Chapter XXIII: Part 23

The towns of Traz os Montes and Beira Alta are too far removed from highways to have attracted a considerable population. Villa Real, on the Corgo, is the busiest place of Traz os Montes, owing to the vineyards in its neighbourhood. {481} Chaves, an old fortress near the Spanish frontier, boasts of one of those Roman bridges which have rendered the century of Trajan famous: it was formerly noted for its mineral springs (_Aquæ Flaviæ_). Bragança, the old provincial capital, has a commanding citadel, and, owing to its geographical position, is an important place for smugglers, the legitimate exports fluctuating regularly with the customs tariff. It is the most important place in Portugal for the production of raw silk. Lamego, a picturesque town to the south of the Douro, opposite the Paiz do Vinho, enjoys a great reputation for its hams; Almeida, which keeps in check the garrison of Spanish Ciudad Rodrigo, was anciently one of the strongest fortresses of Portugal; and Vizeu is an important station between the Douro and the Mondego. Its fairs are more frequented than any others in Portugal, and in its cathedral may be seen the famous masterpiece painted by the mythical Gran Vasco. The herdsmen around Vizéu are noted for their strength and beauty. Their uncovered heads and bare legs give them an appearance of savagery, but their manners are as polished and dignified as those of the rest of their countrymen.

Coimbra (_Æminium_), in Beira-mar, is the most populous town between Oporto and Lisbon. It is known more especially for its university, whose professors and students impart to it the aspect of a mediæval seat of learning. The purest Portuguese is spoken there. The environs are delightful, and in the botanical garden the plants of the tropics mingle with those of the temperate zones. From the banks of the Mondego, upon which the city is built, visitors frequently ascend to the _Quinta das Lagrimos_ (“house of tears”), the scene of the murder of the beauteous Inez de Castro, whose death was so cruelly revenged by her husband, Peter the Judge.

Few countries in the world can rival the beautiful valley of the Mondego, that “river of the Muses” held dear by all the Lusitanians, because it is the only one which belongs to them exclusively. Condeixa, a town near Coimbra, fully deserves to be called the “Basket of Fruit,” for its gardens produce most exquisite oranges. In the north the ruins of the monastery of Bussaco occupy a mountain terrace covered with a dense forest of cypresses, cedars, oaks, elms, and exotic trees. This delightful place and the hot springs of Luso, near it, are a favourite summer residence of the citizens of Lisbon and Coimbra.

Figueira da Foz, the port of Coimbra, is well sheltered, but, like most other ports of Northern Portugal, is obstructed by a bar of sand. It is nevertheless much frequented by coasting vessels, and amongst its exports are the wines of Barraida. Ovar and Aveiro, in the “Portuguese Netherlands,” on the banks of a lagoon separated by a series of dunes from the high sea, are the two other ports of this part of the coast. They were important places during the Middle Ages, but the shifting bars, which render access to them difficult, have put a stop to their prosperity. The seamen of these two places have a high reputation for daring. They engage in sardine-fishing, oyster-dredging, and the manufacture of bay-salt.[176] {482}

III.—THE VALLEY OF THE TEJO (TAGUS).

The lower course of the Tejo, called Tajo in Spain, separates Portugal into two portions differing much in their general aspect, climate, and soil. The valley itself is a sort of intermediary between the north and south, and the vast estuary into which the river discharges itself.

Where the Tejo enters Portugal, below the magnificent bridge of Alcántara, it is still hemmed in between precipitous banks, and is neither navigable nor available for purposes of irrigation. Having traversed the defile of Villa Velha do Rodão, its valley gradually widens, and after having received its most considerable tributary, the Zezere, it becomes a tranquil stream, abounding in islands and sand-banks, and is navigable during the whole of the year. Below Salvaterra the river bifurcates, its two branches enclosing the marshy island of Lezirias. The vast estuary which begins below this island is an arm of the sea rather than a river; its waters are saline, and between Sacavem and Alhandra there are {483} salt-pans. The Tejo affords one of the most striking instances of a river encroaching upon its western bank, which is steep and hilly, whilst the left bank is low.

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The irregular range of hills which forms the back-bone of the peninsula enclosed by the Lower Tejo and the ocean is attached to the mountain of Estrella by a ravined plateau of trifling elevation, crossed by the railway connecting Coimbra with Santarem. From the summit of the Serra do Aire (“wind mountain,” 2,222 feet) we look down upon the verdant valley of the Tejo and the reddish-hued plains of Alemtejo beyond it. Monte Junto (2,185 feet), farther south, is another commanding summit. The rocky promontory of Carvoeiro is joined to the mainland by a sandy beach. Upon it stands the little fortress of Peniche, whose inhabitants lead a life of seclusion, and are engaged in the manufacture of lace. A submarine plateau connects this promontory with Berlinga Island, with an old castle now used as a prison, and with the Farilhãos, dreaded by mariners.

The hills on the narrow peninsula to the north of Lisbon are of small height, but, owing to their rugged character, they present great obstacles to intercommunication. It was here Wellington constructed the famous lines of Torres Vedras, which converted the environs of Lisbon into a vast entrenched camp. To the south of these rise the beautiful heights of Cintra, celebrated for their palaces, shady valleys, delightful climate, and historical associations. Sheets of basalt, {484} ejected from some ancient volcano, cover the hills between Lisbon and Sacavem, and the great earthquakes of 1531 and 1755 prove that subterranean forces were then not quite extinct. The second of these earthquakes was probably the most violent ever witnessed in Europe. The very first shock destroyed 3,850 houses in Lisbon, burying 15,000 human beings beneath the ruins; a minute afterwards an immense wave, nearly forty feet in height, swept off the fugitives who crowded the quay. Only one quarter of the town, that anciently inhabited by the Moors, escaped destruction. The Marquis de Pombal erected a gallows in the midst of the ruins to deter plunderers. From the focus of vibration the oscillations of the soil were propagated over an immense area, estimated at no less than 1,000,000 square miles. Oporto was destroyed in part, the harbour of Alvor in Algarve was silted up, and it is said that nearly all the large towns of Morocco tumbled into ruins.

The gully which connects the open ocean with the inland sea of Lisbon, and through which the Tejo discharges its waters, separates the cretaceous hills of Cintra from the isolated Serra da Arabida (1,537 feet), to the west of Setúbal, which belong to the same geological formation. These two groups of hills were probably portions of one range at a time when the Tejo still took its course across what are now the tertiary plains of Alemtejo, and reached the sea much farther to the south, through the estuary of the Sado.

Lisbon (Lisbõa), though the number of its inhabitants is less than half what it was in the sixteenth century, exhibits no trace of the havoc wrought in 1755. Even the central portions of the town have risen from the ruins, and huge blocks of houses, imposing by their size, if not by their architecture, have taken the places of the older structures. The present city extends four miles along the Tejo, but including its suburbs, between Poco do Bispo and the Tower of Belem, its extent is nine miles. The city stretches inland a distance of two or three miles, and, like Rome, is said to be built upon seven hills. A beautiful promenade connects it with Belem. As seen from the Tejo, or from the hills opposite, Lisbon, with its towers, cupolas, and public walks, certainly presents a magnificent spectacle, and there is some truth in the proverb which says―

“Que não tem visto Lisbõa, Não tem visto cosa bõa !”
(“Who has not seen Lisbon has not seen a thing of beauty.”)

