Chapter XVII: Scientific Intelligence (3)

And Dr Lepsius remarks on this mountain, that--

"Although it is certainly a high mountain, still it is a
_secondary_ one, and almost eclipsed by others of the Great
Southern Chain, the geographical centre of which is neither in
_Gebel Mousa_, nor the loftier _Gebel Katherin_, but in the more
southern, and considerably more elevated _Gebel-um-Schomar_."

_Gebel Katherin_, composed principally of a coarse _red granite_, presents the same _conical peaks_. But in Wadi _Owasz_, S. by W., from the last mountain, Burckhardt noticed "a small chain of _white_ and _red sandstone_ hills in the midst of _granite_."

_Gebel-um-Schomar_ ("Mount Mother _Schomar_"), also consists chiefly of _granite_; the lower part _red_, but the top is almost _white_. In its middle, between the granite, occur broad layers of brittle _black slate_, mixed with veins of _quartz_ and _felspar_, and with _micaceous schist_. Its extreme _peak_, about 8800 feet above the sea, is sharp pointed, and seems to be inaccessible, owing to its perpendicular and smooth sides. Burckhardt, in his attempt to ascend it, was obliged to halt at about 200 feet below it. This was, until recently, esteemed the _highest_ point in the Peninsula; but, according to Herr Russegger, two or three other peaks, to the south of it, are about 500 feet more lofty; the _extreme_ elevation of this last group, which seems not to bear any distinct appellation, he estimates at 9300 English feet.

I here add, after the latter author, a sketch of the _granite peaks_ of the high Modern-Sinaic mountains, from north to south, as they present so interesting and remarkable an appearance.

In the narrow valley, a little south of _Gebel Mohala_, which is all granite, on the east side of, or opposite to, the Schomar, is a spring named _Tabakat_, where beautiful porphyry is observed.

The south side of Mount _Schomar_ is very abrupt, and there is _no_ secondary chain between it and the other lofty southern mountains, and the long gravelly plain _El Kaa_.

From that plain, entering _Wadi Hebron_--a ravine about 100 yards wide--fragments of rocks, principally of _granite_ and _porphyry_ washed down by torrents, are frequent; a small stream is seen flowing among them; in spots, some date trees occur, and likewise the manna-producing tamarisk. Continuing to ascend, a moderately-steep pass is reached; afterwards, a descent of about 700 feet leads into the sandy _Wadi Solaf_ "wine valley;" and then, gaining, with some difficulty, the summit of a steeper pass, the north-west angle of the extensive _Wadi Raha_ is come to. Here, again, the present Sinaic group, beyond the plain, exhibits its rugged mountains of dark _granite_, with "stern, naked, splintered _peaks_, and ridges of indescribable grandeur."

Next, turning to the north down the narrow declivity called _Nakb Hawi_, the "windy pass," of which the stupendous _granite_ walls or cliffs elevate themselves to about 800 feet, passing to the west end of _Wadi Solaf_, where it meets _Wadi Firan_ and _Wadi-el-Sheikh_, and following the last valley as far as _El Szaleib_, that ascent is attained. There the formation consists of _granite_, on the upper beds of which run layers of _red felspar_. North-east of _Wadi-el-Ush_ is situate _Gebel Sheyger_, which affords some native _cinnabar_. The three principal passes leading from the sandy Debbet-el-Ramleh on to the great desert over the Tyh range, are, _El Mureikhi_ near the centre and near _Gebel-el-Egmeh_; then _El Warsah_, said to be of too rapid an ascent for caravans; and the third, which is most to the west, _El Rakineh_ (the painted.) Afterwards, at some distance to the NW., is the valley opening past _Ras Wadi Gharandel_, that has already been described.

Proceeding, again, across the plain El Ramleh, and over the pass Mureikhi on to the Desert-el-Tyh, in the approach to the castle of _Nakhl_, on the east, a few miles off, low _chalky_ hills appeared; and in places there were holes wherein _rock-salt_ had been dug. The water at Nakhl is brackish, and the ground chalky, covered with loose pebbles. _Wadi Nesil_ was observed to be overgrown with green shrubs. _Gebel-el-Thughar_, signifying "the mouths," presents a mountainous tract, in which followed a valley with _calcareous_ hills: here deep sands were lodged, and large insulated rocks of a porous _tufa_, called by Burckhardt _tufwacke_, lie scattered in many places.

