Chapter XIV: The Form-World of Economic Life (5)

[430] Classical man receives, in states of extreme bodily excitation, the power of unconsciously predicting future events. But these visions are completely unliterary. The Classical Sibylline books (which have no connexion with the later Christian works bearing that name) are meant to be nothing more than a collection of oracles.

[431] See p. 73.

[432] IV Ezra xiv; S. Funk, _Die Entstehung des Talmuds_, p. 17; Hirsch’s commentary on Exodus xxi, 2.

[433] Funk, op. cit., p. 86.

[434] For example, Ed. Meyer, _Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ._, p. 95.

[435] In the West, Plato, Aristotle, and above all Pythagoras were regarded as prophets in this sense. What could be referred back to them, was valid. For this reason the succession of the heads of the schools became more and more important, and often more work was done in establishing--or inventing--them than was done upon the history of the doctrine itself.

[436] Fromer, _Der Talmud_, p. 190.

[437] We to-day confuse _authorship_ and _authority_. Arabian thought knew not the idea of “intellectual property.” Such would have been absurd and sinful, for it is the _one_ divine Pneuma that selects the individual as vessel and mouthpiece. Only to that extent is he the “author,” and it does not matter even whether he or another actually writes down the material. “The Gospel _according to_ Mark” means that Mark _vouches for_ the truth of this evangel.

[438] On the pseudonyma and anonyma of Biblical apocryphal literature the English reader will find much of interest in three small books (already referred to) of the “Home University” series: Moore, _Literature of the Old Testament_; Charles, _Between the Old and the New Testaments_; and Bacon, _The Making of the New Testament_.--_Tr._

[439] See p. 73.--_Tr._

[440] Vendidad 19, 1; here it is Zarathustra who is tempted.

[441] M. J. ben Gorion, _Die Sagen der Juden_ (1913).

[442] It is reasonable to suppose that he must through oral tradition have had a very accurate knowledge of the fundamental doctrines of the John Gospel. Even Bardesanes (d. 254), and the “Acts of St. Thomas” that originated in his circle, are very far removed indeed from Pauline doctrines, an alienation that in Mani rose to downright hostility and to the historical Jesus’s being described as an evil demon. We obtain here a glimpse into the essence of the almost subterranean Christianity of the East, which was ignored by the Greek-writing churches of the Pseudomorphosis and for that reason has hitherto escaped the attention of Church history. But Marcion and Montanus also came from eastern Asia Minor; here originated the Naasene book, basically Persian, but overlaid first with Judaism and then with Christianity; and further east, probably in the Matthew monastery of Mosul, Aphrahat wrote, about 340, those strange epistles whose Christianity the Western development from Irenæus to Athanasius left wholly unaffected. The history of Nestorian Christianity, in fact, was already beginning in the second century.

[443] For the later writings of (for example) Tertullian and Augustine remained wholly without effect save in so far as they were translated. In Rome itself even, Greek was the true language of the Church.

[444] See p. 177.--_Tr._

[445] The Faustian monk represses his evil will, the Magian the evil substance in himself. Only the latter is dualistic.

[446] The purity- and food-laws of the Talmud and the Avesta cut far deeper into everyday life than, for example, the Benedictine rule.

[447] Asmus, “Damaskios” (_Philos. Bibl._, 125 (1911)). Christian anchoritism is _later_ than pagan: Reitzenstein, “Des Athanasius Werk über das Leben des Antonius” (_Sitz. Heid. Ak._ (1914), VIII, 12).

[448] Even to the point indicated in Matt. xix, 12, which Origen followed to the letter.

[449] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Qaraites.” The outlook of these Protestants so resembled that of the Western Protestants that their name was used as a term of contempt for the latter by the Catholics, and not greatly resented. It is significant also that this movement in Jewry almost coincided in date with the vaster Reformation of Islam.--_Tr._

[450] The followers of Baal Shem above mentioned (p. 228) not to be confused with the Hasidim or Assideans of the second century.--_Tr._

[451] Wissowa, _Religion und Kulturs der Römer_, p. 493; Geffcken, pp. 4, 144.

[452] This is the metaphysical basis also of the Christian image-worship, which presently set in and of the appearance of wonder-working pictures of Mary and the Saints.

[453] See p. 60.

[454] The Nestorians protested against Mary _Theotokos_ (she who bore God), opposing to her the concept of Christ the _Theophorus_ (he who carried God in him). The deep difference between an image-loving and an image-hating religiousness is here clearly manifested.

[455] Note the “Western” outlook on the substance-questions in the contemporary writings of Proclus--his double Zeus, his triad of πατήρ, δύναμις, νοήσις or νοητόν, and so forth (Zeller, _Philosophie der Griechen_, V, pp. 857, et seq.). Proclus’s beautiful “Hymn to Athene” is a veritable Ave Maria:

“But when an evil lapse of my being puts me into bondage
(And, ah, I know indeed how I am tossed about by many unholy deeds
that in my blindness I have done),
Be thou gracious to me, thou gentle one, thou blessing of mankind,
And let me not lie upon the earth as prey to fearful punishments,
For I am, and I remain, thy chattel.”

(Hymn VII, Eudociæ Aug. rel. A. Ludwich, 1897.)

[456] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Apollinaris, the Younger.”--_Tr._

[457] And Russia, too, though hitherto Russia has kept it as a buried treasure.

[458] The Christian missionary efforts of the West very generally followed the same method, maintaining the local places of prayer, and merely substituting crucifixes or relics for the idols. Gregory the Great even sanctioned the sacrifice of animals in Britain.--_Tr._

[459] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., art. “Khazars.”--_Tr._

[460] The Albigensian movement of the twelfth century.--_Tr._

[461] Hermann, _Chines. Geschichte_ (1912), p. 77.

[462] A third, “contemporary,” movement should follow in the Russian world in the first half of the coming millennium.

[463] Cf. pp. 3, et seq. and foot-note p. 3.

[464] See p. 116.

[465] “He who loves God with inmost soul, transforms himself into God” (Bernard of Clairvaux).

[466] For religious _thought_ Destiny is always a causal quantity. Epistemology knows it, therefore, only as an indistinct word for causality. Only so long as we _do not_ think upon it do we really know it.

[467] See p. 25.

[468] The distinction between the two is one of _inner_ form. A sacrifice made by Socrates is at bottom a prayer; and generally the Classical sacrifice is to be looked upon as a _prayer in bodily form_. The ejaculated prayer of the criminal, on the contrary, is a sacrifice to which fear drives him.