Unfortunately the interior of the superb metropolis does not correspond with the imposing beauty of its exterior. Lisbon has a noble square, called Largo do Comercio; it has all the various buildings which one expects to meet with in the capital of a kingdom and an important maritime town; but, with the exception of the chapel of São João Baptista, not one amongst them is remarkable for its architecture. The only important structure outside the city is the famous aqueduct Os Arcos das Agoas, which was built by João V., the _Rei Edificador_, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and sustained no injury during the earthquake of 1755. On approaching the city it crosses a valley on a superb marble bridge of thirty-five arches, the highest of which is 246 feet in height.

Lisbon is relatively poor in interesting monuments, but few towns can rival it in natural advantages of soil, climate, and geographical position. Its situation is {485} most central; its harbour, at the mouth of a navigable river, is one of the most excellent in the world; and its entrance can be easily defended, the principal works erected for that purpose being Fort São Julião and the Tower of Bugio.

Scale 1 : 142,860.]

Lisbon is important not only as regards Portugal, but also, on account of its position, with reference to the rest of Europe—nay, of the entire world. As long as the Mediterranean was the theatre of human history it remained in obscurity, but no sooner had mariners ventured beyond the columns of Hercules than the beautiful harbour at the mouth of the Tejo became one of the principal points of departure for vessels starting upon voyages of discovery. Lisbon became the most advanced outpost of Europe on the Atlantic, for it offered greater facilities than any other port for voyages directed to the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, and the western coasts of Africa. The achievements of Portuguese mariners have passed into history. Vast territories in every quarter of the globe became tributary to little Portugal, and it needed the epic force of a Camões to celebrate these wonderful conquests.

That age of glory lasted but a short time, for proud Lisbon, which had become known to Eastern nations as the “City of the Franks,” as if it were the capital of Europe, lost its pre-eminent position towards the close of the sixteenth century. {486} Portugal capsized suddenly, like a small barge overcrowded with sails. Crushed by the terrible reign of Philip II., enervated by luxury, and grown disdainful of honest labour, as slaveholders always will, Lisbon was constrained to see much of its commerce and most of its valued colonies pass into the hands of Spaniards and Dutchmen. But, in spite of these disasters, Lisbon is still a commercial port of great importance, although as yet no direct line of railway connects it with Madrid and the rest of Europe. England occupies the foremost position amongst the customers of the town, and the Brazilians, whose severance from the mother country was at first looked upon as an irremediable disaster, follow next.[177] Spain, though it borders upon Portugal for several hundred miles, scarcely enters into commercial relations with it. Civil wars have, however, driven many Spanish exiles to Lisbon, and these have already exercised a considerable influence upon manners. Formerly only men were to be seen in the streets of Lisbon, the women being confined almost with the same rigour as in a Mohammedan city, but the example set by Spanish ladies has found many imitators amongst their Portuguese sisters. The towns in the immediate vicinity of Lisbon are celebrated for their picturesque beauties.

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Portuguese Estremadura, which neither suffers from northern frosts nor from fogs and aridity, can boast of a climate approaching that of the fabled Islands of the Happy. At Lisbon snow, or “white rain,” as it is called, falls {487} rarely, but it may be seen glittering on the summits of the Serras da Estrella and de Lousão. Its fall near the sea-coast is looked upon as an evil omen, and a heavy snow-storm, as recently as last century, frightened the inhabitants of Lisbon to such an extent that they fancied the day of judgment had come, and rushed into the churches.

The regular alternation between land and sea breezes is likewise an advantage possessed by the neighbourhood of Lisbon. From the beginning of May throughout the fine season the wind blows from the land in the morning, by noon it has shifted to the south, in the evening it blows from the west and north-west, and during the night from the north. Hence its name of _viento roteiro_; that is, “rotary wind.” As to the winds forming part of the regular system of atmospheric circulation, they blow with far less regularity. The polar winds, stopped by the transversal mountain ranges of the country, either follow the direction of the coast or are diverted to the plateaux of Spain, and make their appearance in Portugal as easterly winds. It is these latter which render the summer oppressively hot. At Lisbon the thermometer rises occasionally to 100° F., and in 1798 even 104° were observed. Experience has taught us that although the heat at Rio de Janeiro is in excess of that of Lisbon, the dog-days at the latter place are more unbearable.[178]

The vegetation of the happy district where the climate of North and South intermingle is twofold in its aspect. The date-palm makes its appearance in the gardens of Lower Estremadura; the dwarf palm grows in the open air along the coast; the agave raises its candelabra-like branches as on the coast of Mexico; the camellias are more beautiful than anywhere else in Europe; and the hedges are composed of prickly cacti (_Nopal_), as in Sicily and Algeria. The fruits of the Mediterranean ripen to perfection; and even the mango of the Antilles, only recently introduced, has found a congenial climate. Oranges are known as _portogalli_ in several countries as far as Egypt, as if the inhabitants of Portugal had been the first to whom these golden apples were known; and even the word _chintarah_, or _chantarah_, by which the orange is known in some parts of India, is supposed to be a corruption of the name of the Portuguese town of Cintra.

Belem (Bethlehem) is the nearest of the suburban towns of Lisbon, being separated from it merely by a rivulet named Alcántara, after an old Moorish bridge. It is the first place beheld by a mariner approaching Lisbon, and its square tower, built by King John the Perfect, is seen from afar. It was hence Vasco da Gama started upon the memorable expedition which taught the Portuguese the road to India, and a magnificent monastery, now converted into an educational institution, was built in commemoration of this glorious event.

Oeiras, at the mouth of a small rivulet coming down from the heights of Cintra, defends the entrance to the Tejo by means of Fort São Julião; Carcavellos, noted for its wines, lies farther on; and Cascães, with a small harbour defended by a citadel, brings us to the open ocean. The coast beyond this is protected by {488} towers, but there are no inhabitants. The hills of Cintra, however are one of the most populous districts of the country, and they are much frequented by foreigners. Whether we follow the carriage road or the tramroad from Lisbon, we pass the castles and villas of Bomfica, the royal palace of Queluz, and the country seats of Bellas, the fountain of which supplies the capital with water. Cintra itself is surrounded by hotels and gardens. On a hill to the south of it stands the sumptuous Castle de la Penha, whose eccentricities of architecture are softened down by luxuriant masses of vegetation. Strangers likewise visit the ruins of an old Moorish castle and the caverns of the “Monastery of Cork,” thus named because its walls are covered with cork as a protection against damp. The prospect from all the surrounding heights is magnificent, and most so from the cliffs terminating in the famous Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point of continental Europe.

