Chapter XXXVIII

THE INFLUENCE OF EGYPT UPON TEMPLE-ORIENTATION IN GREECE.

In the final pages of this book I have to show that recent investigations have put beyond all doubt the fact that the astronomical observations and temple-worship of the Egyptians formed the basis first of Greek and later of Latin temple-building.

I have indicated in a former chapter that in our own days, and in our own land, the idea of orientation which I have endeavoured to work out for Egypt still holds its own. It was more than probable, therefore, that we should find the intermediate stages in those countries whither by universal consent Egyptian ideas percolated. Among these, Greece holds the first place, as it was the nearest point of Europe to the Nile Valley.

Before we study the orientation of the Greek temples, let us endeavour to realise the conditions of those Greek colonists who, filled with the Egyptian learning; impressed with the massive and glorious temples in which they had worshipped; favoured, perchance, moreover, with glimpses of the esoteric ideas of the priesthood; and finally, fired with Greek ideals of the beautiful, determined that their new land should not remain altarless.

What would they do? They would naturally adapt the Egyptian temple to the new surroundings, climatic among others. The open courts and flat roofs of Egyptian temples would give way to covered courts and sloping roofs to deal with a more copious rainfall; and it is curious to note that the chief architectural differences have this simple origin. The small financial resources of a colony would be reason good enough for a cella not far from the entrance, with courts surrounding it under the now necessary roof. The instinctive love of beauty would do the rest, and make it a _sine quâ non_ that the rosy-fingered dawn should be observable, and that the coloured light of the rising sun in the more boreal clime should render glorious a stately statue of the divinity.

It is well to take this opportunity of emphasising the transition from the Egyptian form of temple to the Greek one, in order to show how completely among many apparent changes the astronomical conditions were retained. The entrance door and the cella are always in the axis of the temple; the number of columns in the front is always even; _the door is never blocked_.

I have already pointed out that in both groups of Egyptian temples, whether furnished with a pylon or not, one goes from the entrance to the other end, which held the sanctuary, through various halls of different styles of architecture and different stages of magnificence. But in the Greek temple this is entirely changed; the approach to the temple was outside--witness the glorious propylæum of the Parthenon at Athens--the temple representing, so to speak, only the core, the Holy of Holies, of the Egyptian temple; and any magnificent approach to it which could be given was given from the outside. Be it further remarked that the propylæum was never in the fair-way of the light entering the temple.

The massive pylons of some of the Egyptian temples were useful for shading the roofless outer courts. In Greece these were no longer useful.

The east front of the Parthenon very much more resembles the temple of Denderah than it does the early Egyptian temple--that is to say, the eastern front is open; it is not closed by pylons.

The view as to the possibility of temple-orientation being dominated by astronomical ideas first struck me at Athens and Eleusis, and when I found that the same idea had been held by Nissen, and that the validity of it seemed to be beyond all question, I consulted my friend Mr. F. C. Penrose specially with regard to Greece, as I knew he had made a special study of some of the temples, and that, he being an astronomer as well as an archæologist (for, alas! they are not, as I think they should be, convertible terms), it was possible that his observations with regard to them included the requisite data.

I was fortunate enough to find that he had already determined the orientation of the Parthenon with sufficient accuracy to enable him to agree in my conclusion that that temple had been directed to the rising of the Pleiades. He has subsequently taken up the whole subject with regard to Greece in a most admirable and complete way,[183] and has communicated papers to the Society of Antiquaries (February 18, 1892), and more recently to the Royal Society (April 27, 1893) on his results.[184]

These results are so numerous and complete that it is now quite possible to trace the transition from Egyptian to Greek temple-worship, and this, with Mr. Penrose's full permission, I propose to do in this chapter.

But, in the first instance, I am anxious to state that Mr. Penrose was soon convinced that in Greece, as in Egypt, the stars were used for heralding sunrise. He writes:--

"The object the ancients had in using the stars was to employ their rising and setting as a clock to give warning of the sunrise, so that on the special feast days the priests should have timely notice for preparing the sacrifice or ceremonial, whatever it may have been:

"'Spectans orientia solis
Lumina _rite_ cavis undam de flumine palmis
Sustulit,' etc."

I may further give an extract from a letter received from him in which he deals with the demonstration of the orientation hypothesis furnished by the Greek temples alone.

"In my paper sent to the Royal Society there was a passage which seems to make it practically _certain_ that heliacal stars were connected with the intra-solstitial temples as derived from Greek sources alone, independent of the powerful aid of the Egyptian cases.

"'That the first beam of sunrise should fall upon the statue centrally placed in the adytum of a temple or on the incense altar in front of it on a particular day, it would be requisite that the orientation of the temple should coincide with the amplitude of the sun as it rose above the visible horizon, be it mountain or plain.

"'That a star should act as time-warner it was necessary that it should have so nearly the same amplitude as the sun that it could be seen from the adytum through the eastern door, if it was to give warning at its rising, or to have a similar but reversed amplitude towards the west, if its heliacal setting was to be observed; and it follows that in the choice of the festival day and the corresponding orientation, on these principles, both the amplitude of the sun at its rising and that of the star eastwards or westwards, as the case might be, would have to be considered in connection with one another.

"'From what has been said it is obvious that in the intra-solstitial temples the list of available bright stars and constellations is in the first instance limited to those which lie within a few degrees of the ecliptic, and it will be found that in the list above given and those which follow, if we omit Eleusis, where the conditions were exceptional, all but one of the stars are found in the zodiacal constellations. A very great limit is imposed, in the second place, by one of the conditions being the heliacal rising or setting of those stars from which the selection has to be made. So that, when both these combined limitations are taken into account, it becomes improbable to the greatest degree that in every instance of intra-solstitial temples of early foundation of which I have accurate particulars, being twenty-eight in number and varying in their orientation from 21° N. to 18° 25′ S. of the true east, there should be found a bright heliacal star or constellation in the right position at dates not in themselves improbable unless the temples had been so oriented as to secure this combination.'

"I have just been looking into the number of possible stars which could have been used, _i.e._ within the limits of the greatest distance from the ecliptic that could have been utilised.

"The stars which could have been utilised in addition to the seven which serve for nearly thirty temples are ten only, viz.:--

Aldebaran.
Pollux.
β Arietis.
β Tauri.
α and β Capricorni as a group.
β Libræ.
α Libræ.
α Leonis.
γ Leonis.
β Leonis.

"If the orientations had been placed at random, would not our thirty temples have made many misses in aiming at these seventeen stars, it being necessary also to hit exactly the heliacal margin? And would they have secured anything like a due archæological sequence?

* * * * *

"Another point is this:--

"Whenever a star less than first magnitude is used (Pleiades only excepted) it has been necessary, to secure coincidence, to give it several more degrees of sun depression than in the cases of Spica and Antares."

The problem in Greece was slightly different from that in Egypt. We had not such a great antiquity almost without records to deal with, and moreover the feast-calendars of the various temples presented less difficulty. There was no vague year to contend with, and in some cases the actual dates of building were known within a very few years.

In Greece, not dominated by the rise of the Nile, we should not expect the year to begin at a solstice, but rather at the vernal equinox. I have shown that even in pyramid times in Egypt the risings of the Pleiades and Antares were watched to herald the equinoctial sun; it is not surprising, therefore, to find the earliest temples in Greece to be so oriented. Mr. Penrose has found the following:--

B.C.
η Tauri Archaic temple of} Athens R[185] 1530
(The Pleiades) Minerva }
Asclepieion Epidaurus R 1275
The Hecatompedon } Athens R 1150
(site of Parthenon)}
Temple of Bacchus Athens R 1030
Temple of Minerva Sunium S 845

B.C.
Antares Heræum Argos R 1760
Earlier Erechtheum Athens S 1070
Temple at Corinth S 770
Temple on the Mountain} Ægina S 630
Jupiter Panhellenius }

Here we find the oldest temple in a spot which by common consent is the very cradle of Greek civilisation.

It has also been shown that in Khu-en-Aten's time the sun-temple at Tell el-Amarna was oriented to Spica. Spica, too, we find so used in Greece in the following temples:--

B.C.
Spica The Heræum at Olympia R 1445
Nike Apteros Athens S 1130
Themis Rhamnus R 1092
Nemesis Rhamnus R 747
Apollo Bassæ R 728 Eastern doorway.
Diana Ephesus R 715

When the sun at the spring equinox had left Taurus and entered Aries, owing to precession, in Egypt the equinoxes were no longer in question, since the solstitial year was thoroughly established, and consequently we find no temples to the new warning star α Arietis.

In Greece, however, where the vernal equinox had now been established as the beginning of the year, we find a different state of things. No less than seven temples oriented to α Arietis are already known:--

B.C.
α Arietis Minerva Tegea R 1580
Jupiter Olympius Athens R 1202
Jupiter Olympia R 790
Temple (perhaps Juno) Platea S 650
Jupiter Megalopolis S 605
Temple at the Harbour Ægina S 580
Temple on Acropolis of Mycenæ R 540 Eastern doorway.
The Metroum Olympia S 360

The above are all intra-solstitial temples--that is, the sunlight as well as the light of the star can enter them--and this enables us to note a certain change of thought brought about in all probability by the artistic spirit of the Greeks. The Egyptian temples were all dark, often with a statue of a god or a reptile obscure in the naos, and many were oriented so that sunlight never entered them. Mr. Penrose points out that almost all the Greek temples are oriented so that sunlight can enter them. Of such temples we have the following twenty-nine:--

7 examples from Athens.
3 " " Olympia.
2 " " Epidaurus.
2 " " Rhamnus.
2 " " Ægina.
2 " " Tegea.
1 " " Nemea.
1 " " Corcyra.
1 " " Sunium.
1 " " Corinth.
1 " " Bassæ.
1 " " Ephesus.
1 " " Platæa.
1 " " Lycosura.
1 " " Megalopolis.
2 " " Argos.