[469] And herein philosophy differs not in the least from soil-sprung folk-belief. Think of Kant’s category-table with its 3 × 4 units, of Hegel’s method, of Iamblichus’s triads.

[470] See p. 133.

[471] Cf. p. 24.

[472] And even so the thought has a different disposition according as it is primitive or cultured; Chinese, Indian, Classical, Magian, or Western; and even German, English, or French. In the last resort, there are not even two individuals with exactly the same method.

[473] Anatole France’s story _Le Jongleur de Notre Dame_ is something deeper than a beautiful fancy.--_Tr._

[474] See p. 33.

[475] Was it that highly civilized Crete, the outpost of Egyptian modes of thought, afforded a pattern (see p. 87)? But, after all, the numerous local and tribal gods of the primitive Thinite time (before 3000), which represented the numina of particular beast-_genera_, were essentially different in meaning. The more powerful the Egyptian deity of this preliminary period is, the more particular individual spirits (_ka_) and individual souls (_bai_) he possesses, and these hide and lurk in the various animals--Bastet in the cat, Sechmet in the lion, Hathor in the cow, Mut in the vulture (hence the human-formed _ka_ that figures behind the beast-head in the figures of the gods)--making of this earliest world-picture a very abortion of monstrous fear, filling it with powers which rage against man even after his death and which only the greatest sacrifices avail to placate. The union of the North and the South lands was represented by the common veneration of the Horus-falcon, whose first _ka_ resided in the Pharaoh of the time. Cf. Eduard Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, §§ 182, et seq. [See also Moret and Davy: _Des clans aux empires_ and Moret: _Le Nil et la civilisation égyptienne_ (available in English translations).--_Tr._]

[476] _Eumenides_, 126.

[477] Moreover, in the full maturity of Athens, every little girl of the upper classes was consecrated as a bear to this Artemis.--_Tr._

[478] For further information the reader may consult the articles “Demeter,” etc., in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.; and, for a suggestive introduction in the fewest possible words, Dr. Jane Harrison’s pamphlet, _Myths of Greece and Rome_.--_Tr._

[479] Bernoulli, _Die Heiligen der Merowinger_ (1900)--a good account of this primitive religion.

[480] For an account of Russian sectarian movements see A. P. Stanley, _Hist. of the Eastern Church_; for a summary, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 886.--_Tr._

[481] Kattenbusch, _Lehrb. d. vgl. Konfessionsk._, I (1892), pp. 234, et seq.; N. P. Milyukov, _Skizz. russ. Kulturg._ (1901) II, pp. 104, et seq.

[482] Borchardt, _Reheiligtum des Newoserrê_, I (1905). The Pharaoh is no longer an incarnation of godhead, and not yet, as the theology of the Middle Kingdom was to make him, the son of Re; notwithstanding all earthly greatness, he is small, a servant, as he stands before the god.

[483] Erman, “_Ein Denkmal memphitsiche Theologie_,” _Ber. Berl. Ak._ (1911), pp. 916, et seq.

[484] Not, of course, to be connected in any profound sense with that which emerged under the name in the Magian Culture.--_Tr._

[485] And because they were the gods of the eternal peasant, they outlived the Olympians.

[486] Even though Hesiod is two centuries nearer to the source of his Culture than the German mystic is to that of our own. See the article “Boehme,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[487] Insolent prosperity tempting Nemesis.--_Tr._

[488] The work of J. J. Bachofen in this field has recently been assembled in concentrated form under the title _Mythus von Occident und Orient_ (1926).--_Tr._

[489] Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 41. What has been said above (p. 191) concerning the Talmudic religion applies also to the Etruscan religion by which all Italy--i.e., no less than half of the Classical field--was so deeply influenced. It lies outside the province of both the conventional “Classical” philologies and in consequence has been practically ignored, as compared with the Achæan and Doric religions. In reality (as its tombs, temples, and myths prove), it forms with them a single unit of spirit and evolution.

[490] It is immaterial whether or not Dionysus was “borrowed” from Thrace, Apollo from Asia Minor, Aphrodite from Phœnicia. It is the fact that out of the thousands of alien motives these particular few were chosen and combined in so splendid a unity that implies the fundamental newness of the creation--just as does the Mary-cult of the Gothic, although in that case the whole form-material was taken over from the East.

[491] As in De Groot’s _Universismus_ (1918), where, in fact, the systems of Taoists, Confucians, and Buddhists are handled without a qualm as _the_ religions of China. This amounts to the same as saying that the Classical religion dates from Caracalla.

[492] Conrady, in Wassiljew, _Die Erschliessung Chinas_ (1909), p. 232; B. Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I (1919).

[493] The Shu-Ching or Canon of History is a collection of ancient annals, the Shi-King a canonical anthology of rhymed tales made by Confucius.--_Tr._

[494] Conrady, _China_, p. 516.

[495] Of which an outstanding example is the Edda.--_Tr._

[496] See article “Heliand” in _Ency. Brit._, XI edit., and works there referred to. A handy edition of the text is included in the “Reclam” series.--_Tr._

[497] This idea differs essentially from that of the Egyptian duality of the spiritual _ka_ and the soul-bird _bai_, and still more so from the Magian duality of soul-substances.

[498] O. Franke, _Studien zur Gesch. des Konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), p. 202.

[499] Reference may again be made to Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.--_Tr._

[500] Consider, for example, the fantastic paintings of Hieronymus Bosch. Breughel’s similar humour, too, is unthinkable without the tradition of a rank-and-file of evil creatures.--_Tr._

[501] So also in the Classical, the Homeric figures were for educated people of Hellenistic times nothing but literature, representation, artistic motive. Even for Plato’s period they were little more than this. But in 1100 B.C., Demeter and Dionysus were a fearful actuality before which men collapsed.

[502] The stern object of Roger Bacon’s science; see p. 502, foot-note.--_Tr._

[503] This is the real conclusion that emerges from Burdach’s _Reformation, Renaissance, Humanismus_ (1918).

[504] In this connexion, it is important to observe that the education-movement of Humanism took into its field modern Italian, Hebrew, etc., as well as the Classical knowledge. A Dante professorship was founded in Florence in 1373. As for the Classical itself, side by side with all the enthusiasm we find a significant note in Boccaccio, who thanks Jesus Christ for a victory over unbelief that has delivered up the _enemy’s camp_ to the victor’s enjoyment. Burkhardt, _Renaissance_, Vol. I, p. 262 (Reclam edition).--_Tr._

[505] Bezold, _Hist. Zeitschr._, 45, p. 208.