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The city of Mafra occupies a sterile plateau not far from the seaside resort of Ericeira. Like Cintra, it boasts of an immense palace, the Escorial of the kings of the house of Bragança, now used as a military school. João V., who erected this structure, with its numerous churches, chapels, and cells, expended for that purpose all the coin he could command, and when he died there was not enough money left in the treasury to pay for a mass for the repose of his soul. Far more {489} curious than this immense barrack, with its 5,200 windows, is the forsaken monastery of Alcobaça, about sixty miles farther north, which was built in the twelfth century to commemorate the victories over the Moors. Near it stands the monastery of Batalha, which recalls the defeat of the Castilians in the plain of Aljubarrota in 1385. The portals, cloisters, chapel, and chapter-room abound in sculptures of marvellous finish, though of doubtful taste.

Leiria, the town nearest to Batalha, occupies a fine site at the confluence of the rivers Liz and Lena, and is commanded by a Moorish castle, the old residence of King Diniz the “Labourer,” who planted the _pinhal_ of Leiria, the finest forest in Portugal. After a long period of decadence this portion of the country has entered upon a new epoch of activity. At Marinha Grande, near it, there are large glass-works, which communicate by rail with the circular harbour of Concha (shell) de São Martinho.

Thomar, formerly famous on account of its monastery, stands on the eastern {490} slope of the hills commanding the plains of Batalha and Alcobaça. It is the capital of the Knights of Christ, to whom was conceded the privilege of conquering the Indies and the New World. They performed great deeds, but in the end their rapacity led to the decadence of their native country. Thomar is a town of cotton-mills now, but commerce is more active in the places on the Tejo, and notably at Santarem, which, from its “marvellous” hill, looks down upon the verdant isles of the river and the plains of Alemtejo. Santarem and the neighbouring fortress of Abrantes supply Lisbon with vegetables and fruit, and the country around them is a veritable forest of olive-trees.

The sandy soil and shallow rivers bounded by marshes of the country to the south of the Tejo oppose serious obstacles to the establishment of important towns, and if it were not for the vicinity of Lisbon it would probably be uninhabited. Almada, opposite Lisbon, Seixal, Barreiro, Aldea Gallega, and Alcochete are mere suburbs of the capital, and share in its prosperity or adversity. Setúbal, or St. Ives, however, which lies farther to the south, on the estuary of the Sado, and which has an excellent harbour, suffers from too great a proximity to Lisbon, for Portugal is not rich enough to feed two ports so close to each other. Cezimbra, on the steep coast which terminates in Cape Espichel, to the west of Setúbal, is likewise a decayed place, and Troja, which preceded Setúbal as the emporium of the Sado, now lies buried beneath the dunes. Excavations recently made on its site have led to the discovery of Roman mosaics and of a street laid out, perhaps, by the Phœnicians; and Link, the botanist, who visited the spot at the end of last century, still found there the ruined courts of Moorish houses.

Setúbal, though its commercial activity is very much inferior to that of Lisbon, still exports muscat wines, delicious oranges, and salt procured from the ponds in its vicinity.[179] The sea near Setúbal and Cezimbra abounds in fish and other marine animals, and in comparison with it the Mediterranean and Bay of Biscay may almost be described as deserts. Long before scientific men explored the bottom of the sea the fishermen of Setúbal hauled up from a depth of 300 fathoms immense sharks. Ordinary fish are caught in myriads, and the inhabitants of Cezimbra feed their pigs upon sardines. When Portugal was at the height of its commercial prosperity it supplied a considerable portion of Europe with fish, and almost enjoyed a monopoly in cod, which was exported even to Norway.[180]

IV.—SOUTHERN PORTUGAL. ALEMTEJO AND ALGARVE.

The mountains beyond the Tejo rarely assume the aspect of chains. For the most part they rise but little above the surrounding plateau. This region is the least attractive of all Portugal, and between the Tejo and the mountains of Algarve there are only plains, monotonous hills, woods, and naked landes. Human habitations are few and far between. The lowlands along the Tejo and {491} the coast are covered with a thick layer of fine sand resting upon clay, and they still exhibit clumps of maritime pines and holm-oaks, the remains of the ancient forests which formerly covered the whole of the country. Farther inland we reach the great landes, or _charnecas_, covered with an infinite variety of plants. There are heaths growing sometimes to a height of six feet, rock-roses, juniper-trees, rosemary, and creeping oaks. But the general aspect of the country is dreary, in spite of the white and yellow flowers which cover it until the middle of winter, for there are hardly any cultivated fields. The hills consist for the most part of micaceous schists, and are covered with a monotonous growth of labdanum-yielding rock-roses. This is a western extension of the zone of _jarales_, which covers so many hundred square miles of the Sierra Morena and other mountain regions of Spain.

The Serra de São Mamede (3,363 feet), on the confines of Portugal, between the valleys of the Tejo and Guadiana, is the highest mountain mass of Southern Portugal; but its granitic ridges, enclosing narrow valleys between them, hardly {492} rise 1,500 feet above the general level of the plateau. A second granitic mountain mass rises to the south of the depression crossed by the railway from Lisbon to Badajoz. This is the Serra de Ossa (2,130 feet). An undulating tract of country joins it to other serras, forming steep escarpments towards the valleys of the Guadiana and Sadão, and the monotonous plain known as Campo de Beja (870 feet). The famous Campo de Ourique (700 feet), upon which 200,000 Moors, commanded by five kings, were defeated by the Portuguese in the middle of the twelfth century, forms a southern continuation of that plain. This battle, and the massacres which succeeded it, converted the plains to the south of the Tejo into deserts.

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The hills of that portion of Alemtejo which lies to the east of the Guadiana belong to the system of the Sierra Morena of Spain. The river, which separates them from the hills and plateaux of the west, is confined in a deep and narrow gorge. At the _Pulo do Lobo_ (“wolf’s leap”) it still descends in cataracts, and becomes navigable only at Mertola, thirty-seven miles above its mouth.

The hills of Southern Alemtejo and Algarve, to the west of the Guadiana, are at first mere swellings of the ground known as _cumeadas_, or “heights of land,” but in the Serra do Malhão (1,886 feet) and the Serra da Mezquita they attain some height. A plateau, traversed by the upper affluents of the Mira, joins the range last mentioned to the Serra Caldeirão (1,272 feet), supposed to be named after some ancient crater, or “caldron,” which terminates, to the north of Cape Sines, with the Atalaya, or Sentinel (1,010 feet). The principal range continues towards the west, and in the Serra de Monchique (2,963 feet), a mountain mass filling up the {493} south-western corner of Portugal, it attains its culminating point. A steep ridge, known as Espinhaço de Cão (“dog’s back”), extends from the latter in the direction of the Capes of St. Vincent and Sagres.

The latter was selected by Henry the Navigator as the seat of the naval school founded by him, and from its heights he watched for the return of the vessels which he dispatched on exploratory expeditions. Associations such as these are far more pleasurable than those connected with the neighbouring Cape St. Vincent, where Admiral Jervis, in 1797, destroyed a Spanish fleet.