"The termination of the vast gravelly plain we had been crossing
from _Nakhl_ was now at hand; but we could yet see it spreading
out wide to our left, the mirage giving its distant portions the
appearance of a succession of blue lakes; directly in front were
the mountains which close it in; and far to the right we could
see, stretching away, a still higher range running to the north,
and on the left the tops of the mountains about Wadi Gharandel,
the _Taset_ (cup) _Soddur_ being conspicuous afar. We entered
these mountains by a slight ascent, which struck soon after the
head of a long winding valley descending towards Suez: the immense
plain we had traversed, floated away in mist, and we had now done
with the plateau of the Great Desert."[15]

Footnote 15: _Bartlett's_ "Forty Days in the Desert," p. 167.

Thence a plain, which is below the level of the Desert-el-Tyh, and covered with moving _sands_, extends as far as the sea-shore. These _sands_ are collected by the winds, in many spots, into hills 30 or 40 feet high. The wells at _Mabuk_ afford good water by digging to the depth of 10 or 12 feet.

_Fifthly_, Once more leaving Suez; after having passed over a small piece of marine and alluvial formation near the sea, and taking a westerly direction, a narrow tract of _tertiary sandstone_, so designated by Russegger, is observed; it is a plain which gradually ascends from the shore of the Gulf, and in it is placed the Castle of _Ajroud_; the water obtained there is very bitter. Beyond this to the west, the plain becomes _sandy_, and covered with black flints.

But the soil and hills at _Wadi Emshash_, which signify the "Valley of the Waterpits," near Ajroud, are calcareous: the well there, called _Bir Emshash_, yields after rain good drinking water. The hills around Ajroud consist of _tertiary limestone_ and _marl_. More to the south, Gebel Ataka divides this formation, itself being a _secondary limestone_ belonging to the _cretaceous_ series, and, according to Dr Robinson, is strewed thickly with _flint_ pebbles. It terminates in _Ras Ataka_, or "Cape Deliverance," on the Gulf. The sandy and gravelly plain, _El Baidea_, the _Wadi Tawarik_ of others, has been named by some, the "Valley of Moses," Wadi Mousa; it communicates on the west with _Wadi-el-Tyh_.

_Gebel Deraj_ (steps) is limestone of the same cretaceous series as Mount Ataka; and this formation stretches out southwards to a great distance, constituting a large portion of the East Egyptian Desert.

Then on the south of the former mountain, a band of granite, which forms the northern ridge of _Gebel Kallala_, is observed, wherein there exist remains of old _copper_ mines. Those called _Reigatamerih_, situate among low hills, "have evidently been worked by the ancients, as well from the quantity of pottery and _scoriæ_ there, as from the remains of miners' houses, and the regular manner in which the caverns have been cut, following up the veins."[16]

Footnote 16: _Mr J. Wilkinson_ on the Eastern Desert of Upper
Egypt, p. 32, vol. ii. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.

Near, on the SE., there is a well (_bir_) named _Horreh_, whose water is bad, owing to the _sulphur_ which it contains. This is placed in _Wadi Araba_, an extensive valley, running in a direction nearly due W. and E., and descending from _Wadi Chaderat_ very rapidly to the shore of the gulf, which is here termed by the Arabs _Mersa Zafraneh_, _i.e._, "Harbour of Saffron." The coast itself is flat and marshy. The headlands on the south are a conglomerate, or _breccia_ rock, of the _Tertiary_ formation, composed of shells, stones, and other substances, held together by a calcareous cement. The Arabs report, that a carriage-road anciently existed through the Wadi Araba, and led to the Bay of Zafraneh. This, I conceive, might have been the road of communication to the Egyptian colonies and copper mines on the opposite Sinaic peninsula, in _Wadi Maghara_, _Sarbut-el-Chadem_, &c., and over which the produce of those mines, having been shipped from the harbour of Zelime to the Mersa Zafraneh, might have been conveyed in waggons to the Nile. But, whether or not the _Araba_ mountains that rise a little to the south of the opposite coast of the Peninsula had received the _same_ appellation from _this valley_, there seems to be no testimony to decide. The "Monastery of St Antony"--_Deir Antonios_--distant about 17 miles from the sea, is a fortified convent of Copts, surrounded by a strong wall, of about 35 feet in height, the entrance to which is by a trap-door, wherefrom a rope descends, as in the present Sinaic convent. The keep, or place of safety, is an insulated tower, defended by a drawbridge. According to common statement, this was the abode and place of burial of _St Antony_, the founder of Monachism. The mountains to the south, at the northern end of which stands the convent, are _calcareous_ (of the same _cretaceous_ formation), containing in places a great deal of _salt_. They are known to the Arabs by the term of _Gebel Kallala_, and, in fact, constitute the southern ridge of that chain. Another large and similarly protected convent, called _Deir Bolos_ (Paul), distant from the former[17] about 15 miles in a direct SE. line, is situate in a picturesque place, and about 10 miles from the nearest point of the Gulf of Suez. An adjoining garden abounds in date and other fruit-trees. On the east, between this convent and the sea, _Wadi Girfeh_ is approached, among low hills: on the tops of some of these the substructions of houses are visible, having been built with uncemented stones. Also some chambers, or catacombs, are cut in the rock: in the larger were found crystals of _rock-salt_; the strata are composed of _limestone_, and contain many fossils. Broken pieces of _terra cotta_ vases, chiefly red, are everywhere observed; and they, with other vestiges, probably point out the site of a Roman colonial town.