Now in all these Greek temples, instead of the dark naos of the Egyptian building, we find the cella fully illumined and facing the entrance. Frequently, too, there was a chryselephantine statue to be rendered glorious by the coloured morning sunlight falling upon it, or, if any temple had the westerly aspect, by the sunset glow.

It was perhaps this, combined eventually with the much later invention of water-clocks for telling the hours of the night, which led to the non-building of temples resembling those at Thebes and Denderah facing nearly north; of these, however, there are scattered examples; one of very remarkable importance, as it is a temple oriented to γ Draconis 1130 B.C., built therefore not very long after the temple M at Karnak, and this temple is at Bœotian Thebes! A better proof of the influence exerted by the Egyptians over the temple-building in Greece could scarcely be imagined. As Mr. Penrose remarks:--

"Thebes was called the City of the Dragon, and tradition records that Cadmus introduced both Phœnician and Egyptian worship."

It would be very surprising, if we assume, as we are bound to do, that these temples to stars were built under Egyptian influence, that Sirius should not be represented among them, that being the paramount star in Egypt at a time when we should expect to find her influence most important in Greece. Still, I have shown already that, as the Greek year ignored the solstice, the use of Sirius as a warning star for all purposes of utility would not come in. Mr. Penrose finds, however, that, in spite of this, Sirius was used for temple-worship.

"Leaving the solar temples, we find that the star which was observed at the great temple of Ceres must have been Sirius, not used, however, heliacally--although this temple is not extra-solstitial--but for its own refulgence at midnight. The date so determined is quite consistent with the probable time of the foundation of the Eleusinian Mysteries, and the time of the year when at its rising it would have crossed the axis at midnight agrees exactly with that of the celebration of the Great Mysteries."

"It is reasonable to suppose that when, as in the case of Sirius at Eleusis, brilliant stars were observed at night, the effect was enhanced by the priests by means of polished surfaces."

Another question. Does the star follow the cult in Greece as it does in Egypt?

In Greece we find the following:--

"The star α Arietis is the brightest star of the _first sign of the Zodiac_, and would therefore be peculiarly appropriate to the temple of Jupiter. The heliacal rising of this star agrees both with the Olympieium at Athens and that at Olympia. There is a considerable difference in the deviation of the axes of these two temples from the true east; but this is exactly accounted for by the greater apparent altitude of Hymettus over the more distant mountain at Olympia.[186]

"The Pleiades are common to the following temples of Minerva--viz., the Archaic temple on the Acropolis, the Hecatompedon, and Sunium. In the two former it is the rising, the latter the setting star.

"There must have been something in common between the temples at Corinth, Ægina, and Nemea. The two last, at any rate, are reputed temples of Jupiter."

The Greek side of the inquiry becomes more interesting when the connection between the orientation of the intra-solstitial temples and the local festivals is inquired into; in Egypt this is all but impossible at present.

A temple oriented to either solstice can only be associated with the longest or with the shortest day; if the temple points to the sunrise or sunset at any other period of the year, the sunlight will enter the temple twice, whether it points to the sunrise or sunset place.

Now Mr. Penrose finds that in Greece, as in Egypt, the initial orientation of each intra-solstitial temple was to a star, and this would, of course, secure observations of the star and the holding of an associated festival at the same time of the year for a long period. But when the precessional movement carried the star away, they would only have the sun to depend on, and this they might use twice a year. It is possible, as Mr. Penrose remarks, that

"there would have been no reason for preferring one of these solar coincidences to the other, and the feast could have been shifted to a different date if it had been thought more convenient."

He goes on to add:--

"It would appear that something of this sort may have taken place at Athens, for we find on the Acropolis the archaic temple, which seems to have been intended originally for a vernal festival, offering its axis to the autumnal sunrise on the very day of the great Panathenaia in August.

"The chryselephantine statue of the Parthenon, which temple followed on the same lines as the earlier Hecatompedon (originally founded to follow the rising of the Pleiades after that constellation had deserted the archaic temple alongside), was lighted up by the sunrise on the feast to the same goddess in August, the Synæcia, instead of some spring festival, for which both these temples seem at first to have been founded.

"The temple at Sunium, already quoted for its October star-heralded festival to Minerva, was oriented also axially to the sun on February 21, the feast of the Lesser Mysteries."

I have had to insist again and again that in the case of the Egyptian temples the stated date of foundation of a temple is almost always long after that in which its lines were laid down in accordance with the ritual. No wonder, then, that the same thing is noticed in Greece.

"In about two-thirds of the cases which I have investigated the dates deduced from the orientations are clearly earlier than the architectural remains now visible above the ground. This is explained by the temples having been rebuilt upon old foundations, as may be seen in several cases which have been excavated, of which the archaic temple of Minerva on the Acropolis of Athens and the temple of Jupiter of Olympius on a lower site are instances. There are temples also of the middle epoch, such as the examples at Corinth, Ægina, and the later temples at Argos and at Olympia (the Metroum at the last-named), of which the orientation dates are not inconsistent with what may be gathered from other sources."

The problem is, moreover, helped in Greece by architectural considerations, which are frequently lacking in Egypt: of two temples it can be shown, on this evidence alone, that one is older than the other. Such an appeal strengthens my suggestion that two of the temples of the Acropolis Hill were oriented to the Pleiades, by showing the older temple to point to an earlier position of the star group. To these Mr. Penrose adds another pair at Rhanmus, where he has found that there are two temples almost touching one another, both following (and with accordant dates) the shifting places of Spica, and still another pair at Tegea.

INDEX.

A

=Aāhmes=, King, 339

=Abd el-Latîf=, 12

=Abu Shahrên=, 371

=Abu Simbel=, 16, 306

=Abydos=, mounds and temples at, 74, 99, 175, 214, 338, 393
sanctity of, 327

=Achernar=, 381

=Adytum.= _See_ Sanctuary

=Africa E.=, 373

=Agni=, god of fire, 7

=Ahura-Mazda or Ormuzd=, 6

=Air=, god of, 33

=Āk=, 176, 205

=Amada=, 311

=Amen=, confraternity of, 319
worship of, 189
temples dedicated to, 220, 222

=Amen-t=, Hathor Temple, 306
wife of Amen, 222
star symbol, 223

=Amen-Rā=, Hak of Pun-t, 347
obelisks to, 106
Southern worship, 319
temples of, 25, 75, 78, 99, 223, 351, 354
date of, 119
direction of axis of, 78
growth of, 188
restoration of,108
_See_ also Karnak

=Amenemhāt I.=, 77, 175, 338

=Amen-hetep I.=, 221

=Amen-hetep III.=, Mut Temple, 213
Karnak Temple B, builder of, 189
quarrel with Theban priests, 321

=Amen-hetep IV.=, date of, 321
conservatism of, 320
leaves Thebes, 321
builds Tell el-Amarna, 323

=Amenti=, 35

=Amplitude=, 46

=Amplitudes=, of temples, 59, 67, 170, 309
at Annu, 168
at Denderah, 168, 210
at Karnak, 47, 160, 168, 171, 189
tables of, 305, 306, 311, 312, 318

=Amru=, description of Egypt, 230

=Amsu.= _See_ Min

=An=, and god Anu, 363

=Anaximander=, 8

=Ancestors=, divine, 327

=Annu=, 74
grand priest of (title of Theban priest), 340
list of gods at, 329
Nile flood at, 226
obelisk and mounds at, 214, 316
temples at, 78, 94, 168, 175, 214, 309, 316, 326, 327
walls at, 76
worship at, 318, 319, 326, 359

=Antares=, symbolised by Serk-t, 329, 360
temples in Greece, 419

=Anu=, Babylonian, astronomical meaning for, 363, 365, 372, 377

=Anubis.= _See_ Set

=Ap=, god of the waters, 7

=Apet=, 290

=Apis=, bull, also Hapi, 229, 330, 396

=Apollinopolis Magna.= _See_ Edfû

=Argus= η, 374

=Aries=, first point of, 53

=Arietis= α, temples oriented to, Grecian, 420

=Armant=, Nile gauge at, 235

=Asari=, 372, 384

=Asti=, name of Thoth, 176

=Aswân=, nilometer at, 234, 235
distances of gauges from, 235
Nile flood, maximum time of, 240
to Rôda, Nile flood, rate of, between, 240

=Aten=, most ancient god, 321

=Athene=, temple of, 329

=Athens=, Parthenon at, propylæum of, 415

=Atmu=, Tmu, or Osiris, 25, 26, 295

=Axis= of temples, 169, 173
changes in, 163

=Azimuths=, 46

=Azimuth compass=, 67

B

=Baal=, hieroglyph for, 361, 362

=Baalbek=, structural origin, 92, 94, 367

=Babylonia=, ancient cities in, modern sites of, 86
Anu and Bīl, 365
kings of, 369
state of astronomy 300 B.C., 3
temple structures in, 367
unit of time in, 227
ziggurats, 367