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The hills of Sagres are of volcanic origin, and the subsidence of portions of the coast of Algarve appears to prove that subterranean forces are still active. Wherever this subsidence has been observed the coast is fringed by sand-banks, thrown up by the waves of the sea, the channel separating them from the mainland being navigable for small vessels.

If a traveller ascend one of the culminating points of the mountains of Algarve, he cannot fail to be struck with the remarkable contrast existing between the districts to the north and south of him. On the one side he looks down upon vast solitudes resembling deserts; on the other he perceives forests of chestnut-trees, numerous villages, towns bordering the seashore, and fleets of fishing-boats rocking upon the blue waves. The contrasts between the inhabitants of these two districts {494} are scarcely less striking. The inhabitants of Alemtejo are the most solemn of Portuguese, and even object to dancing. Very thinly scattered over the landes which they inhabit, they either engage in agriculture or follow their herds of pigs and sheep into the forests of holm-oaks and thickets of rock-roses. In summer they cross the Tejo with their pigs, and pasture them in the mountains of Beira. The population of Algarve, on the other hand, is thrice as dense as that of Alemtejo, and not only are fields, vineyards, and orchards carefully tended, but the sea likewise is made to yield a portion of its food. The contrast between the two provinces is partly accounted for by the fact that most of the great battles were fought on the undulating plains of Alemtejo. When the Romans held the country Alemtejo supported a numerous population, as is proved by the large number of inscriptions found.

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Differences of altitude and geographical position sufficiently account for the differences of climate existing between the two provinces. Alemtejo, with its monotonous plains and stunted vegetation, is almost African in its aspect, whilst Algarve, with its forests of olive-trees, groves of date-palms, agaves, and prickly cacti, presents us with tropical features. The mean temperature near the coast is probably no less than 68° F. The Serra de Monchique bars the cool winds of the north, whilst the sandy islands fringing a portion of the coast keep off refreshing sea breezes. The hottest wind of all is that which blows from the east. It is often laden with fever-breeding miasmata, and a proverb says, _De Espanha nem bom vento nem bom casamento_: “Neither good winds nor good weddings are bred in Spain.”

Villanova de Portimão, to the south of the Serra de Monchique, has long been looked upon as the hottest place in Europe; there are, however, several localities in Spain which rival it in that respect. Thus much is certain, that Algarve, with {495} the lower valley of the Guadalquivir and the southern coasts of Andalusia and Murcia, constitutes the most torrid portion of Europe. The Arabs were quite right when they designated Southern Lusitania and the opposite shore of Morocco by the same name of “el Gharb;” that is, the two Algarves, or “eastern districts.” Portuguese Algarve, in spite of the conversion of its inhabitants to Christianity, has retained its ancient Moorish name; and the Berber and Semitic blood is very conspicuous there.

In Upper Alemtejo there are but few towns, and these would be altogether insignificant if it were not for the overland commerce carried on with Spain. Crato, which is the most considerable station on the railway which joins the Tejo to the Guadiana, and its neighbour Portalegre, were formerly important stages on the great overland route. Elvas, farther to the south, is surrounded by orchards, and defended by forts which were looked upon in the last century as masterpieces of military architecture. It faces the Spanish fortress of Badajoz, as well as Olivença, which was assigned to Portugal by the treaty of Vienna, but never surrendered by Spain. Estremoz, on a spur of the Serra de Ossa, is famous throughout Portugal for its _búcaros_—elegantly modelled earthen jars which diffuse a sweet odour. Montemor looks down from its hill upon vast landes and monotonous woods. Evora, likewise built on a hill, commands an extensive plain. It was a populous place during the dominion of the Romans, and in the Middle Ages became the second residence of the Kings of Portugal. There exist now only a Roman aqueduct, the ruins of a temple of Venus, Corinthian columns, and the remains of mediæval castles to remind us of its ancient splendours.

Beja, the ancient _Pax Julia_ or _Colonia Pacensis_ of the Romans, has likewise lost its former importance, but Minas de São Domingos, on the peninsula formed by the confluence of the Guadiana and the Chanza, is rapidly increasing, thanks to its mines of pyrites of copper and other minerals, which are being worked by an English company. The ore is conveyed by rail to Pomarão, on the Guadiana, and thence on barges to Villa Real de Santo Antonio, at its mouth, formerly a mere fishing village, but now a busy port. Castro Marim, where the expeditions against the Moors used to be fitted out, is close to it.

Silves, the ancient Moorish capital of Algarve, lies in the interior of the country, far removed from the present highways of commerce. Faro, the modern capital, has the advantage of lying on the seashore, and of possessing a secure harbour, whence small coasters are able to export fruit, tunny-fish, sardines, and oysters. Tavira possesses the same advantages, and exports the same articles: it is said to be the prettiest town of Algarve. Loulé, in a delightful inland valley, is a pretty place, and, when invalids have learnt the road to Algarve, may obtain some importance as a winter resort. The Caldas (warm baths) de Monchique (600 feet) enjoy a world-wide reputation even now, not only because of their efficacy, but also on account of the delicious climate and charming environs. This district is said to produce the best oranges in Portugal.[181] {496}

V.—THE PRESENT AND FUTURE OF PORTUGAL.

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Little Portugal no longer shares with her neighbour, Spain, in the dominion of the world, as in the fifteenth century. The secrecy observed with a view to the retention of the monopoly of trade with countries newly discovered proved in the end most injurious to Portugal. Other nations appeared upon the stage which the Portuguese had dreamt of occupying for ever, and though the latter still hold colonies vastly superior in area to the mother country, this is nothing in comparison with what has been irretrievably lost. Vasco da Gama discovered the ocean high-road to India, but the few settlements which Portugal still holds there she owes to the favour of England. In the Malay Archipelago Portugal has been supplanted almost completely by the Dutch, and Macao, at the entrance of the Canton River, was hardly more than a slave market until quite recently, from which Chinese “emigrants” were exported to Peru. In Africa Portugal holds vast possessions, if we are to believe in official documents and maps, but in reality only a very small tract of territory is under the dominion of the Portuguese, and most of the commerce is carried on through Dutch and other foreign houses. As to Brazil, it now surpasses the mother country in population and wealth. Madeira and the {497} Azores, the first conquests made by Lisbon navigators, are looked upon as integral portions of Portugal; they enjoy the same rights, and are quite equal to it in wealth.[182]

When Brazil was lost to Portugal that small country found itself in a position of lamentable prostration. Exhausted by foreign and internecine wars, its finances utterly ruined, and without roads to enable it to export its produce, it might have disappeared from our maps without any interests, except those of a few English vine-growers and Spanish smugglers, being affected. Even in 1851 there only existed a single carriage road in the country, namely, that which connected Lisbon with the royal palace at Cintra. No attention whatever was paid to education, and about a generation ago a girl able to read was a phenomenon. At the same time we must not forget that these illiterate Portuguese knew how to discuss a subject without quarrelling, had great command of their language, and were able even to improvise verses of great poetical merit, in all of which respects they contrasted favourably with the peasantry of Northern Europe.

