carolina_ Beryl, smoky quartz, rock-crystal.
_South Dakota_ Quartzite, beryl, agate.
_Tennessee_ Pearl.
_Texas_ Beryl, pearl, tourmaline.
_Utah_ Topaz, garnet.
_Virginia_ Amethyst, spessarite, garnet, beryl, moonstone,
staurolite, allanite.
_Vermont_ Beryl, pearl.
_Washington_ Pearl, agate.
_West Virginia_ Rock-crystal.
_Wisconsin_ Agate, pearl.
_Wyoming_ Moss-agate, agate.

XI

On the Therapeutic Use of Precious and Semi-Precious Stones

The medicinal use of precious stones may be traced back to very ancient times. It has been conjectured that their employment for such purposes was introduced to Europe from India, whence many of the stones were derived. Nevertheless, the earliest evidence we have rather points to Egypt as the source, and, indeed, it appears that in early Egyptian times the chemical constituents of the stones were much more rationally considered than at a later period in Europe. The Ebers Papyrus, for instance, recommends the use of certain astringent substances, such as lapis-lazuli, as ingredients of eye-salves, and hematite, an iron oxide, was used for checking hemorrhages and for reducing inflammations. Little by little, however, superstition associated certain special virtues with the color and quality of precious stones, and their virtues were thought to be greatly enhanced by engraving on them the image of some god, or of some object symbolizing certain of the activities of nature. Later still, the science of astrology, most highly developed in Assyria and Babylonia, was brought into combination with the various superstitions above indicated, so that the image was believed to have much greater efficacy if the engraving were executed when the sun was in a certain constellation or when the moon or some one of the planets was in the ascendant at the time.

If we exclude certain fragmentary notices in Egyptian literature—notably the statements in the Ebers Papyrus—and the very uncertain sources in Hindu literature, the earliest authority for this branch of the subject is the Natural History of Pliny. In this connection, however, it is only just to call attention to a fact which has been often ignored—namely, that Pliny himself had very little faith in the teachings of the “magi,” as he calls them, in regard to the superstitious use of gems for the prevention or cure of diseases; indeed, he seems to have been almost as sceptical in his attitude as many modern writers, for certain quite recent authorities still credit amber and a few other mineral substances with therapeutic effects other than those which can be explained by the known action of their chemical constituents. Still, Pliny yielded so far to the taste of his time as to preserve for us many of the statements of earlier writers on the subject, naming them in most cases and so enabling us to form some idea of the character of this pseudo-science in the Roman world in the first century of our era. With the gradual decay of ancient learning, the less valuable elements of popular belief came more and more into the foreground, and the old superstitions were freely copied by successive authors, each of whom felt called upon to add something new on his own account. This explains much of the confusion that reigns in regard to the attribution of special virtues to the different stones, for the wider the reading of the author the greater became the number of virtues attributed to each separate stone, until, at last, we might almost say that each and every precious stone could be used for the cure of all diseases. Nevertheless, it is comparatively easy to see that either the color or constitution of the stone originally indicated its use for this or that disease.

It dates from about 1600 B.C., the period of the Ebers Papyrus, and gives directions for preparing certain remedies from precious stones. While the interpretation of this text offers considerable difficulty, one version finds in it the statement that lapis-lazuli—the “sapphire” of the ancients—was used for the wealthy, and malachite for those of limited means. Professor Oefele conjectures that the disease to be treated was hysteria. Munch Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.]

A distinction is often made between the talismanic qualities of precious stones for the cure or prevention of disease and the properly medicinal use of them as mineral substances. In the former case the effect was attained by merely wearing them on the person, while in the latter case they were reduced to a powder, which was dissolved as far as possible in water or some other liquid and then taken internally. As, however, the end to be attained is the same whether the stone be worn or taken internally as a powder or liquid, it seems more logical to treat of both these methods of therapeutic use together, reserving for the chapter on the talismanic use of gems only their employment to avert misfortunes other than those caused by disease, and their influence in the procuring of wealth, honors, and happiness for their wearers.