[506] Italian, “Anna Metterza.” The reference is to the St. Anne of the Louvre and the Royal Academy Diploma Gallery, London.--_Tr._

[507] Cf. Vol. I, p. 232.--_Tr._

[508] Fra Angelico and Luca Signorelli.--_Tr._

[509] The sense of such a relativity led to a mathematic (the calculus) which is literally based on the ignoring of second- and third-order magnitudes.--_Tr._

[510] See article “Mysticism” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[511] After its confirmation in 1311, the character of this festival as one of popular joy became still more marked by its association with the nascent drama (see _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., articles “Corpus Christi,” “Drama”; and Y. Hirn, op. cit., pp. 144-5).--_Tr._

[512] Or even rediscovered it. For Classical man as a spirit-filled body is one amongst many quite independent units, while Faustian man is a centre in the universe, which with its soul embraces _the whole_. But personality (individuality) means, not something separate (_einzelnes_), but something single (_einziges_).

[513] Hence it is that this sacrament has conferred a position of such immense power upon the Western priest. He receives the personal confession, and speaks personally, in the name of the Infinite, the absolution, without which life would be unbearable.

The notion of confession as a _duty_, which was finally established in 1215, first arose in England, whence came also the first confession-books (Penitentials). In England, too, originated, the idea of the Immaculate Conception, and even the _idea_ of the Papacy--at a time when Rome itself thought of it as a question of power and precedence. It is evidence of the independence of Faustian Christianity from Magian that its decisive ideas grew up in those remote parts of its field which lay beyond the Frankish Empire.

[514] The immeasurable difference between the Faustian and the Russian souls is disclosed in certain word-sounds. The Russian word for heaven is “_nyebo_,” which contains in its _n_ a negative element. Western man looks up, the Russian looks horizontally into the broad plain. The death-impulse, too, of the respective souls is distinguishable, in that for the West it is the passion of drive all-ways into infinite space, whereas for Russians it is an expressing and expanding of self (_Sichentäussern_) till “it” in the man becomes identical with the boundless plain itself. It is thus that a Russian understands the words “man” and “brother.” He sees even mankind as a plane. The idea of a Russian’s being an astronomer! He does not see the stars at all, he sees only the horizon. Instead of the vault he sees the down-hang of the heavens--something that somewhere combines with the plain to form the horizon. For him the Copernican system, be it never so mathematical, is spiritually contemptible.

While our German “_Schicksal_” rings like a trumpet call, “_Sud’bá_” is a genuflection. There is no room for the upstanding “I” beneath this almost flat-roofed heaven. That “_All are responsible for all_”--the “it” for the “it” in this boundlessly extended plain--is the metaphysical fundament of all Dostoyevski’s creation. That is why Ivan Karamasov must name himself murderer although another had done the murder. The criminal is the “unfortunate,” the “wretch”--it is the utter negation of Faustian personal responsibility. Russian mysticism has nothing of that upstriving inwardness of Gothic, of Rembrandt, of Beethoven, which can swell up to a heaven-storming jubilation--its god is not the azure depth up above. Mystical Russian love is love of the plain, the love of brothers under equal pressure all along the earth, ever along and along; the love of the poor tortured beasts that wander on it, the love of plants--never of birds and clouds and stars. The Russian “_volya_,” our “will,” means principally non-compulsion, freedom not _for_ something but _from_ something, and particularly freedom from compulsion to personal doing. Free-will is seen as a condition in which no one else can command “it,” and in which, therefore, one may give way to one’s own disposition. “_Geist_,” “_esprit_,” “spirit,” go thus: ↗; the Russian “_duch_” goes thus: ↳. What sort of a Christianity will come forth one day from this world-feeling?

[515]

_“Und wenn die Welt voll Teufel wär’
Und wollten uns verschlingen
So fürchten wir uns nimmermehr
Es soll uns doch gelingen.”_

[516] And, as the secession of a reformed Church necessarily transforms the parent Church, there was a _Magian counter-reformation_ also. In the _Decretum Gelasii_ (_c._ 500, Rome) even Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Lactantius, and in the Synod of Byzantium (543) Origen, were declared heretical.

[517] Boehmer, _Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschung_ (1918), pp. 54, et seq.

[518] See, for instance, H. T. Buckle, _Hist. Civilization in England_, Vol. III, ch. iv, for the Scottish outlook, which at times attributed all this horror, not even to an anti-God, but to God himself. “Consider, who is the contriver of these torments. There have been some very exquisite torments contrived by the wit of men ... but all these fall as far short of the torments ye are to endure as the wisdom of man falls short of that of God.... Infinite wisdom has contrived that evil” (_The Great Concern of Salvation_, by T. Halyburton, 1722).--_Tr._

[519] M. Osborn, _Die Teufelsliteratur des 16. Jahrh._ (1893).

[520] Clocks being an outstanding example. See Vol. I, p. 15, foot-note.--_Tr._

[521] The famous Bishop of Lincoln (1175-1253), scholar and philosopher, scientist and statesman--the British Oresme.--_Tr._

[522] A clear summary of Grosseteste’s, Pierre de Maricourt’s, and Roger Bacon’s work and outlook will be found in Ch. ix of E. Gilson’s short manual, _La Philosophie au Moyen Âge_ (Paris, 1925). _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., may also be consulted for Roger Bacon, but the article “Grosseteste” deals almost entirely with the bishop’s political and ecclesiastical career.--_Tr._

[523] M. Baumgartner, _Gesch. der Philos. des Mittelalters_ (1915), pp. 425, 571, 620, et seq. [Brief account in Ch. xi (3) of Gilson’s manual above cited.--_Tr._]

[524] See Ch. XIV below.--_Tr._

[525] Nigantha. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Jains.”--_Tr._

[526] 542. See p. 197.

[527] Mahommedanism must be regarded as an eccentric heretical form of Eastern Christianity. This in fact was the ancient mode of regarding Mahommet. He was considered, not in the light of the founder of a new religion, but rather as one of the chief heresiarchs of the Church. Among them he is placed by Dante in the “Inferno.” Dean Stanley, _Eastern Church_ (1861), Lecture VIII.--_Tr._

[528] Krumbacher, _Byzant. Literaturgesch._, p. 12.