In the course of the last generation education has made much progress in Portugal;[183] and in other respects, too, the country has gradually assimilated with the rest of Europe. Roads and railways have been constructed,[184] and the latter connect Lisbon not only with the leading provincial towns, but also with Spain. The commerce with the latter country increases regularly with the occurrence of civil war, when Portugal profits at the expense of the Spanish ports of the Mediterranean. {498} Much of the ordinary commerce with Spain never appears in the customs registries, for it is carried on by smugglers, who glory in evading the vigilance of the frontier police.

The commerce of Portugal has increased very much in the course of the last thirty years. More than half of it falls to the share of Great Britain, a circumstance not to be wondered at when we bear in mind the relative geographical position of the two countries, for Portugal lies upon the direct route followed by English steamers proceeding to the Mediterranean, Western Africa, or Brazil. The assistance which England rendered Portugal during the peninsular war has cemented these commercial bonds.

The commercial relations with Brazil, now joined to Lisbon by a submarine cable, are likewise the natural result of the relative positions of the two countries and of the common origin of their populations. Portugal, in fact, participates in every progress made by its old colony, and its commerce will assume immense proportions when slavery is abolished in Brazil, when the solitudes of the Amazonas resound with the stir of industrious populations, and the coasts of the Pacific are joined to the Atlantic by means of railways crossing the Andes.[185]

But, after all, it will be Spain with which the most intimate commercial relations must finally be established, in spite of national prejudices and dynastic interests. The two nations will in the end become one, as the Aragonese and Castilians, the Andalusians and Manchegos, have become one. It is merely a question of time; but who can doubt that community of industrial and social relations will lead to a political union. We only trust that this union may be brought about without a resort to brute force, and with due regard to special interests.

VI.—GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

Portugal is an hereditary and constitutional monarchy. In accordance with the Carta de Ley of 1826, as revised in 1852, the King is charged with the executive, {499} and shares the power of making laws with two chambers. He receives a civil list of £144,000, enjoys the income from certain Crown lands, and possesses magnificent Crown jewels, amongst which the “diamond of Bragança” is the most famous. In default of male heirs the crown descends in the female line. “His most faithful Majesty” still claims to be “King of the two Algarves, Lord of Guinea and of the Conquests.” The seven ministers of the Crown are responsible for the King’s actions; they may be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and are judged by the Chamber of Peers. A Privy Council of an indefinite number of members, appointed for life, advises the King in all questions of administration. The heir presumptive takes part in its deliberations on attaining his eighteenth year.

The Chamber of Peers consists of about a hundred members, some of them hereditary and others appointed by the King. Its meetings are presided over by the Patriarch of Lisbon. The Chamber of Deputies is elective, and the discussion of the budget and granting of supplies are specially reserved to it. All males more than twenty-five years of age are entitled to the franchise if they pay 4s. 6d. in direct taxes, or 22s. from real estate. Graduates of universities, certified teachers, officers, and priests are not required to possess any property qualification, and they, as well as all married men, become enfranchised on completing their twenty-first year. All electors are eligible as deputies if they pay 18s. in direct taxes, or 90s. from real estate. Every 25,000 inhabitants are represented by a deputy. The President of the Chamber is selected by the King from five candidates presented by the deputies. The latter are entitled to remuneration.

For judicial purposes the country is divided into twenty-six districts, or _comarcas_, with eighty-five courts. There are courts of appeal at Lisbon and Oporto, and a supreme court at Lisbon. Parish judges (_juiz eleito_), elected by the people, exercise the inferior jurisdiction. Juries give their verdict on questions of fact in civil as well as in criminal cases. The principal codes still in force are the “Codigo Alfonsino” of the fifteenth century, the “Codigo Manoelino” (1513), and the “Codigo Filippino,” introduced by Philip IV. of Spain. A Commercial Code was published in 1833.

The Roman Catholic religion is that of the State, but Protestant places of ship are suffered to exist in the seaports. The hierarchy includes a patriarch residing at Lisbon, two archbishops at Braga and Evora, and fourteen bishops. The Inquisition was abolished in 1821, and the monasteries, 750 in number, as well as most of the convents, were suppressed in 1834, and their revenues confiscated for the benefit of the State.

The army numbers 1,650 officers and 38,000 men, of whom about two-thirds are under colours during peace. On a war footing it is to be raised to 2,418 officers and 70,687 men. All men are obliged to serve either in the army or in the reserve, and exemption can no longer be purchased. The fortresses are numerous, but only a few of them are capable of being defended against modern artillery. The most important are Elvas, Abrantes, and Valença, near the Spanish frontier, the fort of São Julião and the citadel of Peniche on the coast. The navy no longer numbers a thousand vessels, as it did when King Sebastian started for {500} the invasion of Morocco. It consists now of twenty-seven steamers, including an ironclad corvette, and eleven sailing vessels, manned by 3,000 men and armed with 171 guns.

The public revenue approaches £6,000,000 sterling, and ever since 1834 there has been annually a deficit, which has resulted in a national debt of more than £80,000,000, a burden almost too heavy for a small country like Portugal. The revenue is, however, increasing, a balance between income and expenditure has been established within the last year or two, and the wretched expedient of deducting from 5 to 30 per cent. of the salaries of Government officials could be dispensed with for the first time in 1875.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS, AREA, AND POPULATION.

Provinces. Districts. Area, Sq. Population, Density.
Miles. 1874.

Entre Douro e Minho Vianna 864 221,049 256
Braga 1,054 346,429 329
Porto 903 451,212 500

Traz os Montes Villa Real 1,718 239,591 140
Bragança 2,573 177,170 ――

Beira Alta Aveiro 1,216 272,763 69
Vizeu 1,922 398,477 207
Coimbra 1,500 305,237 203

Beira Baixa Guarda 2,148 234,912 109
Castello Branco 2,559 178,703 69

Estremadura Leiria 1,348 194,944 145
Santarem 2,651 217,316 82
Lisbon 2,936 491,205 168

Alemtejo Portalegre 2,497 109,192 44
Évora 2,740 112,477 41
Beja 4,198 154,327 37

Algarve Faro 1,875 193,877 104
―――――― ――――――――― ―――
Continental Europe 34,702 4,298,881 124
══════ ═════════ ═══

COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.

Area, Sq. Miles. Population. Density.
Azores 921 60,072 65
AFRICA:―
Madeira 310 118,609 383
Cape Verde Island 1,487 90,704 61
Senegambia 27 9,282 344
St. Thome and Principe 417 31,692 75
Fort Ajuda 13 700 54
Angola, Benguela, and Mossamedes 312,000 2,000,000 6
Moçambique and Sofala 40,000 300,000 8
ASIA:―
Goa, &c. 1,395 474,234 339
Damão 30 40,980 1336
Diu 12 12,303 1025
Timor and Kambing 5,527 250,000 45
Macao 1½ 71,834 47·223
――――――― ――――――――― ――――――
Colonies 362,140 3,460,410 10
――――――― ――――――――― ――――――
Total, Portugal and Colonies 396,842 7,759,291 20

NOTES:

[1] Houzeau, “Histoire du Sol de l’Europe.”—Carl Ritter, “Europa.”—Kohl, “Die Geographische Lage der Haupstadte Europa’s.”