The belief in the curative properties of precious stones was at one time universal among all those to whom gems were known. When we read to-day of the various ills that were supposed to be cured by the use of these gems, we find it difficult to understand what process of thought could have suggested the idea of employing such ineffectual remedies. It is true that the constituents of certain stones can be absorbed by the human body and have a definite effect upon it, but the greater part of the elements are so combined that they cannot be assimilated, and they pass through the system without producing any apparent effect.

In ancient and medieval times, however, other than chemical agencies were supposed to be efficient in the cure of diseases, and the primitive animistic conception of the cause of illness, and hence of the therapeutics of disease, long held sway among those who practised the medical art. Remedies were prized because of their rarity, and also because it was believed that certain spiritual or planetary influences had aided in their production and were latent in them. Besides this, the symbolism of color played a very important part in recommending the use of particular stones for special diseases. This may be noted in the case of the red or reddish stones, such as the ruby, spinel, garnet, carnelian, bloodstone, etc. These were thought to be sovereign remedies for hemorrhages of all kinds, as well as for all inflammatory diseases; they were also believed to exercise a calming influence and to remove anger and discord. The red hue of these stones was supposed to indicate their fitness for such use, upon the principle _similia similibus curantur_. In the same way yellow stones were prescribed for the cure of bilious disorders, for jaundice in all its forms and for other diseases of the liver.

The use of green stones to relieve diseases of the eye was evidently suggested by the beneficial influence exerted by this color upon the sight. The verdant emerald represented the beautiful green fields, upon which the tired eye rests so willingly, and which exert such a soothing influence upon the sight when it has been unduly strained or fatigued. One of the earliest, probably the very earliest reference in Greek writings to the therapeutic value of gems, appears in the works of Theophrastus, who wrote in the third century before Christ. Here we are told of the beneficial effect exercised by the emerald upon the eyes.

2. Necklace of onyx beads. Early Christian.]

The sapphire, the lapis-lazuli, and other blue stones, with a hue resembling the blue of the heavens, were believed to exert a tonic influence, and were supposed to counteract the wiles of the spirits of darkness and procure the aid and favor of the spirits of light and wisdom. These gems were usually looked upon as emblems of chastity, and for this reason the sapphire came to be regarded as especially appropriate for use in ecclesiastical rings. Among purple stones, the amethyst is particularly noteworthy. The well-known belief that this gem counteracted the effects of undue indulgence in intoxicating beverages is indicated by its name, derived from μεθύω—“to be intoxicated,” and the privative α, the name thus signifying the “sobering” gem. It is not unlikely that a fancied resemblance between the prevailing hue of these stones and that of certain kinds of wine first gave rise to the name and to the idea of the peculiar virtues of the amethyst.

We have mentioned only a few of the more obvious analogies suggested by the color of gems, and we might be tempted to cite many others were it not that symbolism is always treacherous ground, since there is practically no limit to the correspondences that may be found between sensuous impressions and ideas.

One great difficulty which besets any one who is trying to find a clue to guide him through the labyrinth of the medical affinities of gems is the fact that there was, from an early period, a tendency to attribute the virtues of one gem to another, probably owing to the commercial instinct which urged the dealer to praise his wares in every possible way, so that no part of his stock should fail to find a purchaser. This tendency is especially marked in the old Hindu Lapidaries, wherein it is almost impossible to find any differentiation of the stones in respect to their curative or talismanic virtues. Only the condition and perfection of the gems are made the criterion of their worth. Any given stone, if perfect, was a source of all blessings to the wearer and possessed all remedial powers, while a defective stone, or one lacking the proper lustre or color, was destined to be a source of untold misfortune to the owner.