[529] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., under these names.--_Tr._

[530] Not to say the twentieth.--_Tr._

[531] To which may be added Edinburgh.--_Tr._

[532] πρὸς τὴν πειθὼ τῶν πολλῶν, _Metaphysics_ XI, 8, p. 1074 (Bekker) 13.--_Tr._ {sic--XII, 1074b 1-5}

[533] Caliphs like Al Maimun (813-33) and the last Ommayads would have entirely approved of similar measures in Islam. In those times there was a club in Baghdad in which Christians, Jews, Moslems, and Atheists debated, and appeals to the authority of Bible or Koran were “out of order.”

[534] Whereas “_virtù_” in Dante always carries a connotation of vital force, as also does the older English use of the word; e.g., in Chaucer’s “of which vertue engendred is the flour,” (_Canterbury Tales_, Prol. 4) and in the Bible (Mark v, 30). In Mediæval Latin “_virtutes_” is used for miracles.--_Tr._

[535] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Jains.”--_Tr._

[536] E.g., “Given eye and visible object, visual consciousness arises; the conjunction of the three is contact; whereby conditioned, arises feeling; whereby conditioned, arises perception....” Majjima Nikhaya, I, 111 (quoted by Mrs. Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_).--_Tr._

[537] Gercke-Norden, _Einleit. in die Altertumswiss._, II, 210.

[538] Compare the renewed controversy as to Transubstantiation in the English Church, 1926-8, in which a bishop actually proposed that physical tests could be applied to the altar-miracle.--_Tr._

[539] Which was ordered no less than four times in the decade 58-49.

[540] Horace’s fine lady, Leuconoë.--_Tr._

[541] It is perhaps possible for us to make some guess already as to these forms, which (it is self-evident) must lead back to certain elements of Gothic Christianity. But be this as it may, what is quite certain is that they will not be the product of any literary taste for Late-Indian or Late-Chinese speculation, but something of the type, for example, of Adventism and suchlike sects.

[542] Arnim, _Stoic. vet. fragm._, 537.

[543] See p. 202.

[544] The Lü-shi Chun-tsiu of Lü-pu-Wei (d. 237 B.C., Chinese Augustan Age) is the first monument of this syncretism, of which the final deposit was the ritual work _Li-ki_ of the Han period (B. Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, 93).

[545] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam_ (1917).

[546] 1018-78; cf. Dieterich, _Byzant. Charakterköpfe_ (1909), p. 63. [Or _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Psellus.”--_Tr._]

[547] It was only in old age and after long and heavy warring that both these Cæsars gave themselves up to a mild and weary piety, and both of them held aloof from the more definite religions. From the point of view of dogma, Asoka was no Buddhist; what he did was to understand the currents and take them under his protection (Hillebrandt, _Altindien_, p. 143). [Asoka’s life is dealt with in several of the works of Rhys Davids; for example, Ch. xv of his _Buddhist India_.--_Tr._]

[548] In so far as it is permissible to reckon Mithraism as Classical at all--for it is really a religion of the Magian Spring.

[549] De Groot, _Universismus_ (1918), p. 134.

[550] P. 169.

[551] See the article “Maimonides” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[552] Fromer, _Der Talmud_, p. 217. The “red cow” and the ritual of anointing a Jewish king were treated in this work with the same seriousness as the most important provisions of private law. [See J. and J. Tharaud, _Petite Histoire des Juifs_, Ch. I (1927).--_Tr._]

[553] See, for the following paragraphs, the articles “Jews,” “Hebrew Religion,” “Hebrew Literature,” “Kabbalah,” “Qaraites,” etc., in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[554] Strunz, _Gesch. der Naturwiss. im Mittelalter_, p. 89.

[555] Only with Nicolaus Cusanus was this state of things reversed.

[556] P. 174.

[557] The reader is recommended to study, in the light of all this, recent literature of the type of Hajim Bloch’s _Golem_ and the works of the brothers Tharaud.--_Tr._

[558] See pp. 259, et seq.; 174, et seq.

[559] P. 127.

[560] P. 48.

[561] Prague contains a veritable corpus of commentary upon these pages.--_Tr._

[562] A.D. 132. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XV, p. 402, and Vol. III, p. 395.--_Tr._

[563] Instances--besides that of Mithradates and the Cyprus massacre (p. 198) quoted above--are the Sepoy Mutiny in India, the Boxer Rebellion in China, and the Bolshevist fury of Jews, Letts, and other alien peoples against Tsarist Russia.

[564] P. Levertoff, _Die religiöse Denkweise der Chassidim_ (1918), pp. 128, et seq.; M. Buber, _Die Legende des Baalschem_ (1907). [Brief account in J. and J. Tharaud, _Petite histoire des Juifs_, Ch. vii.--_Tr._]

[565] Levertoff, op. cit., p. 136.

[566] O. Weininger, _Taschenbuch_ (1919), above all pp. 19, et seq.

[567] Their ship-building was in Roman times more Classical than Phœnician, their state was organized as a Polis, and their educated people, like Hannibal, were familiar with Greek.

[568] See p. 260, et seq.

[569] Cf. p. 3 and foot-note.

[570] And not until women cease to have race enough to have or to want children, not until they cease to _be_ history, does it become possible for them to make or to copy the history of men. Conversely, it is deeply significant that we are in the habit of calling thinkers, doctrinaires, and humanity-enthusiasts of anti-political tendency “old women.” They wish to imitate the other history, the history of woman, although they--cannot.

[571] No exact equivalent exists in common English for the German word “_Stand_.” “Aristocracy” is too narrow, as under most aspects the clergy and under some even the _Tiers_ have to be reckoned in. “Class” fails because, for logical completeness, it has to be stretched so as to bring in the qualitatively unclassed as a distinct category. (A whole social history is contained in the use of these and similar words at different periods.) The word “Estate” itself is used nowadays for the “masses” (“Fourth Estate” = “Proletariat”), but this very use, by Socialists, is an assertion that the masses, as workers, possess a qualitative peculiarity and condition of their own, and the word thus continues to connote ideas of differentiation, specific constitution, and oriented outlook. It may, therefore, be employed here without fear of misunderstanding or reproach of pedantry.--_Tr._

[572] Cf. pp. 120, et seq.

[573] Mitteis, _Reichsrecht und Volksrecht_ (1891), p. 63.