[2] Modern Sea of Azof and River Don.

[3] Latham, Benfey, Cuno, Spiegel, and others.

[4] Population of Europe, about 305,000,000:―

Greco-Latin.

Greeks 2,600,000 Albanians 1,250,000 Italians 27,700,000 French 39,700,000 Spaniards and Portuguese 20,210,000 Rumanians 8,400,000 Rhætians (“Romans”) 42,000 ―――――――――― 99,902,000 ══════════

Germanic.

Germans 53,400,000 Dutch and Flemish 6,720,000 Scandinavians 5,640,000 Anglo-Saxons 30,600,000 ―――――――――― 96,360,000 ══════════

Slavonic.

Russians 59,000,000 Poles 11,800,000 Chechians, &c. 6,750,000 Servians 5,750,000 Slovenes 1,200,000 Bulgarians 3,100,000 ―――――――――― 87,600,000 ══════════

Finns 4,700,000 Osmanli 1,300,000 Magyars 5,770,000 Tartars 2,500,000 Calmucks 100,000 Celts 1,600,000 Basks 700,000 Letts, &c. 2,900,000 Armenians 280,000 Gipsies 590,000 Circassians 400,000

Included above are 4,500,000 Jews.

[5] W. H. Smith, “The Mediterranean.”—Dureau de la Malle, “Géographie Physique de la Mer Noire et de la Mediterranée.”—Böttger, “Das Mittelmeer.”

[6] Area of the Mediterranean basin:―

Europe 683,500 square miles.
Asia 232,000 square miles.
Drainage of Africa 1,737,500 square miles.
Mediterranean Sea 1,153,300 square miles.
―――――――――
3,806,300
═════════

[7]

Western Eastern Archi- Black Mediter- basin. basin. Adriatic. pelago. Sea. ranean. Area 355,200 502,000 50,200 60,600 185,300 1,153,300 Greatest depth, fathoms 1,640 2,170 565 540 1,070 2,170 Average depth, fathoms 640 960 110 320 320 640

[8] Quantity of salt held in solution in the Atlantic, 36 parts in 1,000; in the Mediterranean (mean), 38 parts; in the Black Sea, 16 parts.

[9] There are found in the Mediterranean 444 species of fish (Goodwin Austen), 850 species of molluscs (Jeffreys), and about 200 species of foraminiferæ.

[10] The production of salt on the coasts of the Mediterranean is thus distributed among its coast-lands:—Spain, 200,000 tons; France, 250,000 tons; Italy, 300,000 tons; Austria, 70,000 tons; Russia, 120,000; other countries, 200,000 tons. Total, 1,140,000 tons, valued at £480,000.

[11] The annual produce of the fisheries has been estimated at £3,000,000, of the coral fisheries at £640,000, of the sponge fisheries at £40,000. Total, £3,680,000.

[12] Shipping and commerce of the Mediterranean (estimated):―

ENTERED AND VALUE OF EXPORTS COMMERCIAL MARINE. CLEARED. AND IMPORTS. Sail-vessels. Steamers. Tonnage. Tons. £ Spain (Mediterranean) 2,500 100 250,000 5,000,000 24,000,000 France (Mediterranean) 4,000 230 300,000 6,000,000 80,000,000 Italy 18,800 140 1,030,000 21,000,000 104,000,000 Austria 3,000 92 380,000 8,000,000 18,000,000 Greece 5,400 20 502,000 8,500,000 8,000,000 Turkey in Europe and Asia 2,200 10 210,000 25,000,000 24,000,000 Rumania ――――― ―― ――――――― 1,300,000 8,000,000 Russia (Mediterranean) 500 50 50,000 2,000,000 24,000,000 Egypt (Mediterranean) 100 25 15,000 4,000,000 20,000,000 Malta and Gibraltar 200 13 39,000 12,000,000 23,000,000 Algeria 170 ―― 10,000 2,000,000 16,000,000 Tunis, Tripoli, &c. 500 ―― 10,000 500,000 4,000,000 ―――――― ――― ――――――――― ―――――――――― ――――――――――― 37,370 680 2,796,000 95,300,000 353,000,000 ══════ ═══ ═════════ ══════════ ═══════════

[13] Greece within its political limits:―

Area. Population
Sq. m. (1870). Density.
Continental Greece 7,558 466,918 62
Peloponnesus 8,288 545,389 66
Ægean Islands 2,500 205,840 82
Ionian Islands 1,007 218,879 217
Army, navy, and sailors ───── 20,868 ───
────── ───────── ────
Total 19,353 1,457,894 75
══════ ═════════ ════

[14] Altitudes of mountains in continental Greece (in feet):―

Gerakavuni (Othrys) 5,673 Velukhi (Tymphrestus) 7,610 Khonia 8,186 Vardusia 8,242 Katavothra (Œta) 6,560 Mountains of Acarnania 5,216 Varassova 3,010 Liakura (Parnassus) 8,068 Palæovouni (Helicon) 5,738 Elatea (Cithæron) 4,630 Parnes 4,645 Pentelicus 3,693 Hymetius 3,400 Gerania (Pera Khora) 4,482

[15] Orchomenus, a town on the Cephissus, the capital of Northern Bœotia, destroyed by the Thebans 371 B.C.

[16] Heights of the principal mountains in the Peloponnesus (in English feet):―

Cyllene (Zyria) 8,940 Aroanian Mountain (Khelmos) 7,726 Erymanthus (Olonos) 7,297 Artemisium (Malevo) 5,814 Parnon (Hagios Petros) 6,355 Lycæus (Diaforti) 4,660 Ithome 2,630 Taygetus 7,904 Arachnæus (Argolis) 3,935 Mean height of peninsula 2,000

[17] The isthmus is 6,496 yards wide, and rises to a height of 250 feet where it is narrowest, its mean height being 130 feet.