The European writers on the medical properties of precious stones were influenced by quite different considerations; their chief aim was to represent each stone, regarded simply as a mineral substance, as being the abode of the greatest possible number of curative properties. Indeed, many of the most highly recommended electuaries contained all kinds of stones, as though the effect to be produced did not depend upon the qualities of any single stone, or class of stones, but rather upon the quantity used. In Arnobio’s “Tesoro delle Gioie,”[464] we have a receipt for the composition of “the most noble electuary of jacinth.” This contains jacinth, emerald, sapphire, topaz, garnet, pearl, ruby, white and red coral, and amber, as well as many animal and vegetable substances, in all, thirty-four ingredients. It would indeed seem that a good dose of such a mixture should have provided a cure for “all the ills that flesh is heir to,” by the simple and effective means of removing the unhappy patient to a better world.

Treating of the metallic affinities of precious stones, Paracelsus (1493-1541) affirmed that the emerald was a copper stone; the carbuncle and the jasper were golden stones; the ruby and the chalcedony, silver stones. The “white sapphire” (corundum) was a stone of Jupiter, while the jacinth was a mercurial stone. Powdered jacinth mixed with an equal quantity of laudanum was recommended as a remedy for fevers resulting from “putrefaction of the air or water.” This illustrates the custom of combining an inefficacious material, such as the powder of a precious stone, with another possessing genuine remedial virtue, the name of the stone appealing to the popular superstitions regarding its therapeutic powers, and thus rendering the preparation more acceptable.[465]

It is related by Plutarch that when Pericles was dying of the plague, he showed to one of his friends, who was visiting him, an amulet suspended from his neck. This had been given to Pericles by the women of his household, and Plutarch cites the instance as a proof that even the strongest minds will at certain times yield to the influence of superstition.[466]

There were sceptics in ancient times who put no faith in the popular superstitions as to the curative powers of precious stones. Eusebius (ca. 264-ca. 349), in his oration on the Emperor Constantine the Great (272-337), says:[467]

He held that the varieties of stones so greatly admired were useless and ineffective things. They possessed no other qualities than their natural ones, and hence no efficacy to hold evils aloof; for what power can such things have either to cure disease or to avert death? Nevertheless, although he well knew this, he was in no wise opposed to their use simply as ornaments by his subjects.

The Middle High German didactic poem on precious stones, composed by Volmar, or Volamar, about 1250, appears to have been written as a rejoinder to a satirical poem, the work of a writer called the “Stricker” (rascal). What chiefly aroused Volmar’s wrath was the fact that this irreverent personage dared to assert that a piece of colored glass set in a ring looked just as well and possessed the same virtues as a genuine precious stone of the same color. Volmar does not mince matters, and roundly declares that whoever should kill the man who wrote thus would do no sinful act. While we can scarcely recommend such drastic action, we must admit that we feel a little sympathy with the medieval champion of genuine stones against imitations.

A most interesting item recording one phase of a great tyrant’s character is reported by Sir Jerome Horsey, who was entrusted with messages to and from Elizabeth of England and Ivan the Terrible of Russia. He gives, in his “Travels,” a graphic recital of an interview with Ivan just before the latter’s death in 1584. We retain the archaic spelling as it is reproduced in the Hakluyt publication from the original manuscript. Writing of Ivan, Horsey says:[468]

Carried every daye in his chair into his treasure. One daye the prince beckoned me to follow. I strode emonge the rest venturously, and heard him call for som precious stones and jewells. Told the prince and nobles present before and aboute him the virtue of such and such, which I observed, and do pray I may a littell degress to declare for my own memorie sake.

Treating of Topaz, Turquoise, Jacinth, Garnet, Chalcedony, Rock-crystal, Coral.]