=Bast=, symbolised star γ Draconis, 290

=Bear=, Great, represented by Thigh, 137, 146, 216
Little, represented by Jackal, 137, 146

=Bel=, temple of, 380

=Berenice=, road between Edfû and, 208

=Bêrôssus=, 381

=Bes=, 28, 368

=Bīl=, 363, 372, 377

=Bilfinger=, star tables, 409

=Biot=, ancient star places, calculation of, 129
Denderah, inscriptions, 139, 193
observing conditions in Egypt, 122
precessional globe of, 170
Ramesseum inscriptions, date of, 143
risings, heliacal, of Sirius, 200, 210, 249, 253, 254, 262

=Boeckh=, date of King Mena, 22

=Botta=, 87

=Bouriant=, 183, 220

=Boussard=, 111

=Brugsch=, Amen-Rā's ancestors, 355
book on calendars, 282
Denderah inscriptions, 141
date of Mena, 22
Rameses III., 221
Thothmes III, 189, 261
Usertsen I., 215
Edfû, temple at, alignment of, 179
Egyptian history, 344
furniture of sanctuaries, 112
Gîzeh-pyramids, 363
Hippopotamus, constellation, 216
Hyksos period, 339
inscription at Philæ, 261
Silsilis, 263
Karnak temple, 116
location of Pun-t, 348
pyramid, oldest, date of, 369
Sothic Cycle, 259
temple-foundations, 354

=Bubastis=, antiquity of, 82, 333
Isis temple at, 329

=Budge=, Dr. Wallis, 85, 208, 240

=Bull=, constellation of, pyramid period, 360, 403, 404

=Bunsen=, 22, 148, 384

C

=Cairo=, Nile flood, time of, 233, 240

=Calah=, ancient Nimrûd, 86

=Calendar=, Alexandrine reform, date of, 281
Egyptian, chief use of, 282

=Canopus=, decree of, 270

=Canopus= (α Argus), 280, 281
early observations, 312, 360
heralded autumnal equinox, 342
temples to, amplitudes of, 311

=Capella= observed at Annu, 316, 360
personified by Ptah, 318
temples to, amplitudes and dates, 312, 354

=Capricornus=, 372, 378

=Censorinus=, 267

=Centauri= α, temples to, 308, 351, 354, 360

=Chabas=, 173, 174

=Champollion=, 10, 11, 73

=Cheops.= _See_ Chufu

=Chephren=, 327, 346, 369

=China=, early astronomical observations, 4

=Chnemu=, 35, 384
Rā, 25, 319, 385, 389

=Chufu=, 12, 204, 336

=Churches=, architecture, Scott on, 96
orientation of, 96

=Colossi= at Thebes, 78

=Columbæ α.= _See_ Phact

=Compass=, Azimuth, 67

=Constellations=, early names for, 42, 133, 397, 399, 407
northern, called Set, 149

=Country=, double, meaning of, 345

=Cow= = Star Sirius, 218

=Crocodile=, variant of hippopotamus, 146

=Crown=, double, 345

=Cubit=, Babylonian, 370

=Cults=, change of, 300
origin of Egyptian, 371
northern and southern, 225

=Cycle=, Sothic, beginning of, 262

=Cynocephalus= ape from Pun-t, 348

D

=Dakkeh=, temple at, 341, 354

=Darkness=, gods of, 27, 28

=Dashûr=, blunted pyramid at, 233, 336

=Dawn=, flames of, Tefnut, 36
goddess of, Sechet, 31
gods, hymn to, 7
Isis, 29
names for, 7
representation of Nephthys, 31
risings at, 148

=Declination=, definition of, 45

=Declinations=, corresponding amplitudes, 170

=Delta=, Hawk-god of, 349

=Denderah=, example of second group of temples, 14
Hathor temple, 160, 193, 293, 319, 354
Isis temple, 193
date of, 197
oriented to Sirius, 304
inscriptions at, 141
meaning, 138, 173
Set worship at, 310
temples at, amplitudes, 168, 176
variants of Hathor in, 211
zodiacs of, 19, 134, 146

=Deodorus=, 12

=Dêr el-Bahari=, temple of, orientation of, 16, 212
cult of Hathor, 293
inscriptions at, 319, 348

=De Rougé.= _See_ Rougé

=Devas=, 6

=Djigan=, mounds at, 86

=Draco=, constellation of, forms of, 137, 146

=Draconis= γ, temples to, 310, 354

=Dubhe=, Āk refers to, 176, 203
Āk, meaning of, 176

=Dümichen=, antiquity of This, 327
building inscriptions, 173
Denderah temple, 204
Edfû, temple at, alignment of, 179
Hathor, cult of, 294
Put-Ser, meaning of, 178

=Dumuzi.= _See_ Tammuz, 372

=Dupuis=, 138, 143, 180, 379

=Dur Sarginu=, 86

=Dyaus=, 7

=Dynasties=, divine, 326

=Dyotanâ=, 7

E

=Ea.= _See_ Ía

=Earth=, axis of, 126
emblem of, 33
god of, 7
shape of, 8

=Ebers=, antiquity of This, 327
old roads to Red Sea, 208
Rôda nilometer, 235
the Denderah crypts, 204

=Ecliptic=, obliquity of, 53
pole of, Babylonian observations, 363
plane of, 52

=Edfû=, early temple at, 311, 360
festival calendar at, 282
Hawk-god of, 349
inscriptions at, temple axis, 173, 179, 284
month-table at, 275
names for Hathor, 211
road between Berenice and, 208
temple of, 14, 106, 181
date of, 363, 376
orientation of, 178, 179, 180

=Edkins=, Sun-temple at Pekin, 88

=El-Mamun=, 12

=Entenna=, 369

=Epacts= (or Epagomena), 247

=Epping=, 3, 407

=Equator=, pole of, Babylonian name for, 365

=Equinoxes=, 54, 57, 62
established in pyramid times, 329

=Eridu=, 371
colonisation of, 374, 385
god of, 372, 377

=Esne=, feast calendars of, 282
inscription at, 284

=Ethiopia=, early history of, 345
exile of Theban priests to, 340
return of Theban priests from, 340

=Eudoxus=, sphere of, 139

=Euphrates=, god sacred to, 229
rise of, 85, 230, 267

F

=Fayyûm=, pyramids, 339

=Fire=, god of, 7

=Fitz-Gerald=, agriculture in Africa, 273

=Flandin=, plans of Khorsabad, 87

=Foundation-stone=, laying of, 173, 175

=Foundations= of temples, table of dates of, 352
oldest in Egypt, 354

G

=Garstin=, Nile rising, average rate of, 240

=Gauges=, Nile, distances from Aswân, 235
heights above sea-level 236

=Gebel Barkal=, 221, 347
pyramids at, 356
temples at, 356

=Gîzeh=, cult at, equinoctial, 85, 359
pyramids of, 12, 82, 336, 363
temples at, 82, 287

=Globe=, to rectify the, 44, 130
precessional, 170

=Gnomon=, 63

=Goat-fish= in Babylonia, 377

=Gondokoro=, 238

=Grébaut=, discoveries at Dêr el-Bahari, 319

=Greece=, orientation of temples in. _See_ Chap. xxxviii. _passim_

=Green Water=, Nile, why it heralds the rise, 238

=Green and Red Nile=, difference of time between, 240

H

=Habenben.= _See_ Sanctuary.

=Hak=, of Pun-t, name for Amen-Rā, 347

=Hāpi=, god of Nile, 147, 229

=Harhouditi=, 349

=Harpocrates= (or Hor or Horus), 24, 26

=Harsiisit=, 349

=Harvest= festivals, 233, 319

=Hathor= = Isis, 210
= Isis = Mut = Methuer, 212
change of representation, 301
connection with hippopotamus, 216
form of, ordinary, 217
generic symbolisms, meaning of, 291
goddess from Pun-t, 347
local cult of, 294
= Mut, 214, 289
name of Sirius, 196
personification of, 210
present views of, 32
represented by Dubhe and γ Draconis, 205, 214
rising of, reference to, 194
southern worship, 349
symbol of, 216, 290, 293
temples of 160, 202, 210
amplitude of, 176, 193, 210
at Abu Simbel, 306
at Denderah, 293
at Dêr el-Bahari, 193, 293
various names for, 211
worshipped in pyramid times, 329

=Hāt-shepset=, queen, 106, 212
expedition to Pun-t, 349

=Heliopolis.= _See_ Annu

=Herodotus=, on temple of Tyre, 161

=Hieroglyphics=, decipherment of, 11

=Hind=, star-places, 170

=Hippopotamus=, connected with Hathor, 178, 216
constellation Draco, 137, 143, 146, 218
in pyramid times, 360
form of Taurt, 146
female, 216
hieroglyph for, 362
represents Mutât Thebes, 216
red, 362
variant of crocodile, 146
wife of Set, 146

=History= of Egypt, first blank in, 331, 337
second blank in, 339
north, first civilisation, 330

=Holy of Holies.= _See_ Sanctuary

=Hommel=, 377

=Horizon=, definition of, 40, 169

=Hor-shesu=, 57, 74, 150, 215, 376

=Horus= or Hor or Harpocrates, 26
= rising sun, 293
= S. Egypt, 345
god from Pun-t, 347, 392
god of the Hor-shesu, 58
hymn to, 26
laughing, 149
meaning of, 148, 149
Northern, 349
myth of, description of, 148-151, 378, 390
red, 149
Southern worship, 349
temple of, 180
and Set, 149
= Set, 149