[18] Principal altitudes of the islands of Greece:―

Feet. Mount Delphi, on Eubœa 5,730 Mount St. Elias, on Eubœa 4,840 Mount Kokhilas, on Scyros 2,565 Mount Kovari, on Andros 3,200 Mount Oxia, on Naxos 3,290 Mount St. Elias, on Siphnos 2,280 Mount St. Elias, on Nios 2,410 Mount St. Elias, on Santorin 1,887

[19] Ionian Islands:―

Area. Inhabitants. Sq. m. Highest Mountains. Feet. (1870.) Corfu 224 Pantokratoros 3,280 72,450 Paxos and Antipaxos 27 3,600 Leucadia 183 Nomali 3,870 21,000 Cephalonia 292 Elato 5,310 67,500 Ithaca 42 Neriton 2,640 10,000 Zante 162 Skopos 1,300 44,500

[20] Population of the principal towns of Greece (1870):―

Towns. Population. Athens and Piræus 59,000 Patras 26,000 Corfu 24,000 Hermopolis, or Syra 21,000 Zante 20,500 Lixuri (Cephalonia) 14,000 Pyrgos, or Letrini 13,600 Tripolis, or Tripolitza 11,500 Chalcis, in Eubœa 11,000 Sparta 10,700 Argos 10,600 Argostoli (Cephalonia) 9,500 Calamata 9,400 Histiæa, in Eubœa 8,900 Karystos, in Eubœa 8,800 Ægion, or Vostitza 8,800 Nauplia 8,500 Spezzia 8,400 Kranidhi, in Argolis 8,400 Lamia 8,300 Missolonghi 7,500 Andros 9,300

[21] Commerce of Greece (1873):—Mercantile marine: 6,135 vessels of 419,350 tons; entered, 112,814 vessels of 6,336,487 tons; imports, £4,166,239; exports, £2,721,877.

[22] Public income (1875), £1,404,053; expenditure, £1,409,288; debt, £15,232,202.

[23] Authorities:—R. Pashley, “Travels in Crete;” Raulin, “Description Physique de l’Ile de Crète;” G. Perrot, “L’Ile de Crète;” Viquesnel, “Voyage dans la Turquie d’Europe;” Ami Boué, “La Turquie d’Europe;” A. Dumont, “Le Balkan et l’Adriatique;” Lejean, “Ethnographie de la Turquie d’Europe;” Von Hammer, “Konstantinopel und der Bosporus;” P. de Tchihatchef, “Le Bosphore;” Heuzey, “Voyage archéologique en Macédoine;” Fanshawe Tozer, “Researches in the Highlands of Turkey;” Barth, “Reisen in der europäischen Türkei;” Von Hahn, “Albanesische Studien;” Hecquard, “Histoire et Description de la Haute-Albanie;” Dora d’Istria, “Nationalité albanaise;” F. Maurer, “Reise durch Bosnien;” F. de Sainte-Marie, “L’Herzégovine;” Kanitz, “Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan;” H. Kiepert, Map of Turkey in Europe.

For changes made by the Berlin treaty, see page 153.

[24] We mention Palma, Vaudoncourt, Lapic, Boué, Viquesnel, Lejean, Kanitz, Barth, Hochstetter, and Abdullah Bey.

[25] Heights of principal mountains:—Aspra Vuna (White Mountain of Leuca-Ori), 8,100 feet; Psiloriti, or Ida, 8,000 feet; Lasithi, or Dicte, 7,100 feet. Towns:—Canea, 12,000 inhabitants; Megalokastron, 12,000; Retimo, 9,000. Total population of the island, 210,000.

[26] The islands of Thracia:―

Sq. m. Inhabitants. Highest Mountains. Feet. Thasos 74 10,000 Mount Ipsario 3,000 Samothrace 66 200 Mount Phengari 5,240 Imbro 85 4,000 Mount St. Elias 1,950 Lemnos 170 22,000 Mount Skopia 1,410

[27] Consul Sax (1873) estimates the population as follows:—Stamboul, 210,000; Pera, 130,000; European suburbs, 150,000; Asiatic suburbs, 110,000; total, 600,000 souls, including 200,000 Mohammedans. Dr. Yakshity, on the other hand, estimates the population of Constantinople (exclusive of its Asiatic suburbs) at 358,000 souls, of whom 193,540 are Mohammedans, 144,210 oriental Christians, and 30,000 Franks.

[28] Length of the Bosphorus, 98,500 feet, or 18·6 miles; average width, 5,250 feet; average depth, 90 feet; greatest depth, 170 feet.

[29] Dimensions of the Dardanelles:—Length, 42·3 miles; average width, 2·7 miles, or 13,100 feet; minimum width, 6,400 feet; average depth, 180 feet; greatest depth, 320 feet.

[30] Altitudes:—Mount Pilav Tepe, 6,183 feet; Kortach, 3,893 feet; Athos, 6,786 feet.

[31] Mount Olympus, 9,750 feet; Mount Ossa, 5,250 feet; Mount Pelion, 5,130 feet.

[32] The following are the principal towns of the Greek provinces of Turkey, together with the number of their inhabitants:―

Adrianople (Edirneh) 110,000 Saloniki (Salonica) 80,000 Seres 30,000 Larissa 25,000 Rodosto 20,000 Gallipoli (Geliboli) 20,000 Trikala (Tirhala) 11,000 Demotika 10,000 Verria 10,000 Enos 7,000

[33] Altitudes in Albania:―

Feet. Skhar 8,200 Tomor 5,413 Zygos (Lachmon) 5,500 Smolika 5,970 Kundusi 6,270 Acroceraunian Mountain 6,700 Lake Okhrida 2,270 Lake of Yanina 1,700

[34] Population of the principal cities of Albania:—Prisrend, 35,000; Soutari (Shkodra), 35,000; Yanina, 25,000; Jakovitza (Yakova), 17,000; Ipek (Pech), 16,000; Elbasan, 12,000; Berat, 11,000; Prishtina, 11,000; Tirana, 10,000; Koritza, 10,000; Argyrokastro, 8,000; Prevesa, 7,000 Dulcigno, 7,000; Durazzo, 5,000.

[35] Altitudes:—Mount Kom, 9,350 feet; Mount Durmitor, 8,860 feet; Glieb, 5,775 feet.

[36] According to Blau (1872), Bosnia, including the Herzegovina and Rascia, has 1,150,000 inhabitants, comprising 590,000 Greek Catholics, 164,000 Roman Catholics, 378,000 Mussulmans, 12,300 gipsies, and 5,700 Jews. The same author states the population for 1855 to have amounted to 893,384 souls, including 286,000 Mussulmans. According to an English Consular Report (1873), the population is 1,084,162, including 461,048 Mussulmans; and according to Professor Yakshity, 1,357,984 souls, including 474,000 Mussulmans.

[37] Principal towns of Bosnia:—Sarayevo, 50,000 inhabitants; Banyaluka, 18,000 inhabitants; Zvornik, 14,000 inhabitants; Travnik, 12,000 inhabitants; Novibazar, 9,000 inhabitants; Trebinye, 9,000 inhabitants; Mostar, 9,000 inhabitants; Tuzla, 7,000 inhabitants.

[38] Altitudes in Bulgaria, according to Hochstetter, Viquesnel, Boué, Barth, and others:—Vitosh, 8,080 feet; Balkan, mean height, 5,600 feet; Chatal, 3,600 feet; hills of the Dobruja, 1,650 feet; Trajan’s Gate, 2,625 feet; Pass of Dubnitza, 3,560 feet; Rilo Dagh, 9,500 feet; Perim Dagh, 7,875 feet; Gornichova, or Nije, 6,560 feet; Peristeri, 7,700 feet; basin of Sofia, 1,710 feet; basin of Monastir, 1,820 feet; Lake of Ostrovo, 1,680 feet; Lake of Kastoria, 2,050 feet.