[574] Sohm, _Institutionen_ (1911), p. 614. [_Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, pp. 540-1.--_Tr._]

[575] This principle formed the basis of the dynastic-idea of the Arabian world (Ommayads, Comneni, Sassanids), which is so hard for us to grasp. When a usurper had seized a throne, he hastened to marry one or another of the female members of the blood-community and so prolonged the dynasty; of law-made succession rights there was no question, nor under this idea could there be. (See also J. Wellhausen, _Ein Gemeinwesen ohne Obrigkeit_ (1900).)

[576] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 574.--_Tr._

[577] See p. 18.

[578] An inversion of Clausewitz’s famous expression that war is a continuation of policy by other means. (_On War_, I, i, § 24).--_Tr._

[579] Not excluding art, although we are not _conscious_ of them save through deduction from art-_history_.

[580] Original: “_Sie liegen im gesteigerten Dasein von Einzelnen und Kreisen, eben in dem, was soeben ‘Dasein in Form’ genannt worden ist, und durch diese Höhe des Geformtseins erst die Kultur repräsentirt._”

[581] So in the German, but see foot-note p. 329. “_Stand_” would have expressed the sense better.--_Tr._

[582] R. Fick, _Die soziale Gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit_ (1897), p. 201; K. Hillebrandt, _Alt-Indien_ (1899), p. 82. [Also the article “Brahmanism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[583] See Vol. I, p. 157.--_Tr._

[584]

_Got hât driu leben geschaffen
Gebûre, ritter, phaffen._

[Note the collective _ge-_ attached to the first-named.--_Tr._]

[585] The ease with which Bolshevism extinguished the four so-called estates or classes of Petrine Russia--nobles, merchants, small townspeople, and peasants--shows that these were mere imitations and administrative conveniences, and destitute of all symbolism--for symbolism no power on earth can choke. They correspond to the outward differences of rank and possessions that existed in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms, and--as glimpses afforded by the earliest parts of the Iliad show--in Mycenæan times. It is reserved for the future to develop a true nobility and clergy in Russia.

[586] As a treaty of reciprocal possession by the two parties which is made effective by the reciprocal use of their sex-properties.

[587] Oldenberg, _Die Lehre der Upanishaden_ (1915), p. 5.

[588] P. 124.

[589] “So, then, because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.”

[590] P. 4, et seq.

[591] The case of Egypt is of course similar.--_Tr._

[592] Pp. 272, et seq.

[593] _Jenseits von Gut und Böse_, § 260.

[594] In contrast, the Spanish word “_Hidalgo_” means “son of somebody.”--_Tr._

[595] Conversely, it can successfully be controverted--and often has been so in the Chinese and Classical, Indian and Western philosophies--but it does not get abolished.

[596] The possession of movable things (food, equipment, arms) comes later, and is of much lower symbolic weight. It occurs widely in the animal world. The bird’s nest, on the contrary, is a property of plantlike kind.

[597] Property in this most significant sense--the having grown up with something--refers therefore less to the particular person than to the family tree to which he belongs. In every quarrel within a peasant or even within a princely family, this is the deep and violent element. The master for the time being holds possession only in the name of the family line. Hence, too, the terror of death without heirs. _Property also is a Time-symbol_, and consequently it is closely related to marriage, which is a firm plantlike intergrowth and mutual possession of two human beings, so real as to be even reflected in an increasing facial similarity.

[598] See p. 248.

[599] See these headings in _Ency. Brit._, XI. ed.--_Tr._

[600] After death the teachers of error are excluded from the eternal bliss of the text-book and cast into the purgatorial fires of foot-notes, whence, purged by the intercession of the believer, they ascend into the paradise of the paragraphs.

[601] Black Jews, who are smiths to a man.

[602] The genuinely primitive Mir, contrary to the assertions of enthusiastic socialists and pan-slavists, dates only from after 1600, and has been abolished since 1861. Here the soil is _communal_ soil, and the villagers are as far as possible held fast, in order to ensure that the tilling of this soil shall cover the demands of taxation.

[603] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XI, pp. 94, 786, or any histories of German literature.--_Tr._

[604] See, further, below.

[605] Brentano, _Byzant. Volkswirtschaft_ (1917), p. 15.

[606] Even I-wang (934-909) was obliged to leave conquered territories to his vassals, who put in counts and reeves of their own choice.

[607] See H. Delbrück, _Gesch. der Kriegskunst_, Vol. II, Book I, Ch. x; or C. W. C. Oman, _Art of War: Middle Ages_, Ch. i.--_Tr._

[608] The slave in the Classical sense disappears automatically and completely in these centuries--one of the most significant indications that the Classical world-feeling, and with it its economic feeling, were extinct.

[609] Thus, later, under Justinian, Belisarius could furnish seven thousand cavalry from his own domains for the Gothic War. Very few German princes could have done so much in Charles V’s time. [The last of such armies in Western history was the army of the House of Condé in the seventeenth century. These centuries of ours “correspond” with the period that set in with Justinian.--_Tr._]

[610] Pöhlmann, _Röm. Kaiserzeit_ (Pflugk-Harttungs _Weltgesch._, I, pp. 200, et seq.).

[611] See p. 286.

[612] In spite of Ed. Meyer (_Gesch. d. Altertums_, I, § 243).

[613] Our marshal and the Chinese _sse-ma_, chamberlain and _Chen_, high steward and _ta-tsai_, high bailiff and _nan_, earl and _peh_ (the Chinese ranks as in Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, p. 61, et seq.). Precisely corresponding Egyptian grades in Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. des Altertums_, I, § 222; Byzantine in the “_Notitia Dignitatum_” (derived in part from the Sassanid Court). In the Classical city-states certain official titles of ancient origin suggest court functions (Colacretæ, Prytanes, Consuls). See further below.

[614] Hardy, _Indische Religionsgesch._, p. 260.

[615] M. Granet, _Coutumes matrimoniales de la Chine antique, T’oung Pao_ (1912), pp. 517, et seq.

[616] The tournament was an institution in the other, western, half of the Magian world as well.--_Tr._

[617] The life of John Chrysostom is an instance.

[618] Another example (beloved of artists) stands to this day in the town of San Gimigniano, which is almost nothing but a group of family towers ranging up to 150 ft. in height.--_Tr._

[619] Ambrogio Spinola is a case in point.--_Tr._

[620] The memoirs of the Duc de Saint Simon give a vivid picture of this evolution.