=Hottentot Venus= in Pun-t, 348

=Hours= (12) of day and night, 342

=Hyksos= period, date of, 338, 339

I

=Ía=, 372, 397
Annu, and Bīl, triad, 372
father of Tammuz, 372
legend of, 381
representation of, 384, 397

=Ía-star=, 380

=Ideler=, heliacal risings, 121
length of year, 244

=India=, temples in, age of, 2

=Indra=, 7

=Inundation= of Nile, 233, 234

=Isis= = Hathor, 210, 217
= Mut = Hathor = Methuer, 212
change of representation, 301
form of, at Saïs, 329
generic symbolisms, 291, 293
mythology of, complete, 293, 388
name for Sirius, 196, 210
nursing Horus, meaning of, 292
pyramid temples, 293, 329
present ideas of, 29
temples of, amplitude of, 82, 206, 210
Denderah, 83, 193, 210
date of, 197

=Isis-Sati=, 218

=Isis-Sothis=, 217

J

=Jackal=, constellation of, 137, 143, 146, 361
of Set, 146

=Jensen=, Ía-star, 380
Kosmologie der Babylonier, 360, 396, 397, 405
pole of ecliptic, early Babylonian observations, 363
reference to "Jackal," 362
Scorpio, 405
sun-god, Tammuz, 372
Marduk, 397, 405
Tiāmat, 397
the god Ía, 372
zodiacal constellations, 400

=Jerusalem=, temples at, equinoctial, 92, 367

=Josephus=, temple at Jerusalem, 92

K

=Kahi=, revelation of, feast of, 282

=Kakau=, worship of Apis, 330

=Kali= = Koloë, 351

=Karnak=, inscriptions at, temple axis, 173
observations at, solstice, 117
orientation of, solstitial, 72
north star, 354
temples at, 14, 75
temples at, amplitudes of, 160, 168
date of, Mariette, 113
description of, 100, 102
Amen-Ra at, 78, 99
Amen-Rā, temple of, date of, 119
temple B, 187, 189
amplitude of, 189
temple L, 115, 183, 185
date of, 116, 184
amplitude of, 189
Brugsch on, 116
temple M, 115, 183
date of, 184
γ Draconis, 184
temple of Mut (X), 187, 188, 213
builder of, 189
temple of Ptah, 317, 354
temple of Spica, 313
temple T, amplitude of, 189
date of, 186
temple V, orientation, 308
temple W, 187

=Kemball=, Sir A.,
agriculture of E. Africa, 273

=Khem.= _See_ Min

=Khnum.= _See_ Chnemu

=Khons=, or Khonsu, connection with Canopus, 296
how represented, 223
personification of, 296
Southern worship, 349, 393
temple of, 182, 223, 224, 296
measures of, 185, 310

=Khons-lunus=, 29, 393

=Khorsabad=, mounds at, 36, 87

=Khu-en-Aten.= _See_ Amen-hetep IV.

=Kirk=, Sir John, on pile-dwellings in Central Africa, 348

=Koptos=, high road between Red Sea and, 208

=Kouyunjik=, mounds of, 86

=Krall=, quoted, 257, 263
change of signs, 269
festival calendar at Edfû, 282
king's reign, time of commencement, 259
length of year, 244
month Pachons, 284
mythology of the sun, 279
oldest month-list, 275
the week, 226

L

=Lanzoni=, variant for Hathor, 211
Chnemu, 384

=Latitude=, terrestrial definition of, 52
celestial, 52

=Lenormant=, 4

=Lepsius=, work on the monuments of Egypt, 73
date of Mena, 22
Eridu, 374
Karnak temples, 116, 187, 213, 306
Thothmes III., date of, 261
temple of Amen-Rā, 99
temple at Heliopolis, 75
the week, 226

=Letronne=, Denderah inscriptions, 138

=Leverrier=, 256

=Lion=, early Babylonian mythology, 402

=Lockyer=, W. J. S., calculation of star tables, 170

=Longitude=, celestial, 52
terrestrial, definition of, 52

=Luxor=, temple at, 166, 328

=Lyons=, Capt., R.E., measures at Annu, 76
Memphis, 317
Wady Halfa, 358

M

=Maāt=, relation to Rā, 32, 36

=Makrīzi=, Rôda nilometer, 235

=Marduk= = spring-sun, 373, 397
destroys winter gods, 377
myth of, 375
temple of, ceremony at, 366
and Tiāmat, myth of, 377, 378, 398

=Mariette=, Amen-Rā, temple of, growth of, 115, 188
Denderah temples, 193
Hyksos period, 339
Karnak temples, 113, 183, 184, 187
location of Pun-t, 348
Mena, date of, 337
modern Theban temples, 186
pyramids, 363, 369
Sothis, 212

=Masnitiu= or Masniu of Edfû, 349

=Maspero=, Baal worship at Memphis, 361
building of Annu, 77, 326
discoveries at Dêr el-Bahari, 319
divine dynasties, 392
the land of Pun-t, 347
length of year, 244
location of land of Pun-t, 347
origin of southern Horus, 349
priestcraft, 111
sanctity of Abydos, 327
Sirius in pyramid times, 209

=Max Müller=, age of Indian temples, 2
sunrise and sunset, 23
Vedas, 5

=Mazzaroth=, meaning of, 133

=Medînet-Habû=, 169
temples at, 163, 220
orientation dates, 221

=Mêdûm=, pyramid of, 335, 337

=Memphis=, Nile flood at, 226
pyramids of, 82, 83
temple of Sutech, 361
Baal, 361
Ptah, 248, 317
worship, 318

=Memphis= and Thebes, Nile flood, rate of, between, 240

=Mena= or Menes, 22, 230, 326
date of reign, 74, 115, 337
worship of Apis, 330

=Menthu=, 339

=Merchet= or Merech, 179

=Meridian=, astronomical, 69
magnetic, 70, 71

=Meröe=, 344, 347, 356

=Mestha=, god, 147

=Mesχet= = Thigh, q.v.

=Methuer= = Mut = Isis = Hathor, 212

=Midnight=, risings at, 148

=Min= or Khem, connection with Spica, 25, 297, 319
temple dedicated to, 297

=Moncrieff=, Sir Colin Scott, 117

=Months=, names for Egyptian, 233

=Moon-gods=, 28, 29, 389, 392, 393
Osiris representation, 137
worship, 379
stations, Egyptian equivalents, 37

=Mosul=, mounds of, 86

=Mul-lil=, 372

=Mut= = Hathor, 214
= Isis = Hathor = Methuer, 212
Hathor worship, 214
mistress of darkness, 344
represented by hippopotamus, 216
γ Draconis, 214
symbolised γ Draconis, 289, 290
temple of, 75, 182, 191, 294, 318
associated with Spica, 320
date of, 213, 214

=Myths=, Babylonian, 377
Egyptian and Babylonian, compared, 377
of Horus, 148, 390
of Marduk and Tiāmat, 375, 377, 378, 398

N

=Naga=, buildings at, 347

=Naos.= _See_ Sanctuary

=Napoleon's= expedition to Egypt, 10

=Naram-Sin=, king, date of, 369

=Naville=, Horus, myth of, 148, 153, 390

=Nebuchadnezzar II.=, ziggurat at Babylon, 367

=Nephthys=, 31, 35
in pyramid times, 329

=Nergal=, son of Ía and Duazag. 373
= spring sun, 373
= midsummer sun, 373

=Neshem=, 31

=New= year's day, variation in date of, 250

=Nigidius Figulus=, 248

=Nile= Flood, at Aswân, 240
at Cairo, 233, 240
rate of, 240
gauges, 235
gauge of, heights above sea-level, 236
at Armant, 235
at Aswân, 235
at Asyût, 235
at Suhag, 235
god sacred to, 229
inundation, effects of, 226, 232
red, 238
rise of, appearance of, 238
at Rôda, 237
average rate of, 240
description of, 241
festival of, 198
importance of, 228
indication of, 237
phenomena coincident with, 249
rate of, 240
warnings of, 239
green water at, why it heralds rise, 238
colour, origin of, 237
time of, rising, 85, 230

=Nilometer= at Aswân, 234

=Nimrûd=, mounds at, 86
modern Calah, 86

=Ninib=, sun-god, 375

=Nissen= on temple building, 173, 175

=Nubia=, mode of telling time at night, 342

=Nuri=, buildings at, 347, 356

=Nu-t= or Nu, 32, 33
double representation of 34
relation to Seb, 35

O

=Oannes.= _See_ Ía

=Obelisk=, at Annu, orientation of, 214, 326

=Obliquity= of ecliptic, values of, 113

=Observations= of stars daily as opposed to yearly, 341

=On.= _See_ Annu

=Oppolzer=, risings, heliacal of Sirius, 200, 249, 253, 268

=Orion=, constellation of, 137, 143

=Ormuzd= or Ahura-Mazda, 6

=Osborn=, the Nile, 232, 238

=Osiris= in Book of the Dead, 28, 35
hymn to, 26
mythology of, 296
representation of, 137
moon-god, 389
sunset-god, 25
southern worship, 349
temples of, 187
at Abydos, 338
bowls at, 248
direction of orientation, 82, 206, 393
Tmu or Atmu, 295
traced in Babylonia, 334, 377
= waning moon, 297