Footnote 17: See the Views of the Convents of St Paul and St
Anthony, plate 51, p. 128, chap. vi., book ii., vol. i., in
_Pococke's_ "Description of the East."

Proceeding from St Paul's to the SE., for near 15 miles, the line of the _primitive_ mountains is reached on the left, whilst the _secondary_ chain of Gebel Kallala, consisting of limestone with ammonites, is continued on the right, or west. South of Wadi Dthahal _micaceous schist_ approaching to _gneiss_ occurs, and a little further, the primitive and _sandstone_, or _gritstone_ rocks join. Thence the secondary, or _cretaceous_ mountains, diverging to the south and south-west, gradually decrease in altitude.

Again, southwards, some more ancient copper-works are noticed; and then, _Gebel Horvashia_, whose formation is _granite_, rises a few miles off to the SE.; in its natural basin much good water is retained after rain. _Wadi Abu Hadth_ next attracts attention from its possessing a good deal of fine herbage, and many gum-arabic trees. Of the granite mountains in this region, _Gebel Agrib_, or _Garib_, or _Gharib_ ("camel's hump") is the loftiest, as it elevates itself to about 6000 feet above the sea level; and from its position it forms a conspicuous landmark far out at sea.

The ascent of this majestic mountain, from its steepness and numerous ravines, is found to be fatiguing. Mr J. Wilkinson[18] describes it as follows:--

"The first evening we reached the base of the highest cone, where we
slept, and ascended the next morning to the summit, from which we
had a view of the mountains on either side of the sea, and the
different plains. We tracked the gazelles very nearly to the summit,
and every now and then in the ravines found some solitary plants
growing under the shade of a projecting stone. The peaks of this
mountain resemble the _Aiguilles_ near Mount Blanc; but, to equal
that mountain in beauty, it requires the lower parts to be covered
with the woods and verdure of the Alps, and the desert plain below
to be exchanged for the green meadows of Switzerland. I calculate
the height to be 5513 feet above the ravine in the plain below,
which is a few hundred feet above the level of the sea."

Footnote 18: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ii.
p. 39.

About ten miles southward, _Bir-el-Dara_--the "Well of Dara," below the mountain of that name, occurs; there, likewise, copper _scoriæ_, smelting furnaces, and miners' houses, are observed.

Further south, more _copper mines_ are seen in a bare place, among low hills, all of which have been examined for the ore.

Advancing south-eastwards by the plain, some _calcareous_ rocks are passed, and afterwards a line of _sandstone_,[19] with limestone over it, running parallel to, and nearly equidistant between the _two primitive_ ridges. _Wadi-el-Enned_ succeeds to the eastward, where a beautifully clear rivulet is found; but its water is too bad for the use of animals, being chiefly serviceable for the nourishment of numerous date palms. This spot lies at the foot of some _limestone_ hills of the _cretaceous_ series that join the eastern _granitic_ ridge.

Footnote 19: Mr J. Wilkinson (_ibid_, Note, p. 41), says,
"Judging from the angle of its dip, it formerly rose _over_ the
lower, or eastern primitive range, from which, however, it is now
separated by a valley, or bed of a torrent."