“The load-stone you all know hath great and hidden vertue, without which the seas that compas the world ar not navigable, nor the bounds nor circles of the earth cannot be knowen. Mahomett, the Percians proffit, his tombe of steell hangs in their Repatta at Darbent most miraculously”—Caused the waiters to bringe a chaine of nedells towched by his load-stone, hanged all one by the other.—“This faire currell (coral) and this faire turcas you see; take in your hand; of his natur arr orient coullers; put them on my hand and arm. I am poisoned with disease: you see they shewe their virtue by the chainge of their pure culler into pall: declares my death. Reach owt my staff roiall; an unicorns horn garnished with verie fare diomondes, rubies, saphiers, emeralls and other precious stones that ar rich in vallew; cost 70 thousand marckes sterlinge of David Gower from the fowlkers of Ousborghe.[469] Seek owt for som spiders.” Caused his phiziccians, Johannes Lloff, to scrape a circle thereof upon the tabell; putt within it one spider and so one other and died, and some other without that ran alive apace from it.—“It is too late, it will not preserve me. Behold these precious stones. This diomond is the orients richest and most precious of all other. I never affected it; yt restreyns furie and luxurie and abstinacie and chasticie; the least parcell of it in powder will poysen a horse geaven to drinck, much more a man.” Poynts at the ruby. “Oh! this is most comfortable to the hart, braine, vigar and memorie of man, clarifies congelled and corrupt bloud.”—Then at the emerald.—“The natur of the reyn-bowe; this precious stone is an enemye to uncleanness. The saphier I greatlie delight in; yt preserves and increaseth courage, joies the hart, pleasinge to all the vitall sensis, precious and verie soveraigne for the eys, clears the sight, takes awaye bloudshott and streingthens the mussells and strings thereof.”—Then takes the onex in hand.—“All these are Gods wonderfull guifts, secreats in natur, and yet revells [reveals] them to mans use and contemplacion, as frendes to grace and vertue and enymies to vice. I fainte, carie me awaye till an other tyme.”

Some believed that when precious stones were worn to relieve or prevent disease, it was important that the different stones should be worn on different parts of the body. According to one authority, the jacinth should be worn on the neck; the diamond, on the left arm; the sapphire, on the ring-finger; the emerald, or the jacinth, on the index-finger; and the ruby or turquoise, on either the index-finger or the little finger.[470] There is, however, little reason to assume that these rules were generally known and observed.

That precious stones not only appealed to the eye by their beautiful colors, but also possessed a fragrant odor, was one of the many fanciful ideas regarding them. If we could believe the following circumstantial account, this was once experimentally proved:[471]

When precious stones are to be used in medicine, they must be pulverized until they are reduced to a powder so fine that it will not grate under the teeth, or, in the words of Galen, this powder must be as impalpable “as that which is blown into the eyes.” Since this trituration is not usually operated with sufficient care by the apothecaries, I begged a medical student, who was lodging with me, to pass an entire month in grinding some of these stones. I gave him emeralds, jacinths, sapphires, rubies, and pearls, an ounce of each kind. As these stones were rough and whole, he first crushed them a little in a well-polished iron mortar, using a pestle of the same metal; afterward he employed a pestle and mortar of glass, devoting several hours each day to this work. At the end of about three weeks, his room, which was rather large, became redolent with a perfume, agreeable both from its variety and sweetness. This odor, which much resembled that of March violets, lingered in the room for more than three days. There was nothing in the room to produce it, so that it certainly proceeded from the powder of precious stones.

Diamond

Of the many medicinal virtues attributed to the diamond, one of the most noteworthy is that of an antidote for poisons. Strangely enough, the belief in its efficacy in this respect was coupled with the idea that the stone in itself was a deadly poison. The origin of this latter fancy must be sought in the tradition that the place wherein the diamonds were generated—“in the land where it is six months day and six months night”—was guarded by venomous creatures who, in passing over the stones, were wounded by the sharp points of the crystals, and thus embued the stones with some of their venom.[472] The attribution of curative properties in case of poisoning arose from association of ideas. The Lapidario of Alfonso X recommends the diamond for diseases of the bladder; it adds, however, that this stone should be used only in desperate cases.