[39] Cleared from Sulina (1873), 1,870 vessels of 532,000 tons. Value of cereals exported, £6,000,000.

[40] The following are the principal towns of Bulgaria, with the number of their inhabitants:―

Shumna (Shumla) 50,000 Rustchuk 50,000 Philippopoli (Felibe) 40,000 Bitolia (Monastir) 40,000 Skoplie (Uskub) 28,000 Kalkandelen 22,000 Sofia 20,000 Vidin 20,000 Silistria 20,000 Shishtova 20,000 Varna 20,000 Eski-Za’ara 18,000 Bazarjik 18,000 Nish 16,000 Veleze (Koprili) 15,000 Razgrad 15,000 Turnov (Tirnova) 12,000 Sliven (Slivno) 12,000 Prilip 12,000 Kezanlik 10,000 Stanimako 10,000 Florina 10,000 Kurshova 9,000 Sulina 5,000

[41] Receipts for 1874, £20,400,000; debts in 1875, £220,000,000.

[42] Races and religions of Turkey in Europe (Servia, Montenegro, and Rumania excluded):―

Total. Mussulmans. Greek Roman Other
Catholics. Catholics. Christians.

Slavs Servians 1,114,000 442,000 492,000 180,000 ――
Bulgarians 2,861,000 790,000 2,051,000 20,000 ――
Russians, &c. 10,000 ―― ―― 2,000 8,000
Greeks 1,176,000 38,000 1,138,000 ―― ――
Greco-Latins Rumanians 50,000 ―― 50,000 ―― ――
Zinzares 150,000 ―― 150,000 ―― ――
Albanians Gheges 1,031,000 773,000 178,000 80,000 ――
Tosks
Turks Osmanli 1,352,000 1,352,000 ―― ―― ――
Tartars 40,000 40,000 ―― ―― ――
Semites Arabs 3,000 3,000 ―― ―― ――
Jews 72,000 ―― ―― ―― ――
Armenians 100,000 ―― ―― 10,000 ――
Circassians 144,000 144,000 ―― ―― ――
Tsiganes (Gipsies) 104,000 52,000 52,000 ―― ――
Franks 60,000 ―― ―― 50,000 10,000
――――――――― ――――――――― ――――――――― ――――――― ―――――――
Total 8,267,000 3,584,000 4,111,000 342,000 108,000
═════════ ═════════ ═════════ ═══════ ═══════

[43] Area and population of the Turkish Empire:―

Area, Mohammedans
Square Miles. Population. per cent.

Constantinople (including Army, &c.) 1,040 531,000 55
_Vilayets_:―
Edirneh, or Adrianople (Thracia) 26,160 1,307,000 39
Tuna (Danube), or Bulgaria 34,120 2,303,000 40
Saloniki (Macedonia) 12,950 499,000 50
Prisrend (Upper Macedonia) 18,320 1,392,000 57
Shkodra, or Scutari (Upper Albania) 5,310 171,000 48
Bosna Serai, or Serayevo (Bosnia) 17,900 940,000 42
Herzegovina 5,720 144,000 41
Yanina (Epirus and Thessaly) 18,320 711,000 35
Crete, or Candia 3,326 210,000 18
European Islands 400 60,000 7
―――――――― ―――――――――― ――
Turkey in Europe 143,566 8,267,000 44
Turkey in Asia 745,000 13,176,000 86
Tripoli, &c. 344,000 1,150,000 99
――――――――― ―――――――――― ――
Total Ottoman Empire 1,231,566 22,593,000 71
Tributary States
Rumania 46,710 5,180,000 ――
Servia 16,820 1,377,000 ――
Egypt 869,360 17,000,000 70
Tunis 45,700 2,000,000 99
――――――――― ―――――――――― ――
Total Turkish Empire 2,210,156 48,150,000 63
═════════ ══════════ ══

[44] Officially called Romania, and frequently spelt Roumania: in French it is Roumanie.

[45]

Wallachia and Moldavia 4,460,000 Austro-Hungary 2,896,000 Bessarabia and other parts of Russia 600,000 Servia 155,000 Turkey 200,000 Greece 4,000 ――――――――― Total 8,315,000

[46] Mean temperature at Bucharest, 46° F.; maximum, 113° F.; minimum, −22° F.; difference, 135° F.

[47] Mean volume of the Danube (according to C. Hartley), 2,000,000 gallons per second; maximum volume, 6,160,000 gallons; mean volume of Kilia mouth, 1,276,000 gallons; mean of St. George’s mouth, 572,000 gallons; mean of Sulina mouth, 176,000 gallons per second. Mean alluvial deposits of Danube, 2,119 cubic feet per annum.

[48] Approximate population of Rumania in 1875, 5,232,500 souls, of whom 3,260,000 were in Wallachia, and 1,972,500 in Moldavia. There were 4,460,000 Rumanians, 90,000 Bulgarians, 40,000 Russians and other Slavs, 50,000 Magyars, 130,000 Tsigani, 400,000 Jews, 10,000 Armenians, and 52,500 foreigners (30,000 Austrians, 10,000 Greeks, 5,000 Germans, 1,500 French).

[49] Of the total area of Rumania 6,000,000 acres are corn-lands, 600,000 acres produce wine, tobacco, &c., 5,000,000 consist of forests, 9,000,000 of pastures and meadows, and 8,000,000 are uncultivated. In 1874 there were 600,000 horses, 2,900,000 head of cattle, 100,000 buffaloes, 5,000,000 sheep, 1,200,000 pigs, and 500,000 goats.

[50] Exports, average of 1865–75, £6,700,000; imports, £4,300,000.

[51] Railroads, 1,800 miles; high-roads, 2,650 miles; telegraphs, 2,500 miles; steamers on the Danube, 29, of 7,620 tons burden.

[52] Number of inhabitants of the principal towns of Rumania (official spelling; vulgar or phonetic spelling in parenthesis):―

_Wallachia._—Bucuresci (Bucharest), 221,800; Ploiesti (Ploeshti), 33,000; Braila, 28,270; Craiova, 22,764; Giurgiu (Jurjevo, or Giurgevo), 20,866; Buzeu (Busau), 11,100; Alecsandria, 11,000; Campulung, 9,900; Pitesci (Piteshti), 8,500; Caracalu, 8,600.

_Moldavia._—Jasi (Yassy), 90,000; Galati (Galatz), 80,000; Botosani, 39,900; Barladu (Byrlat), 26,600; Smeilu (Ismail), 21,000; Focsani, 20,300; Peatra, 20,000; Husi, 18,500; Roman, 16,900; Falticeni, 15,000; Bacau, 13,000; Dorohoi, 10,000; Bolgradu, 9,600; Chilie (Kilia), 8,900; Reni, 7,600.