Next, on the south, comes _Gebel Kuffra_, where the water is so _salt_ as only to be drunk by camels. _Gebel Dochan_, (smoke)--the "Mons Porphyrites" of the ancients--rising about eleven miles more southward, and in the same line with the supposed site of _Myos Hormus_, Myos Hormos, the "mouse harbour," is too distant from our proposed limits, to receive a full description in the present Memoir. I will only remark that at Mount _Dochan_, there exist some interesting ruins, and "those vast _quarries_, from which Rome took so many superb pieces of _porphyry_, to adorn her baths and porticoes."[20] On its southern side, Mr J. Wilkinson adds, "we met with some _Breccia Verde_; and of other kinds of _Breccia_ we had observed great quantities and varieties at Dochan." The sea-shore, about Myos Hormus, is bare and deserted; to the west, at some distance from the harbour, the _granitic_ chain extends; on the east, between it and the sea, a low ridge of _limestone_ hills, which unites with the primitive rocks on the north, comes down towards the shore. "And, in the distance, on the north, is seen the mountain _El Zeit_, so called from the quantity of _petroleum_ found there; whence project two small headlands, forming two gulfs, at the entrance of which are many long _sandbanks_. May not this be the '_mons Eos_' of Pliny?"[21]

Footnote 20: _Ibid_, p. 42.--Pliny writes of the _quarries_,
"quantis libet molibus cædendis sufficiunt _Lapidicinæ_." Lib.
36, cap. 7. They produced _red porphyry_ of a most beautiful,
close-grained kind; so Pliny says, "_rubet porphyrites_ in eadem
OEgypto."

Footnote 21: Ibid., p. 51.

This _Gebel Zeit_, or "Mount of Oil," runs out into a promontory on one side of the Strait of Jubal; at its foot a copious supply of _Petroleum_, or rock oil, is obtained. It is about as liquid as turpentine, of a black or dark-brown colour, and is collected by the Greek Christians of Tur, who take it there and sell it, for rheumatism and for healing sores. The Arabs call it _Zeit-el-Gebel_--"oil of the mountain."

South of this promontory the sea is studded with a number of small islands, some of which are described by Strabo; all, however, I believe, except _Shadwan_, which is of secondary limestone, are of recent marine formation--chiefly of _Coral_.

(_Conclusion in our next Number._)

_Climate of Whitehaven_

_Synopsis of Meteorological Observations made at the Observatory,
Whitehaven, Cumberland, in the Year 1849._
BY JOHN FLETCHER MILLER, Esq., F. R. S., F. R. A. S., &c.
Communicated by the Author.

+------++------------------------------------------------------------+
| || STANDARD BAROMETER,[22] |
| || CORRECTED AND REDUCED TO 32° FAHRENHEIT. |
| ||----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------|
| || | | | | | | | |
| || | | Mean | Mean | Mean | Pres-| Mean | |
|1849. || Max. | Min. | at | at |Atmos-| sure | Pres-| |
| || | | 3 | 10 |pheric| of | sure | Range.|
| || | | P.M. | P.M. | Pres-|Vapor.|of Dry| |
| || | | | | sure | | Air. | |
|------||----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------|
| || Inches |Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches| Inches|
|Jan. ||30·173 |28·680|29·654|29·679|29·666| 0·236|29·430| 1·493 |
|Feb. ||30·774[23]|28·890|30·012|30·012|30·012| ·265|29·747| 1·884 |
|March ||30·494 |29·140|29·940|29·949|29·944| ·264|29·680| 1·354 |
|April ||30·147 |29·123|29·551|29·563|29·571| ·256|29·315| 1·024 |
|May ||30·147 |29·052|29·749|29·763|29·770| ·354|29·416| 1·095 |
|June ||30·122 |29·516|29·867|29·873|29·884| ·357|29·527| ·606 |
|July ||30·295 |29·216|29·763|29·770|29·780| ·426|29·354| 1·079 |
|Aug. ||30·189 |29·175|29·785|29·788|29·800| ·436|29·364| 1·014 |
|Sept. ||30·464 |28·924|29·826|29·831|29·842| ·413|29·429| 1·540 |
|Oct. ||30·489 |29·129|29·720|29·731|29·739| ·316|29·423| 1·360 |
|Nov. ||30·137 |28·737|29·637|29·668|29·666| ·295|29·371| 1·400 |
|Dec. ||30·721[24]|29·078|29·843|29·835|29·853| ·233|29·620| 1·643 |
|------||----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------|
|Means ||30·346 |29·055|29·778|29·788|29·794| ·321|29·473|{1·291}|
| || | | | | | | |{2·094}|
+------++----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+

Footnote 22: The readings of the barometer hitherto used required
an additive correction of about 0·08 inch. All past results will
be reduced to the standard instrument.