Codice Original (fol. 6), published in Madrid, 1881. That on the left figures “the stone found in the sea when the planet Mars rises”; that on the right, “the stone that attracts glass.” Author’s library.]

Codice Original (fol. 4), published in Madrid, 1881. On the left, “the stone that recoils from milk”; on the right, pearl-fishers.]

The diamond was also believed to afford protection from plague or pestilence, and a proof of its powers in this direction was found in the fact that the plague first attacked the poorer classes, sparing the rich, who could afford to adorn themselves with diamonds. Naturally, in common with other precious stones, this brilliant gem was supposed to cure many diseases. Marbodus[473] tells us that it was even a cure for insanity.

In the Babylonian Talmud we read of a marvellous precious stone belonging to Abraham. This was perhaps a diamond, or possibly a pearl; the accounts vary, and the same word is often used to designate “precious stone” and “pearl.” The following version represents it to be a diamond:[474]

R. Simeon, ben Johanan said: “A diamond was hanging on Abraham’s neck, and when a sick man looked upon it he was cured. And when Abraham passed away, the Lord sealed it in the planet of the sun.”

The Hindus believed that it was extremely dangerous to use diamonds of inferior quality for curative purposes, as they would not only fail to remedy the disease for which they were prescribed, but might cause lameness, jaundice, pleurisy, and even leprosy. As to the use of diamonds of good quality, very explicit directions are given. On some day regarded as auspicious for the operation, the stone was to be dipped in the juice of the _kantakára_ (_Solanum jaquiri_) and subjected for a whole night to the heat of a fire made by dried pieces of the dung of a cow or of a buffalo. In the morning it was to be immersed in cow’s urine and again subjected to fire. These processes were to be repeated for seven days, at the end of which term the diamond could be regarded as purified. After this the stone was to be buried in a paste of certain leguminous seeds mixed with asafœtida and rock salt. Herein it was to be heated twenty-one successive times, when it would be reduced to ashes. If these ashes were then dissolved in some liquid, the potion would “conduce to longevity, general development of the body, strength, energy, beauty of complexion, and happiness,” giving an adamantine strength to the limbs.[475]

An Austrian nobleman, who for a long time had not been able to sleep without having terrible dreams, was immediately cured by wearing a small diamond set in gold on his arm, so that the stone came in contact with his skin.[476]

The fact that in this case, as in many others, the stone was required to touch the skin, proves that the effect supposed to be produced was not altogether magical, but in the nature of a physical emanation from the stone to the body of the wearer.

We are told that when Pope Clement VII was seized by his last illness, in 1534, his physicians resorted to powders composed of various precious stones. In the space of fourteen days they are asserted to have given the pope forty thousand ducats’ worth of these stones, a single dose costing as much as three thousand ducats. The most costly remedy of all was a diamond administered to him at Marseilles. Unfortunately, this lavish expenditure was of no avail; indeed, according to our modern science, the remedies might have sufficed to end the pope’s life, without the help of his disease.[477]

The old fancy that the diamond grew dark in the presence of poison is explained by the Italian physician Gonelli as caused by minute and tenuous particles which emanated from the poison, impinged upon the surface of the diamond, and, unable to penetrate its dense mass, accumulated on the surface, thus producing a superficial discoloration. The diamond, being a cold substance, may have condensed moisture from the body, and the one suffering from the poison may have emitted exudations. But this elaborate explanation of a phenomenon which never existed except in the imagination of those who related it is characteristic of Gonelli, who was always ready to elucidate in some similar way any of the marvels recounted in regard to precious stones.[478]