P

=Padoramen= priest, titles of, 340

=Palmyra=, temples at, equinoctial, 92, 94, 367

=Parthenon= at Athens, 164, 415, 416

=Parthey=, 216

=Patah.= _See_ Ptah

=Pekin=, sun temple at, 88, 89

=Penrose= on Greek temples, 98, and chap. xxxviii, _passim_

=Pepi=, King, date of, 207, 262, 337
restoration of Denderah, 204
temple foundations, 354

=Period=, Sothic, 256

=Petrie=, Flinders, on Stonehenge, 90
Mêdûm pyramid, 335, 337
Tell-el-Amarna, 323

=Phact= (α Columbæ), 82, 354, 360, 381

=Philæ=, Chnemu at, 384
inscription at, 261
Isis-Sati at, 218
temples at, 73
early to Canopus, 311, 360

=Pierret=, hieroglyph of hippopotamus, 362

=Pile= dwellings in Pun-t, 348

=Pisces=, 378

=Place=, on Assyria, 86

=Pleiades=, temples oriented to, in Greece, 419, 424

=Pompeii=, temple of Isis at, 320

=Precession=, cause of, 124, 126
effects of, 23, 123, 157
model illustrating, 125

=Priests=, Theban, hatred of Set, 319

=Prithivī=, earth god, 7

=Ptah=, connection with Capella, 296
in pyramid times, 329
god of Memphis, 153, 318
personification of, 296
temples of, 248, 296, 317

=Pun-t=, Hak of, 347
land of, 347
possibly in S. Africa, 348

=Put-ser=, meaning of, 174, 175, 178

=Pyramid= builders, 325
-building in 12th dynasty, 338
Isis temples at, 329
of Dashûr, 336
Gîzeh, 82
Mêdûm, 335, 337
Sakkarah, 333
oldest, 369
orientation of, 333
Step, age of, 369

Q

=Qebhsennuf=, 147

R

=Rā=, eyes of, 280
hymn to, 27
manifestation of, 111
meaning of, 194
sun-god, 25, 26, 35, 227

=Rā=--Tmu--Horus, hymn to, 26

=Rā-t=, symbol of, 290

=Rameses III.=, date of, 135, 184, 221
building of temple T, Karnak, 186
temple M, 115, 214

=Ramessids=, Thoth, sign of, in time of, 269
time of, year used, 263

=Ramesseum=, old month-table at, 141, 275

=Ranke=, 227

=Red= and Green Nile, difference of time between, 240

=Redisieh=, temple of, 208, 341
Set worship at, 310

=Refraction=, 48

=Renouf=, Le Page, 23

=Rhamnus=, temples oriented to Spica, 424

=Rig-Veda=, 38

=Right= ascension, definition of, 52

=Risings.= _See_ Stars and Sun

=Rôda=, nilometer at, 234
rise of Nile at, 237

=Rome=, St. Peter's, 96, 102

=Rosetta= Stone, 11

=Ross=, Col., R.E., 237, 241

=Rougé=, De, on Hor-Shesu, 150
Silsilis inscriptions, 263
Mêdûm pyramid, 336
manifestation of Rā, 111

S

=Saïs=, 82, 329

=Sakkarah=, step-pyramid of, 333, 337

=Samas=, 377

=Sanctuary=, 102, 340
illumination of, 106
darkness of, object of, 109

=Sargon I.=, King, date of, 360, 369, 403

=Sarzec=, M. de, discoveries at Tel-loh, 369

=Sati=, symbol of, 290

=Sayce=, Ann and Bīl, 364
Asari and Osiris, 384
Eridu, 371
Ía-star, 380
sun-god, Tammuz, 372, 393

=Scorpion=, constellation of, 143, 378, 399, 401, 403
known in pyramid times, 329, 360

=Scott=, Gilbert, on church architecture, 96

=Se-ānχ-ka-Rā's= expedition to land of Pun-t, 348

=Seb=, the god, 33, 35

=Sebak-Rā=, 25

=Sekhet=, goddess, 31
symbolised γ Draconis, 290
statues of, at Thebes, 290

=Semneh=, temple at, 311, 351

=Seneferu=, Dashûr pyramid, 336
King, title of, 346
Mêdûm pyramid, 335
temple foundations, 354

=Senti=, 174

=Sept=, 196

=Serk-t= = Antares and α Centauri, 358
in pyramid times, 329
symbol of, 290, 329

=Sesheta=, goddess, 29, 173, 175

=Set=, Sit, Sut, Typhon, Sutech, god of Darkness, 27, 145, 147
and Horus, 149
associated with γ Draconis, 302
conquered by Horus. _See_ Myth of Horus.
emblem of, 28, 148, 362
feast of, 283
form of, 361
hated by Theban priests, 319
jackal of, 146
N. Egypt, 345
symbolised by northern constellations, 149
temple at Tell el-Amarna, 324
at Annu, 326
temples absent in S. Egypt, 371
thigh of, 146, 147
wife of, 146, 216
worship of, 215, 344, 361, 377

=Seti II.=, 115, 185, 189, 223

=Shabaka=, 340

=Shesu-Hor=, 57, 74, 150, 215

=Shu=, 33, 36

=Silsilis=, inscriptions at, 263

=Sirius-Hathor=, 196, 212, 299
temples to, in Greece, 305, 422

=Sit.= _See_ Set

=Sky=, god of, 7, 33

=Smith=, George, on temple of Bel, 380

=Smith=, Robertson, on Mazzaroth, 133

=Sokhit= in pyramid times, 329

=Solstices=, 55, 57
determination of, 62 _et seq._
by Chinese, 63
relation to inundation, 234
summer, festival of, 198
temples oriented to, 78
and vague year cycle, 252

=Sothis=, Greek form of Sirius, q.v.

=Sowing=, season of, 233

=Sphinx=, object of, 82

=Spica=, associated with Mut temple, 320
observed at Thebes, 318
temples to, 313
in Greece, 419, 424

=St. Peter's=, Rome, 96, 102

=Stars=, apparent paths of, 41
how used to tell time at night, 343
non-rising at Thebes, 44
non-setting at Thebes, 44
northern, antiquity of worship of, 341
risings of, achronic, 121
cosmical, 121, 160
heliacal of Sirius, 121, 200, 209, 210, 249, 250, 254, 262
rising with sun, 60
risings at sunset, 148
settings, achronic, 121
heliacal, 121
table of, 314
southern, used in upper Egypt, 343
southern, worship of, as opposed to northern, 325
table of, 314

=Storms=, god of, 7

=Stonehenge=, 89, 90

=Strassmeyer=, 3, 407

=Suhag=, Nile gauge at, 235

=Sun=, course of, mythology of, 279
the midnight, 65
temples to, at solstices, 78
yearly path of, 53

=Sun-gods=, names for, 7, 373

=Sunlight=, god of, 33, 36

=Sunrise=, herald of, first star used, 277
in Greece, 416

=Sunset=, explanation of red colour of, 32
represented by Nephthys, 31

=Sut.= _See_ Set

=Sutech.= _See_ Set
god of Canaanites, 361
temple at Memphis, 361

=Syria=, invaders from, found 25th dynasty, 340

T

=Tables= of dates of foundations, 352
of stars, 20th dynasty, 408, 410

=Taharqa=, 187, 340

=Tammuz=, associated with Asari, 372
son of Ía, 372
son of Mul-lil, 372

=Tammuz-Nergal=, sun-god, 372, 374
son of Ía, 372
Mul-lil, 372

=Tanis=, decree of, 270
temple of, 82, 281, 329

=Taurus=, constellation of, 143, 378
in pyramid times, 329

=Taurt=, goddess, 28, 146, 302
mistress of darkness, 344
represented by hippopotamus, 146
symbol of, 216, 290
symbolised star γ Draconis, 290

=Tebha=, 145

=Tefnut=, 31, 36

=Tel Hakoab=, mounds at, 86

=Tell el-Amarna=, Spica temple, 313
temples at, 322, 419

=Temples= in Lower Egypt, as opposed to those in Upper Egypt, 341
series of, in Southern Egypt, 311
diversity of, due to different races, 315

=Tetramenes=, 272

=Teχi=, 223, 275

=Thebes=, amplitudes at, 47, 171
astronomical thought at, 324
two schools of, 325
city of Dragon in Greece, 422
first appearance of in Egyptian history, 331, 338
history of cults at, 320
month table at, 143
Nile flood, 240
rising of land about, 240
statues of Sechet, 290
temples at, amplitudes of, 156, 168, 309
of Amen Rā, 99
modern, 186
M, 213
solstitial, 78

=Thigh=, āk of, 176
(Mesχet), 179, 216
constellation, 137, 143, 302
in pyramid times, 360
of Set, 146, 147
represents Great Bear, 146

=This=, antiquity of, 327

=Thistleton-Dyer=, on Myrrh from Pun-t, 348

=Thoth= = Asti, 176
1st of, dates of, 268
festival of, 198
lunus, 29, 393
month of, sign of, 269
relation to Teχi, 275
sign of, in Ramessids' time, 269

=Thothmes I.=, 188

=Thothmes III.=, date of, 261
and the Theban priests, 321
Ptah temple, 354
Karnak, embellishments at, 112
restoration of temple of Amen-Rā, 108
temples at Medînet-Habû, 221