[621] P. 75.

[622] Corresponding to our seventeenth century.

[623] K. J. Neumann, _Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik_ (1900); Ed. Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_, pp. 351, et seq.

[624] A. Rosenberg, _Studien zur Entstehung der Plebs_, Herm. XLVIII (1913), pp. 359, et seq.

[625] Pp. 102, et seq.

[626] See pp. 159, et seq.

[627] Pp. 170, et seq.

[628] See Vol. I, pp. 136, et seq.--_Tr._

[629] Hence such codes throw out the privileges of nobility and clergy and sustain those of money and intellect, and display a frank preference for movable as against real property.

[630] Pp. 75, et seq. The corresponding attempt of the absolutist Stuarts to introduce Roman Law into England was defeated chiefly by the Puritan jurist Coke (d. 1634)--yet another proof that the spirit of laws is always a party-spirit.

[631] See pp. 65, et seq.

[632] Above all in connexion with divorce, in which the civil and the ecclesiastical views _both_ hold good, literally side by side.

[633] See p. 330.--_Tr._

[634] Thus come about the much satirized forms of the “patrol-” or “barrack-state,” as opponents call it with an unintelligent scorn. Similar points of view appear also in Chinese and Greek constitutional theories (O. Franke, _Studien zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), pp. 211, et seq.; Pöhlmann, _Geschichte der sozialen Frage und der Sozialismus in der antiken Welt_ (1912)). On the other hand, the political tastes of, for example, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who as a Classicist opposed the individual to the State, belong, not to political history at all, but to literature. For what he looked at was, not the capacity of the State to thrive in the real State-world around it, but its private existence within itself, without regard to the fact that such an ideal could not endure for an instant in the face of a neglected outer situation. It is a basic error of the ideologues that, in concentrating on the private life and referring to it the whole inner structure of the State, they entirely ignore the latter’s position in point of outward power, though this in fact completely conditions its freedom for the inward development. The difference between the French and the German Revolutions, for example, consists in the fact that the one commanded the external situation and _therewith_ the internal also, while the other commanded neither and was foredoomed to farce.

[635] Which is most definitely _not_ identical with economic history in the sense of the materialist historian. More of this in the next chapter.

[636] It is to be noted that the author uses the terms “horizontal” and “vertical” here in the reverse sense to that in which they commonly figure in present-day _political_ literature, although in _economic_ works the usage is the same as that of the text.--_Tr._

[637] Attention is drawn to this phrase, so as to avoid misconceptions as to the meaning of “subject” in the sequel.--_Tr._

[638] Compare the position of the aristocratic families of the South in the history of the United States up to 1850-60.--_Tr._

[639] For in those centuries the high dignities of the Church were invariably given to the nobility of Europe, who put the political qualities of the blood at her service. From this school in turn emanated statesmen like Richelieu, Mazarin, and Talleyrand, to name but a few.

[640] See p. 180.

[641] I.e., Domesday Book.--_Tr._

[642] See p. 350.

[643] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. a. Altertums_, I, § 244.

[644] Even by Chinese critics. See, however, Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, pp. 61, et seq.; Conrady, _China_, p. 533.

[645] See pp. 349, et seq.

[646] “_Compotus_,” “_contrarotulus_” (the counter-roll retained for checking), “_quittancia_,” “_recordatum_.”

[647] See p. 279.

[648] “For the ruler of the Middle there is no foreign land” (Kung-yang). “The heaven speaks not; it causes its thoughts to be promulgated by a man” (Tung Chung-shu). His errors affect the whole cosmos and bring about cataclysms in Nature (O. Franke, _Zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), pp. 212, et seq., 244, et seq.). Such mystic universalism was completely alien to Indian and Classical state-notions.

[649] It must not be forgotten that the immense domains of the Church had become hereditary fiefs of the bishops and archbishops, who were no more disposed than the lay peers to permit interferences on the part of the overlord.

[650] After the overthrow of the Tyrannis, _c._ 500, the two regents of the Roman patriciate bear the title _prætor_ or _judex_. But it seems to me probable that these go back beyond the Tyrannis and even the preceding oligarchic period into that of the kingship proper, and that as court-offices they have the same origin as our _Herzog_, duke (_præ-itor_); _Heerwart_, in Athens polemarch; and _Graf_, earl (“_Ding-graf_,” hereditary arbiter, in Athens archon). The name “_consul_” (from 366) is philologically thoroughly archaic, and therefore implies no new creation, but the renascence of a title (king’s adviser?) which oligarchic sentiment had long repudiated.

[651] Beloch, _Griechische Geschichte_, I, 1, pp. 214, et seq.

[652] The Spartiates mustered in the best period of the sixth century some 4000 warriors, out of a total population of nearly 300,000, including Periœci and Helots (Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, III, § 264). The Roman families must at that time have been of about the same strength relatively to the _clientela_ and the Latins.

[653] Men’s messes. See the article Συσσίτια in Smith’s _Dictionary of Classical Antiquities._--_Tr._

[654] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alt._, I, § 264.

[655] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, § 267, et seq.

[656] See Ehrenberg, _Die Rechtsidee im frühen Griechentum_ (1921), pp. 65, et seq.

[657] P. 18.

[658] Pp. 171, et seq.

[659] P. 181, et seq.

[660] F. Cumont, _Mysterien des Mithra_ (1910), pp. 74, et seq. The Sassanid government, which about A.D. 300 changed from the feudal union to the aristocratic State, was in all respects the pattern for Byzantium in ceremonial, in the knightly character of its Empire, in administrative management, and above all in the type of its Ruler. Cf. also A. Christensen, _L’Empire des Sassanides, le peuple, l’état, la cour_ (Copenhagen, 1907).

[661] Ed. Meyer, _Kl. Shriften_, p. 146.

[662] See p. 243.

[663] Krumbacher, _Byzant. Literaturgesch._, p. 918.

[664] A bright light is thrown upon the formation of this picture by the fact that the descendants of the repeatedly overthrown dynasties of Hia and Shang reigned in the states of Ki-Sung throughout the Chóu period (Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, p. 30). This shows, firstly, that the picture of the Empire was mirrored back on some earlier or even perhaps a contemporary eminence of these states; and, secondly and above all, that here too “dynasty” was not what we currently mean by the name, but followed some quite different idea of the family. We may compare the fiction which made the German King, who was always chosen on Frankish territory and crowned in the sepulchral chapel of Charlemagne, into a “Frank,” so that if circumstances had been different, there might have evolved the notion of a Frankish dynasty running from Charles to Conradin (see Amira, _German. Recht_ in Herm. Paul, _Grundriss_, III, p. 147, note). From the Confucian age of enlightenment this picture became the basis of a State-theory, and later still it was turned to account by the Cæsars (p. 313).