Emerald

The emerald was employed as an antidote for poisons and for poisoned wounds, as well as against demoniacal possession.[479] If worn on the neck it was said to cure the “semitertian” fever and epilepsy.[480] The use of the emerald to rest and relieve the eye is the only remedial use of a precious stone mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise on gems, written in the third century B.C. Alluding to its powers as an antidote for poisons, Rueus asserts[481] that if the weight of eighty barley-corns of its powder were given to one dying from the effects of poison, the dose would save his life. The Arabs prized emeralds highly for this purpose, and Abenzoar states that, having once taken a poisonous herb, he placed an emerald in his mouth and applied another to his stomach, whereupon he was entirely cured.[482]

A certain cure for dysentery also was to wear an emerald suspended so that it touched the abdomen and to place another emerald in the mouth. Michaele Paschali, a learned Spanish physician of the sixteenth century, declared that he had effected a cure of the disease by means of the emerald in the case of Juan de Mendoza, a Spanish grandee, and Wolfgang Gabelchover, of Calw, in Würtemberg, writing in 1603, asserts that he had often tested the virtues of the emerald in cases of dysentery and with invariable success.[483]

It speaks not a little for the beauty of the emerald that so good a judge of precious stones as Pliny should have pronounced this gem to be the only one that delighted the eye without fatiguing it, adding that when the vision was wearied by gazing intently at other objects, it gained renewed strength by viewing an emerald. So general in the early centuries of our era was the persuasion that the pure green hue of emeralds aided the eyesight, that gem engravers are said to have kept some of them on their work-tables, so as to be able to look at the stones from time to time and thus relieve the eye-strain caused by close application to their delicate task.[484]

Psellus says that a cataplasm made of emeralds was of help to those suffering from leprosy; he adds that if pulverized and taken in water they would check hemorrhages.[485] They were especially commended for use as amulets to be hung on the necks of children, as they were believed to ward off and prevent epilepsy. If, however, the violence of the disease was such that it could not be overcome by the stone, the latter would break.[486] Hermes Trismegistus says the emerald cures ophthalmia and hemorrhages. The great Hermes must have had a special preference for this stone, since his treatise on chemistry (_peri chemeias_) is said to have been found inscribed on an emerald.[487]

By the Hindu physicians of the thirteenth century the emerald was considered to be a good laxative. It cured dysentery, diminished the secretion of bile, and stimulated the appetite. In short, it promoted bodily health and destroyed demoniacal influences. In the curious phrase of the school the emerald was “cold and sweet.”[488]

Teifashi (1242 A.D.) believed that the emerald was a cure for hæmoptysis and for dysentery if it were worn over the liver of the person affected; to cure gastric troubles, the stone was to be laid upon the stomach. Furthermore, the wearer was protected from the attacks of venomous creatures, and evil spirits were driven from the place where emeralds were kept.[489] The direction to place the stone on the affected part, a recommendation often met with in the treatises on the therapeutic use of ornamental stones, shows that these were believed to send forth emanations of subtle power. Probably enough, the brilliant play of reflected light which proceeds from many of these gems suggested the idea that they radiated a certain curative energy. This theory need not surprise us, for, although it is altogether fanciful in the case of the diamond, ruby, emerald, etc., the newly discovered substance, radium, really possesses the active properties ascribed by old writers to precious stones.

Jade

A stone the therapeutic quality of which was specialized is the jade or nephrite. Strange to say, although there are very few places where this mineral can now be obtained,—the chief sources of supply being the province of Khotan in Turkistan and New Zealand,—in prehistoric times the stone must have been found in many different localities, since axe-heads and other artefacts of jade have been discovered in many lands both of the old and new world.

When the Spaniards discovered and explored the southern part of the American continent, they came across numerous native ornaments and amulets made of jade (jadeite) and brought many of these with them to Europe. The name jade is derived from the Spanish designation, _piedra de hijada_, meaning literally “stone of the flank,” which is said to have been bestowed on the stone because the Indians used it for all diseases of the kidneys. The name nephrite owes its origin to the same idea. In ancient times jade appears to have been looked upon as a great aid in parturition, and many ingenious conjectures have been advanced as to the connection between this belief and the form of some of the prehistoric objects made of this material. Whether the Spaniards really learned from the Indians that the stone was especially adapted to cure renal diseases, or whether they only suggested this special and peculiar virtue in order to give an enhanced value to their jade ornaments, is a question not easily answered.