=Thoueris.= _See_ Taurt

=Tiāmat= and Marduk, myth of, 378, 398

=Tigris=, god sacred to, 229
inundation, time of, 85, 230, 367

=Tmu.= _See_ Atmu

=Tomes= on red hippopotamus, 362

=Totemism=, 215

=Triads=, 222

=Tuamāutef=, 147

=Tum.= _See_ Atmu

=Twilight=, representation of, Isis, 29
representation of, Nephthys, 31

=Typhon.= _See_ Set

=Tyre=, temple of, 161

U

=Unger=, date of Mena, 22

=Ur= of the Chaldees, 379

=Ursæ Majoris= α, temples to, 309, 341, 354, 360

=Usertsen I.=, 179, 221, 215
obelisk at Annu, 214, 338

=Ushas=, 7

=Utchats=, 280

V

=Varuna=, 7

=Vedas=, 4, 5, 6

=Virchow=, on race distinctions, 386

=Virey=, Dêr el-Bahari discoveries, 319
on cult of Aten, 321

=Vitruvius=, on temple orientation, 58

=Vyse=, Col. Howard, 12

W

=Wady Halfa= to Aswân, rate of Nile flood, 240
Capt. Lyons' work at, 358

=Wady Hammamāt=, 208

=Wakefield=, measurements at Karnak, 117

=Worship= of N. star, imported into Egypt, 370

Y

=Year=, anomalistic, 53
calendar, 246
definition of, 247
fixed, 251
length of, 251
length of, 244, 247
true, 250
fixed and vague, time of coincidence, 267
variation between, 252
great, Annus Magnus, 257
measure of length of, first, 110
new, indications, 247
sidereal, 53
Sirian, length of, 253
tropical, 53
vague, 251
beginnings of, 110
and solstice, cycle, 252
in time of Ramessids, 263

=Young=, Thomas, Rosetta stone, 11

Z

=Zend-Avesta=, 6

=Ziggurats=, erection of, 367

=Zodiac=, the signs of, 137

=Zodiacs=, of Denderah, 135, 146
discovery of, 18

PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] My lectures, given in November, 1890, were printed in _Nature_, April-July, 1891, under the title "On some Points in the Early History of Astronomy," with the following note:--"From shorthand notes of a course of lectures to working men delivered at the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, in November, 1890. The notes were revised by me at Aswân during the month of January. I have found, since my return from Egypt in March, that part of the subject-matter of the lectures had been previously discussed by Professor Nissen, who has employed the same materials as myself. To him, therefore, so far as I at present know, belongs the credit of having first made the suggestion that ancient temples were oriented on an astronomical basis. His articles are to be found in the _Rheinisches Museum für Philologie_, 1885."

[2] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient." p. 136.

[3] Hibbert Lectures, 1879.

[4] _See_ Rawlinson's "History of Egypt," Vol. II., p. 134, for references on this subject.

[5] "The temples of the gods ought to be so placed that the statue, which has its station in cella, should, if there be nothing to interfere with such a disposition, face the west; in order that those who come to make oblations and offer sacrifices may face the east.... When temples are built in the neighbourhood of a river, they should command a view of its banks, like the temples of Egypt upon the borders of the Nile."--_Vitruvius, Civil Architecture, Section I., Chapter V._

[6] _See_ Biot, "Études sur l'Astronomie Indienne," p. 293.

[7] _See_ Biot, "Sur divers points d'Astronomie ancienne: Mémoires, Académie des Sciences," 1846, p. 47.

[8] For a detailed account of the way in which the formula in use has been obtained, the reader had better turn to Vol. I., p. 253, of Chauvenet's "Spherical and Practical Astronomy."

If we denote the latitude by φ,

and let _p_ = the star's polar distance,
_a_ = " " right ascension,
Θ = sidereal time of observation,
_h_ = the star's altitude,
_t_ = " " hour angle;

then, knowing that

_t_ = Θ - _a_,

the formula may be written as follows:--

φ = _h_ - _p_ cos. t + ½{_p_²} sin. 1” sin. _t²_ tan. _h_.

The Nautical Almanac gives tables to facilitate the computations involved, but greater exactness is obtained by direct computation.

[9] Since I left Egypt, in February, 1893, Captain Lyons has been good enough to comply with my request to repeat the observations. I give the following extract from his letter:--

"The mounds are only within a degree, as it is only the general direction which can be taken.

South mound old temenos wall, 289½° mag. bearing = 19½° N. of W.
Wall at right angles 189° mag. bearing = 71° S. of W.

Going to the West mound there are two higher humps with an opening between them, tons of limestone chips, sandstone blocks with Rameses II.'s name; so that I take this for the site of the great pylon. It is exactly opposite the obelisk, and distant, I should guess, 600 yards.

Site of S. pylon to obelisk, 106½° mag. bearing = 16½° S. of E.
Pole of N. pylon to obelisk, 109½° mag. bearing = 19½° S. of E.

So I think probably the remaining obelisk is the northern one (_cf._ Horner, "Phil. Trans.," MDCCCLV., pp. 124 and 131), and the temple axis was directed 289½° mag. bearing with corr. 5½° = 284° = 14° N. of West true amplitude."

[10] Amenenemāt I., the founder of the sanctuary of the sun, entreats, after he has begun the great work (which was not finished till the time of his son, Usertesen), "May it not perish by the vicissitudes of time, may that which is made endure!" This desire of a great king which has come down to us through the leathern roll now preserved at Berlin, has not been fulfilled; for of his magnificent structure, built for all eternity, nothing remains but the obelisk we have seen, and a few blocks of stone scarcely worth mentioning. The Persian Cambyses is unjustly accused of having destroyed the temple and city of the sun, for the city was minutely described in detail long after his time, and the temple was still flourishing; nay, many remains of the sanctuary, that have now long since vanished, were described even by Arab authors.--Ebers, "Egypt," p. 190.

[11] "Ninive et l'Assyrie," par Victor Place. Imprimerie Imperiale, 1867.

[12] "Monument de Ninive," par Botta and Flandin. Imprimerie Nationale, 1849.

[13] From a magnetic chart which has been prepared for me by the kindness of Captain Creak, R.N., F.R.S., of the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, it seems that the variation at Nineveh and Babylon may be taken as follows:--

Nineveh. Babylon.
1800 8° 25′ W. 8° 25′ W.
1900 0° 0° 25′ W.

The values for intermediate dates may be roughly arrived at by an interpolation curve.

[14] "Journeys in North China," Williamson. Vol. II., chap. xvi., by Edkins. p. 253.

[15] "Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories," 1880, p. 20.

[16] Ferguson: "Rude Stone Monuments."

[17] _See_ especially "The Golden Bough," by J. G. Fraser, for the midsummer and Beltaine fires.

[18] "Antiquities," b. 8, c. 4, p. 401, Whiston's edition.

[19] Josephus, "Antiquities" III., c. 8, § 9.

[20] The italics are mine--J. N. L.

[21] "Antiquities" III., c. 8, § 9.

[22] Warren: "Underground Jerusalem."

[23] Acosta, in his "History of Indies," lib. vi., p. 459. quoted by Maurice ("Observations Connected with Astronomy and Ancient History and Ruins of Babylon"), states that some of the stones in the Mexican temples to sun and moon measure 38 feet by 18 feet by 6 feet.

[24] _See_ "Palmyra and Baalbek." R. Wood, 1827. Plates.

[25] On this point I gather the following information from the article "Orientation" in the "Grand Dictionnaire Universel du 19 Siècle," by M. Pierre Larousse:--"From the fifth century to the time of the Renaissance, the orientation of churches was generally carried out. The mystical reasons furnished by the sacred writers--according to St. John of Damascus and Cassiodorus--were that Jesus on the Cross had His face turned towards the West, hence Christians during prayer must turn to the East to see it. Further, in the sacred writings Jesus is called the East (_Oriens ex alto_). Again, Christians hope to see Christ descending in the East on the last day. Finally, the faithful when turning to the East during prayer establish a difference between themselves and the Jews and heretics, for the Jews when praying turn West, and certain heretics South, and others North, hence the heathen said they were sun-worshippers." In the ninth century there was a strong protest against orientation. Catholic churches were built any way, and it was said, "_Nunc oremus ad omnem partem quia Deus ubique est_."

[26] See _Builder_, Jan. 2, 1892.

[27] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 174.

[28] Inscription south side of obelisk quoted in "Records of the Past," Vol. XII. (Letter from Capt. Lyons).

[29] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 177.

[30] "Chrestomathie Égyptienne," Do Rougé, iii., p. 60.

[31] "Egyptian Archæology," English edition, p. 105.

[32] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 174.

[33] Brugsch, op. cit., p. 187.

[34] "Karnak. Étude topographique et archéologique."

[35] Mariette, _op. cit._, text, p. 2.

[36] "History" p. 175.

[37] Nissen in his important memoir does not refer to this hill; his conclusions, therefore, are not absolutely justified by the facts as he states them.

[38] "Œuvres de Volney," vol. v., p. 431.

[39] "Ptolemy Almagest VIII.," chap. vi.

[40] "Recherches sur l'année vague des Egyptiens," by M. Biot. Académie des Sciences 4th April, 1831.

[41] _I.e._, the stars which never set.

[42] Herodotus II., 44. (I am indebted to my friend Prof. Robertson Smith for this reference.)

[43] See _ante_, p. 111.

[44] For instance, in the line of sphinxes in front of temple X, shown in the folding plate inserted in Chap. XVIII., the line was left incomplete to preserve the fair-way of the ruined temple north of Y outside the _temenos_ wall.