[665] O. Franke, _Studien zur Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas_, pp. 247, 251.

[666] An illuminating example is the “personal union” of the Ki and Tseng states, contested as contrary to law (Franke, op. cit., p. 251).

[667] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, § 281.

[668] G. Busolt, _Griech. Staatskunde_ (1920), pp. 319, et seq. U. von Wilamowitz (_Staat und Gesellschaft der Griechen_, 1910, p. 53), in disputing the existence of the patriarchal kingdom, misunderstands the immense difference between the conditions of the eighth century, indicated in the Odyssey, and those of the tenth.

[669] A. Rosenberg, _Der Staat der alten Italiker_, pp. 75, et seq.

[670] Estate or Class was the basis, too, of the two great political associations in Byzantium, which are quite wrongly described as “Circus parties.” These Blues and Greens called themselves “Demoi” and had their regular leaders. The circus was simply like the Palais Royal of 1789, the scene of public manifestations, and behind them were the class-associations of the Senate. When in 520 Anastasius I gave effect to the Monophysite tendency, the Greens sang orthodox hymns all day there, and so forced the Emperor publicly to cry off. The Western counterpart to this is formed by the Parisian parties under the “three Henries” (1580), the Guelphs and Ghibellines of Savonarola’s Florence, and above all the insurgent faction in Rome under Pope Eugene IV. The suppression of the Nika Rebellion by Justinian in 532 was thus also the foundation of State-absolutism _vis-à-vis_ the Estates.

[671] This contrast gives rise to a corresponding contrast in idea of colonization. Whereas, e.g., the Prussian sovereigns invited settlers to their _land_ (Salzburg Protestants, French Huguenots), Gelon forcibly transferred the populations of whole cities into Syracuse, which thus became the first megalopolis of the Classical world (_c._ 480).

[672] The Greek lecythi found in graves on the Esquiline date form this period.

[673] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 242.

[674] W. Schulze, _Zur Geschichte lateinischen Eigennamen_, pp. 379, et seq., 580, et seq.

[675] See p. 351.

[676] This is seen also in the relation of the _Pontifex Maximus_ to the _Rex Sacrorum_--the latter with the three great Flamens to the kingship, the Pontifices and the Vestals to the aristocracy.

[677] See p. 62, et seq.

[678] P. 173, et seq.

[679] This is clearly to be seen from Wilcken, _Grundzüge der Papyruskunde_ (1912), pp. 1, et seq.

[680] Ed. Meyer, _Cæsars Monarchie_ (1918), p. 308.

[681] Plutarch and Appian describe the masses of humanity that moved in by all the roads of Italy to vote on Tiberius Gracchus’s land-bills. But this in itself shows that nothing of the sort had ever happened before; and immediately after his violence upon Octavius, Tiberius Gracchus saw downfall staring him in the face because the masses had streamed off home again and were not to be assembled a second time. In Cicero’s day a Comitia often consisted only in speeches by a few politicians, without participation by others; but never did it occur to a Roman to transfer the place of voting to the residence of the individual voter--nor even to the Italians when they were fighting for citizenship in 90 B.C. So strong was the feeling of the Polis.

[682] In the Western dynasty-states the domestic law of each is valid for its _territory_ and applies therefore to all persons present therein, irrespective of allegiance. In the city-state, on the contrary, the validity of its domestic law for a person arises from that person’s possession of citizenship; _civitas_, therefore, means infinitely more than present-day nationality, for without it a man was without rights at all--as a “person,” non-existent.

[683] See p. 60.

[684] Gercke-Norden, _Einl. i. d. Alt.-Wiss._, II, p. 202.

[685] Busolt, _Griech. Geschichte_, II, pp. 346, et seq.

[686] Cf. pp. 282 and 305. Fronde and Tyrannis have as intimate a connexion with Puritanism--the same epochal phase, but in the religious instead of the political world--as the Reformation with the aristocratic State, and the “Second Religiousness” with Cæsarism.

[687] G. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 297, et seq.

[688] Beloch, _Griech. Geschichte_, I, 1, p. 354.

[689] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, § 281.

[690] Ibid., §§ 280, et seq.

[691] On the means taken to secure the succession, cf. p. 379.

[692] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., § 286.

[693] Ibid., § 283. A. Erman, _Die Mahnworte eines ägyptischen Propheten_ (_Sitz. Preuss. Akad._), 1919, pp. 804, et seq.

[694] S. Plath, _Verfassung und Verwaltung Chinas_ (_Abb. Münch. Ak._, 1864), p. 97, O. Franke, _Studien z. Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas_, pp. 255, et seq.

[695] After armed rebellion.--_Tr._

[696] The fifty-year interval of these critical points, which is seen with special distinctness in the clear historical structure of the Baroque, but is recognizable also in the sequence of the three Punic Wars, is yet another hint that the Cosmic flowings in the form of human lives upon the surface of a minor star are not self-contained and independent, but stand in deep harmony with the unending movedness of the universe. In a small but noteworthy book, R. Mewes, _Die Kriegs- und Geistesperioden im Völkerleben unde Verkündigung des nächsten Weltkrieges_ (1896), the relation of those war-periods with weather-periods, sun-spot cycles, and certain conjunctures of the planets is established, and a great war foretold accordingly for the period 1910-20. But these and numerous similar connexions that come within the reach of our senses (cf. pp. 5, et seq.) veil a secret that we have to respect and not to infringe with causal expositions or mystical brain-spectres.

[697] See C. von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (1896); F. N. Maude, _War and the World’s Life_ (1907), and other works by the same author; also, in more summary terms, the articles “Army” and “French Revolutionary Wars” by the present translator in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[698] “Rule, Britannia” is an eighteenth-century product.--_Tr._

[699] For this, and what follows, see my _Preussentum und Sozialismus_, pp. 31, et seq.