An early notice of jade as a remedial agent appears in Sir Walter Raleigh’s account of his travels in Guiana. Treating of a people of “Amazons” said to dwell in the interior of the country, Raleigh says:[490]

These Amazones have likewise great store of these plates of golde, which they recover by exchange, chiefly for a kinde of greene stone, which the Spaniards call Piedras Hijadas, and we use for spleene stones and for the disease of the stone we also esteeme them: of these I saw divers in Guiana, and commonly every King or _Casique_ hath one, which theire wives for the most part weare, and they esteeme them as great jewels.

By the middle of the seventeenth century the curative powers of jade for the various forms of calculi was very generally admitted. A singular instance is offered us in one of Voiture’s letters. He was a great sufferer from “the stone” and he had received, from a Mademoiselle Paulet, a beautiful jade bracelet. Gratefully acknowledging the receipt of this peculiar gift, he expresses himself in the following frank way, a mixture of indelicacy and gallantry that seems strange to us: “If the stones you have given me do not break mine, they will at least make me bear my sufferings patiently; and it seems to me that I ought not to complain of my colic, since it has procured me this happiness.” The name used for jade by Voiture, “_l’éjade_,” supplied a missing link in the derivation of our name jade from the Spanish _hijada_. When the lady’s gift was received by Voiture, some friends chanced to be present, and they were disposed to regard it as a token of love until he assured them that it was only a remedy. It appears that Mlle. Paulet was a fellow sufferer, and, alluding to this, Voiture writes: “On this occasion the jade had for you an effect you did not expect from it, and its virtue defended your own.”[491]

Renal calculi and poetry do not seem to have much in common, but the following lines freely rendered from an old Italian poem on the subject by Ciri de Pers show that even this unpromising theme is susceptible of poetic treatment:[492]

“Other white stones serve to mark happy days,
But mine do mark days full of pain and gloom.
To build a palace, or a temple fair,
Stones should be used; but mine do serve
To wreck the fleshly temple of my soul.

* * * * *

Well do I know that Death doth whet his glaive
Upon these stones, and that the marble white
That grows in me is there to form my tomb.”

As jade was and still is the most favored stone in China, although never found within the boundaries of China proper, it was very naturally accorded wonderful medical virtues. An old Chinese encyclopedia, the work of Li She Chan, and presented by him to the emperor Wan Lih of the Ming dynasty, in 1596, contains many interesting notices of jade. When reduced to a powder of the size of rice grains it strengthened the lungs, the heart, and the vocal organs, and prolonged life, more especially if gold and silver were added to the jade powder. Another, and certainly a pleasanter way of absorbing this precious mineral, was to drink what was enthusiastically called the “divine liquor of jade.” To concoct this elixir equal parts of jade, rice, and dew-water were put into a copper pot and boiled, the resultant liquid being carefully filtered. This mixture was said to strengthen the muscles and make them supple, to harden the bones, to calm the mind, to enrich the flesh, and to purify the blood. Whoever took it for a long space of time ceased to suffer from either heat or cold and no longer felt either hunger or thirst.

Galen (b. ca. 130 A.D.) wrote thus of the green jasper:[493]

Some have testified to a virtue in certain stones, and this is true of the green jasper, that is to say, this stone aids the stomach and navel by contact. And some, therefore, set the stone in rings and engrave on it a dragon surrounded by rays, according to what King Nechepsos has transmitted to posterity in the fourteenth book (of his works). Indeed, I myself have thoroughly tested this stone, for I hung a necklace composed of them about my neck so that they touched the navel, and I received not less benefit from them than I would had they borne the engraving of which Nechepsos wrote.

Ruby