[45] "Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels," 1877.

[46] "Rheinisches Museum für Philologie," 1885, p. 39.

[47] Quoted from Nissen, _op. cit._

[48] "Origine des Cultes," vol. i., p. 450.

[49] On this point I am permitted by Professor Maspero to print the following extract from a letter I received from him:--"Tous les temples ptolémaïques et la plus grande partie des temples pharaoniques sont des _reconstructions_. Ce que vous avez observé de Dendérah, est vrai d'Esnéh, d'Ombos, d'Assouan, de Philæ, etc. Or, si les premiers constructeurs d'un temple--ou chez nous d'une église--peuvent choisir presque à leur gré l'emplacement, et par suite l'orientation, la plus convenable, il en est bien rarement de même des _reconstructeurs_. Les maisons accumulées autour du temple les gênaient, d'ailleurs les habitudes du culte et de la population étaient prises; on rebâtissait le temple--comme d'ordinaire chez nous on rebâtit l'église--sur la même orientation et sur les mêmes fondations. J'ai constaté le fait à Kom-Ombo, où les débris du temple décoré par Amenhotpou I. et Thoutmosis III. sont orientés exactement comme ceux du temple ptolémaïque actuel, bâti sur les ruines du précédent. Vous avez donc le droit de dire, non seulement pour Dendérah, mais pour beaucoup d'autres temples, qu'ils ont été reconstruits sur l'orientation du temple qu'ils remplaçaient, quand même cette orientation ne répondait plus à la réalité des choses."

[50] Mariette, "Denderah," vol. i., p. 263.

[51] Mariette, _op. cit._, p. 142. Plutarch wrote in the first century A.D.

[52] Mariette, _op. cit._, p. 206.

[53] Mariette, _op. cit._, p. 142.

[54] Hathor is termed "La maîtresse du commencement de l'an." Mariette, _loc. cit._, p. 207.

[55] "Besides the solstice and the beginning of the Nile flood, there was an event in the sky which was too striking not to excite the general attention of the Egyptian priesthood. We also know from the newly-discovered inscriptions from the ancient empire that the risings of Orion and Sirius were already attentively followed and mythologically utilised at the time of the building of the pyramids."--KRALL.

[56] Brugsch, "Egypt," Edition 1891, p. 189.

[57] Ebers, "Egypt," p. 335.

[58] Mariette, pp. 168 and 178.

[59] Dümichen, "Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendera," p. 20.

[60] Mariette, p. 156.

[61] "Isis and Osiris," Parthey, cap. 56.

[62] Have we such instances of degradation in the cat replacing the lion and the black pig the hippopotamus, to give two instances?

[63] It has been assumed by several authorities in Egyptology that Sati is a variant for Sirius. It is quite certain that in late times there was a temple at Philæ oriented to Sirius; but there are many grounds for supposing that both Sati and Anuqa referred to special southern stars. There were several points of dissimilarity between Philæ (and Elephantine) and Thebes.

[64] Maspero, "Hist. Anc." xi. 10.

[65] "Monumental Egypt," chapter i.

[66] "Monumental Egypt," chapter i.

[67] The modern Egyptians still hold to the old months for irrigation. 7 Taba = January 15, is commencement of wheat irrigation; 30 Misra is the last safe date for sowing maize in the Delta; 1st Tut is the date of regulating the bridges = September 8 in Upper Egypt.

[68] "Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient," p. 72.

[69] "Chronologie," i., p. 70.

[70] _Op. cit._, p. 187.

[71] Krall, _loc. cit._, p. 20.

[72] Mommsen, "Chronologie," p. 258.

[73] "Studien zur Geschichte der Alten Aegypten," I. Wien, 1881.

[74] "Matériaux pour servir à la Reconstruction du Calendrier," p. 29.

[75] "Aeg. Zeit.," 1886, p. 5, quoted by Krall.

[76] It should be observed that a distinction is made between the Julian and the historical year. This comes from the fact that when astronomical phenomena are calculated for dates B.C., it must be remembered that chronologists are in the habit of designating by 1, or rather by-1, the first year which precedes the instant of time at which the chronological year commenced, while astronomers mark this year in their tables by 0. It follows, therefore, that the rank of any year B.C. is always marked by an additional unit in the chronological dates. For the Christian era, of course, chronologists and astronomers work in the same way. The following table, given by Biot, exhibits the connection between these two methods. In the latter Biot shows the leap-years marked B, and the corresponding years in the Scaligerian chronological period are also given.

DATES OF JULIAN YEARS COMMENCING ON JANUARY 1.

According to According to Corresponding
Chronologists. Astronomers. years of the period
of Scaliger.
-6 -5 4708
-5B -4B 4709
── ── ───
-4 -3 4710
-3 -2 4711
-2 -1 4712
-1B -0B 4713B
Physical instant when the era commenced.
+1 +1 4714
+2 +2 4715
+3 +3 4716
+4B +4B 4717B
── ── ───
+5 +5 4718

[77] _Loc. cit._, p. 29.

[78] Probably too great a value by two or three days.

[79] _Op. cit._, p. 48.

[80] Goodwin has already asked, "Does the Smith Papyrus refer to some rectification of the calendar made in the fourth dynasty, similar to that made in Europe from the old to the new style?" Quoted by Riel, "Sonnen-und Sirius-Jahr," p. 361.

[81] On the 7th Epiphi of the tenth year of Ptolemy III. the ceremony of the stretching off the cord took place. Dümichen, _Aeg. Zeit._, 2, 1872, p. 41.

[82] _Op. cit._, p. 37.

[83] Dümichen, "Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendera," p. 20.

[84] Brugsch thus translates one of the inscriptions:--"Horus in weiblicher Gestalt ist die Fürstin, die Mächtige, die Thronfolgerin und Tochter eines Thronfolger. Ein fliegender Käfer wild (sie?) geboren am Himmel in der uranfänglichen Stadt (Denderah) zur Zeit der Nacht des Kindes in seiner Wiege. Es strahlt die Sonne am Himmel in der Dämmerung, wann ihre Geburt vollbracht wird." Brugsch, "Astron. Inscript.," p. 97.

[85] In this and the following tables the dates connected with the heights of hills where they are known are given in heavy type. Where the local conditions are unknown, hills 1° high have been assumed.

[86] With regard to the temple A of Lepsius, it may be stated that in the time of the Ptolemies it received considerable and curious enlargements and embellishments which make it unique among Egyptian temples.

[87] Baedeker, "Ober-Aegypten," p. 320.

[88] New Gîzeh Catalogue, p. 61.

[89] Brugsch, "Religion und Mythologie," p. 111. Pierret, "Salle Historique de la Galerie Égyptienne" (du Louvre), p. 199.

[90] "Notices des Principaux Monuments Exposés au Musée de Gîzeh," p. 260. (1893.)

[91] The little temple of Isis at Pompeii and the associated frescoes in the Naples Museum are well worth careful study, especially with regard to the arrangements made for the stellar observations (and their final stoppage by the drastic proceeding referred to in the text), and the evolution of Horus in Greek times. The Hippopotami are most carefully drawn.

[92] Gîzeh Catalogue, 1893, p. 63.

[93] Professor Flinders Petrie has been good enough to send me his recent measurements. They justify those obtained from Lepsius' plan.

[94] Brugsch, "Egypt," 1891, p. 220.

[95] Ebers and Dümichen, in Baedeker's "Ober-Aegypten," p. 59.

[96] _Op. cit._, p. 21.

[97] That is, if we take the temple as oriented originally to α Ursæ Majoris.

[98] No sun temple is closely associated with the Set temples either at Luxor or Abydos, and one on the Annu model would not be so associated, for a right angle would carry its axis outside the ecliptic limits.

[99] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 64.

[100] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 44, note.

[101] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 64.

[102] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 46.

[103] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 41.

[104] "Bubastis," preface, p. iv.

[105] There are, however, notable exceptions to this rule, which will be discussed further on.

[106] "Mêdûm," chap. i.

[107] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 59.

[108] Further, it is known that there was some connection between Pepi-Meri-Rā and the eleventh dynasty of Thebes. Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 91. And it must also be mentioned that in the later pyramids "texts" are introduced.

[109] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 112.

[110] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 112.

[111] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 113.

[112] It is worthy of inquiry whether the northern star so observed is not the true Nephthys (Nebt-het). If so, the triad Nephthys, Isis and Horus represents daily astronomical observations.

[113] Rawlinson, i. 337.

[114] "Egypt under the Pharaohs," ed. 1891, p. 3.

[115] Brugsch, "History," p. 6.

[116] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne," p. 59.

[117] _Idem_, p. 63.

[118] Rawlinson, ii., p. 134.

[119] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne," p. 5.

[120] Brugsch, "History of Egypt," 1891, p. 54.

[121] Mariette, "Dêr el-Bahari," p. 31. Mr. W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, the director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, agrees in this view. He permits me to print the following extract from a letter written to me:--"The only positive fact that I can deal with is the representation in the pictures of a small scrubby tree, which seems to have been about four feet high. It appears to have yielded a gummy or resinous exudation from its trunk. Mariette supposes this to be myrrh. Pount to be Somali-land, and To Nuter the Socotran Archipelago. All this fits in very well with botanical facts. Myrrh-producing plants exist both in Somali-land and Arabia, and also in Socotra, as ascertained by Bayley Balfour. The two former places still are, as they always have been, the place of origin of myrrh, and we know that it was largely used by the Egyptians in embalming. There is no evidence that myrrh, or anything in any way resembling it, was ever found south of the Equator. I cannot carry you further south than Berbera."