[700] Mr. Asquith (Lord Oxford) was the first British Prime Minister to be officially so styled.--_Tr._

[701] “Landed” and “funded” interests (J. Hatschek, _Engl. Verfassungsgeschichte_, 1913, pp. 589, et seq.). Walpole, the organizer of the Whig party after 1714, used to describe himself and Townshend as “the Firm;” and this “firm” with various changes of proprietorship governed without limitation till 1760.

[702] R. von Pöhlmann, _Griech. Gesch._ (1914), pp. 223-45.

[703] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._ V § 809. If Latin became a literary language, only very late--after Alexander--the only deduction to be made from the fact is that under the Tarquins Greek and Etruscan must have been in general use--which, after all, goes without saying for a city that was of a size and position to have relations with Carthage; that waged war in alliance with Cyme and made use of the Treasury of Massalia at Delphi; whose standard weights and measures were Dorian; whose mode of warfare was Sicilian; and whose walls contained a large foreign colony. Livy (IX, 36), following older statements, observes that about 300 the Roman boy was still brought upon Etruscan culture, as he was later on Greek. The ancient form “Ulixes” for Odysseus shows that the Homeric sagas were not only known, but popularly known here (cf. p. 284). The provisions of the Twelve Tables (_c._ 450) agree with the more or less contemporary law of Gortyn in Crete (cf. p. 63), not merely as to substance, but even stylistically--so exactly that the Roman patricians who drew them up must have been entirely at home with juristic Greek.

[704] This measure--a usurpation of the administration by the “nation in arms”--corresponds to the setting-up of Consular Tribunes in Rome in the military disturbances of 438.

[705] According to B. Niese. Modern investigators are right in the view that the Decemvirate was at first intended to be temporary; but the question is--what were the views of the party that backed them concerning the _new_ constitutional order that was to follow. It was on that that a crisis had inevitably to come.

[706] A. Wahl, _Vorgeschichte d. franz. Revolution_, II (1907); this work is the only presentation of the subject from the world-historical point of view. All Frenchmen, even the most modern, such as Aulard and Sorel, see things from one or another partisan angle. It is materialistic nonsense to talk of economic causes for a Revolution like this. Even the peasantry was better off than in most other countries, and in any case it was not among them that it began. It was amongst the _educated_ that the catastrophe started, the educated of _all_ the classes--in the high nobility and the clergy even sooner than in the higher bourgeoisie, because the course of the first assembly of Notables (1787) had disclosed the possibility of radically reshaping the form of government according to class-desires.

[707] Even the highly provincial March Revolution of 1848 in Germany was a purely urban matter; hence the vanishingly small proportion of the population involved as participants.

[708] Hence also the exclusive bourgeois character of the National Guard in France from 1815 to 1851, the period between two phases of popular Tyrannis. In the _coup d’état_ by which Napoleon III seized the throne, Paris was filled with regular troops, and the National Guard was forbidden to assemble on pain of death.--_Tr._

[709] Pp. 97, and 305.

[710] See pp. 348.

[711] J. Hatschek, _Engl. Verfassungsgesch._, p. 588.

[712] On the other side of the Channel, it is well known that the Rothschild fortune was founded in a dramatic play upon the varying news from the front in Belgium.

In the second phase of the Franco-German War of 1870-1 the bankers of Frankfurt took up holdings in the loans floated by the French Government of National Defence.--_Tr._

[713] But even during the Reign of Terror in the middle of Paris, there flourished the establishment of Dr. Belhomme, in which members of the highest aristocracy ate and drank and danced out of all danger for so long as they could pay (G. Lenôtre, _Das revolutionäre Paris_, p. 409).

[714] The great movement which makes use of the catchwords of Marx has not delivered the entrepreneur into the power of the worker, but both into that of the Bourse.

[715] Both the old parties possessed clear lines of tradition back to 1680.

[716] The moral and political “Enlightenment” movement was in England also a product of the Third Estate (Priestley and Paley, Paine, Godwin), and for that reason was unable to grasp things with the fine discrimination of a Shaftesbury.

[717] Pelham, the successor of Walpole, paid to members of the Commons, through his secretary, £500 to £800 at the end of each session according to the value of the services rendered by each recipient to the Government--i.e., the Whig party. The party agent Dodington described his parliamentary activities in these words: “I never attended a debate if I could help it, and I never missed a division that I could possibly take part in. I heard many arguments that convinced me, but never one that influenced my vote.”

[718] Here it was actually the interest of bourgeois and “enlightenment” ideals that the personal régime of dictatorship was thought to favour, for the opposition to these ideas lay in the strict state-ideal of the Polis, which according to Isocrates was marked with the curse of inability to die.

[719] Diodorus XIV, 7. The drama was repeated in 317, when Agathocles the ex-potter let loose his mercenary bands and the mob upon the new upper classes. After the massacre the “people” of the “purified city” assembled and conferred the dictature upon the “saviour of true and genuine freedom” (Deodorus XIX, 6, et seq.). On the whole movement see Busolt, _Griech. Staatskunde_, pp. 396, et seq., and Pöhlmann, _Gesch. d. soz. Frage_, I, pp. 416, et seq.

[720] Already that part of the Prussian army which had been in Russia had declared against Napoleon--and that, though its general, Yorck, was no liberal, but the old strict type of the Frederician officer.--_Tr._

[721] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, IV, §§ 626, 630.

[722] H. Delbrück, _Gesch. d. Kriegskunst_ (1908), I, p. 142.

[723] Three to six “_tribuni militares consulari protestate_” instead of the Consuls. Just at this juncture, as the result of the introduction of pay and longer duration of service with the colours, there must have come into being a nucleus of true professional soldiers, who would have the election of centurions in their own hands and by whom the spirit of the army was determined. It is entirely erroneous to speak of a peasant-levy at this stage, quite apart from the fact that the four great city-tribes contributed a considerable part of the rank and file and a part, too, whose influence was even greater than its numerical strength. Even in the “good old days” picture presented to us by Livy and others we can clearly perceive the influence exerted by the standing formations upon the contests of parties.

[724] It is perhaps not a mere coincidence that 367 is the year of Dionysius’s death.

[725] According to K. J. Neumann, this goes back to the great Censor.

[726] According to Roman law, the freed slave at once acquired citizenship, with some few limitations. As the slave-material came from all over the Mediterranean region and most of all from the East, it was a vast rootless mass that collected in the four urban tribes, alien from all the tendencies of the old Roman blood; and it quickly destroyed these when, after the Gracchan movement, it had succeeded in bringing its weight of numbers to bear with effect.