[122] On this point I am permitted to print the following extract from a letter received from my friend Sir John Kirk, K.C.B.:--"I send you a photo, taken in 1858, in the delta of the Zambezi, of a house built on high poles. The people there live in such houses. There is a ladder by which they mount, and all their belongings are kept above. Such houses I have since seen at the mouth of the River Rufiji, opposite the island of Monfia, to the south of Zanzibar. The reason in both cases for such a type of house is that the country at one time is flooded, and also to avoid mosquitoes. Similar structures are used, I am told, in Madagascar. At Lake Nyassa I believe there are village communities living in the lake, on artificial islands of piles."

[123] Rawlinson, ii., p. 131.

[124] "L'Anthropologie," 1891, No. 4.

[125] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 184.

[126] Inscription of Thothmes III., translated by Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 188.

[127] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 184.

[128] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 180.

[129] For plans, _see_ Lepsius, vol. ii., p. 130.

[130] For plans, _see_ Lepsius, vol. ii., pp. 133 and 134.

[131] For plans, _see_ Lepsius, vol. ii., pp. 125 and 127.

[132] There is a point of great interest here. It would seem from Captain Lyons' examination of the temples at Wady Halfa, which I make out to have been oriented to α Centauri, that when the two races were amalgamated in later times, both the stars to which I have referred as heralding the equinox were personified by the same goddess, Serk-t.

[133] Besides the book on omens we have "The observations of Bel," or "Illumination of Bel" (Mul-lil), seventy-two books dealing with conjunctions of Sun and Moon, phases (?) of Venus, and appearance of comets. (Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," p. 29.) The complete materials for the study of Babylonian and Assyrian astronomy cannot be available until the catalogue of the Kouyunjik Collection, now in course of publication by the British Museum, is finished.

[134] Rawlinson, vol. i., p. 316.

[135] Maspero, "Histoire Ancienne," p. 165.

[136] Pierret, "Le Panthéon Égyptien," p. 48. I have before referred to a doubt on this point.

[137] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 357.

[138] "Le Panthéon Égyptien," p. 4.

[139] "Kosmologie der Babylonier," p. 147.

[140] "Proc. Zool. Soc.," 1850, p. 160.

[141] Dr. Wallis Budge informs me that An was an old name of the sun-god.

[142] Rawlinson, vol. ii., p. 64.

[143] "Kosmologie der Babylonier," p. 147.

[144] Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," 1887, p. 193.

[145] Sayce, p. 193.

[146] Jensen, p. 149.

[147] Sayce, p. 439.

[148] Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," p. 190.

[149] Sayce, p. 280. There is a bas-relief in the British Museum showing this ceremonial.

[150] Sayce, p. 101.

[151] _See_ "Guide to the British Museum," p. 71.

[152] Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 33. Flinders Petrie, _Nature_, Aug. 9, 1883, p. 341.

[153] Sayce, _op. cit._, p. 135.

[154] One gets the idea, from reading Professor Sayce's work, that there might have been in the earliest times a north-star-worshipping race up the valley before Ía and Sun and Moon worship were established at Eridu; and that the addition of Ía to the Bīl-Anu-worship to make one triad, and the addition of Bīl to the Ía-Asari-worship to make another, were both compromises. See Sayce, pp. 320, 347, 400.

[155] Prof. Sayce has been good enough to inform me that he is of opinion that Marduk or Merodach was originally a local god of Babylon, and that he was identified with the son of Ea when a colony came to Babylon or founded that city, bringing with it the culture and theology of the south. In this way the sun-god of Babylon became confounded with the sun-god of Eridu. I should add that Assyriologists are not all agreed about the transitions to which I have referred.

[156] I owe to the kindness of Sir Arnold Kemball, K.C.B., the perusal of a valuable report on the agriculture of British East Africa, prepared for him by Mr. W. W. A. Fitz-Gerald. He has permitted me to print the following abstract:--"The whole of the eastern coast is affected in a greater or lesser degree by the S.W. and N.E. monsoons. The following notes deal only with the extent of coast-land lying opposite and to the north of Zanzibar and Pemba islands. The agricultural seasons on the coast-lands are two in number, and correspond with the advent of the N.E. and S.W. monsoons respectively. They are distinguished locally as the 'greater rains,' or 'Masika M'Ku;' the 'lesser rains,' or 'Masika M'dogo.' The greater rains inaugurate the most important cultivating season, commencing in March with the S.W. monsoon. Some years the sowing commences as early as the 7th, but generally speaking the average period may be given as beginning from the middle of the month, and by the first week in April all sowings of Indian corn, rice and 'mfmah' (Millet or Sorghum vulgare), the chief and staple food-stuffs of the people, are generally finished, though sowings may continue till the end of April. The heaviest fall of rain occurs in April and May, and the rain continues with gradually diminishing force to September. _Harvest_ takes place in July and August, and once the grain is off the field the land is immediately cleared and prepared for sowing, in anticipation of the coming of the 'lesser rains' in _October_. The season of the lesser rains is chiefly the time for the cultivation of Gingelly oil seed, beans, and such other lesser food-stuffs. The season of the 'lesser rains' is deemed more uncertain and less to be depended upon, and the rainfall is decidedly very much smaller in comparison. The 'lesser rains' practically end in November, for though the wind continues steadily from the N.N.E., the rainfall in December, January, and February is slight and uncertain, and it is during these three months, especially the two last, that the greatest heat prevails. The influence of the monsoons is considerably less than on Zanzibar Island, and the difference of rainfall may be put down as about 20 to 30 inches."

[157] Introduction to "Nubische Grammatik," 1880.

[158] Just in the same way that the Equinoctial Pyramid cult gave way in Egypt, dominated by the rise of the Nile at the solstice.

[159] I shall show subsequently that a similar change seems also to have been made at Thebes. Amen-Rā, the Summer Sun-god, was a late invention.

[160] Jensen, pp. 195-198.

[161] Sayce, p. 131.

[162] The italics are mine.--J. N. L.

[163] Professor Sayce also tells me that Asari was subsequently identified by the Semitic Babylonians with Merodach.

[164] "Egypt's Place," vol. i., p. 377.

[165] Rawlinson's "Ancient Egypt," vol. i., p. 328.

[166] Lanzoni also states that Amen-Rā sometimes appears with the four heads of the goat, once special to Chnemu, q.v.

[167] Lanzoni, p. 692.

[168] Rawlinson, vol. i., p. 371.

[169] Naville, "Mythe d'Horus," p. 8.

[170] "Mythe d'Horus," p. 7.

[171] "Mythe d'Horus," p. 7.

[172] "Hist. Anc.," p. 33.

[173] "Hibbert Lectures," p. 155.

[174] In modern German, even, the Moon is masculine and the Sun feminine.

[175] Maspero, _op. cit._, p. 14.

[176] _Annu_ and _An_ (Denderah): (? "la grande Tribu des Anou" of Maspero?)

[177] _Op. cit._, p. 315.

[178] I think I am right about the Tortoise, for I find the following passage in Jensen, p. 65, where he notes the absence of the Crab:--"Ganz absehend davon, ob dasselbe für unsere Frage von Wichtigkeit werden wird oder nicht, muss ich daran erinnern, das unter den Emblemen, welche die sogenannten 'Deeds of Sale' häufig begleiten, verschiedene Male wie der Scorpion so die Schildkröte abgebildet gefunden wird."

[179] According to a communication of Dr. Tetens, Aldebaran rose heliacally at the beginning of spring for Babylon 6900 years ago.

[180] With regard to these legends Jensen writes: "Now it is remarkable that the oldest historical king about whom the Babylonians know anything, Sargon of Agadi (?) is said to have lived about 3750 B.C.--_i.e._, 5639 years ago--and that his son is called Narām-Sīn = 'favourite of Sīn,' the moon-god. And if we bear in mind that the zodiac with its signs plays into the Babylonian legends of creation, and that the Hebrew cosmogonic legends are derived from these, it is for us even more remarkable that the Jews place the creation of the world 5649 years ago, however much the figures derived from the Bible, according to other computations and traditions, may depart therefrom. Whether this is accidental or not, I do not profess to judge."

[181] "Astronomisches aus Babylon," pp. 117-133.

[182] "Die Sterntafeln in den ägyptischen Konigsgräbern von Bibân el-Molûk," von Gustav Bilfinger (p. 69).

[183] In the lists of temples which follow, all the orientations were obtained from azimuths taken with a theodolite, either from the sun or from the planet Venus. In almost every case two or more sights were observed, and occasionally also the performance of the instrument was tested by stars at night. The heights subtended by the visible horizon opposite to the axes of the temples were also observed.

[184] _See_ _Nature_, February 25, 1892, and May 11, 1893.

[185] R indicates a rising, and S a setting observation.

[186] With regard to a temple of Minerva using α Arietis at Tegea, Mr. Penrose writes:--"Minerva is allowed by the poets to have been able to use Jupiter's thunder, so this is no misappropriation of the star. Juno also seems to have claimed the use of α Arietis as at Samos, and at Girgenti it suits the orientation of the temple of Juno better than Spica. But Spica seems to have been connected with the worship of Juno and Diana in their more strictly female capacity."