Footnote 23: Uncorrected Maximum, 30·820 inches.

Footnote 24: Uncorrected Maximum, 30·752 inches.

+------++-----------------------------------++-------------+
| || SELF-REGISTERING THERMOMETER. ||PLUVIOMETER. |
| || || |
| ||---------+-----+-----+-------+-----||------+------|
| || | | | | || | |
| ||Absolute | | | Mean | || Rain | |
|1849. || | Mean| Mean|Monthly|Range|| and | Snow.|
| ||---------| of | of |Temper-| || Snow.| |
| ||Max.|Min.| Max.| Min.| ature.| || | |
| || | | | | | || | |
|------||----+----+-----+-----+-------+-----||------+------|
| || ° | ° | ° | ° | ° | ° ||Inches|Inches|
|Jan. ||50· |18·7|42·14|35·82| 38·987| 31·3|| 5·683| |
|Feb. ||51· |30· |45·91|40·07| 42·990| 21· || 2·045| |
|March ||54· |28· |46·79|39·96| 43·375| 26· || ·837| |
|April ||62· |29· |49·73|38·51| 44·124| 33· || 1·488| ·090 |
|May ||70· |36·5|60·51|45·85| 53·185| 33·5|| 3·037| |
|June ||67·5|40·5|61·53|48·55| 55·044| 27· || 1·224| |
|July ||75·5|46· |63·93|53·74| 58·835| 29·5|| 5·478| |
|Aug. ||72· |46·5|64·05|55·03| 59·541| 25·5|| 3·771| |
|Sept. ||74· |42·5|62·56|50·48| 56·524| 31·5|| 2·814| |
|Oct. ||64· |34· |52·16|43·11| 47·636| 30· || 5·252| |
|Nov. ||55· |27·7|47·85|42·77| 45·310| 27·3|| 4·974| |
|Dec. ||52·5|25· |41·69|35·93| 38·810| 27·5|| 2·396| |
|------||----+----+-----+-----+-------+-----++------+------|
|Means ||62·3|33·7|53·24|44·15| 48·696| 56·8||38·999| ·090 |
| || | | | | | || | |
+------++----+----+-----+-----+-------+-----++------+------+

+------++-------------------------------------+
| || | | || |
| || | | || |
| || | | || |
| || Wet |Evapor-| Prevailing ||Force|
| ||Days.| ation | Winds. Two || of |
|1849. || | Gauge.| Daily ||Wind,|
| || | | Observations. || 0-5.|
| || | | || |
| || | | || |
|------||-----+-------+----------------++-----|
| || | Inches| || |
|Jan. || 20 | ·909 |SW. || 3·2 |
|Feb. || 12 | 1·024 |SW. || 2·1 |
|March || 13 | 1·558 |SW. & NW. || 2·1 |
|April || 16 | 2·620 |Easterly. || 2·5 |
|May || 14 | 3·886 |SW. || 2·0 |
|June || 10 | 5·076 |SW. || 1·9 |
|July || 18 | 4·156 |NW. || 2·3 |
|Aug. || 19 | 2·657 |SW. || 1·4 |
|Sept. || 12 | 3·337 |E., Variable 1·5|| |
|Oct. || 17 | 1·723 |SW. || 2·3 |
|Nov. || 24 | ·960 |SW. || 2·4 |
|Dec. || 15 | ·793 |E., Variable || 1·8 |
|------||-----+-------+----------------++-----|
|Means || 190 |28·699 |SW. || 2·1 |
| || | | || |
+------++-----+-------+----------------++-----+

HYGROMETER.

+---------++----------------------------------++
| || At 3h P.M. ||
| || ||
| ++-------+-------+----------+-------++
| || | | | ||
| 1849. || Mean | Mean | Mean | Com- ||
| || of | of | Dew- |plete- ||
| || Dry | Wet | Point |ment of||
| || Bulb. | Bulb. | De- | Dew- ||
| || | |duced.[25]|Point. ||
| || | | | ||
+---------++-------+-------+----------+-------++
| || ° | ° | ° | ° ||
|January || 40·28 | 39·02 | 36·68 | 3·60 ||
|February || 44·66 | 42·50 | 40·08 | 4·46 ||
|March || 45·85 | 43·17 | 40·02 | 5·82 ||
|April || 48·66 | 43·94 | 39·13 | 9·53 ||
|May || 58·79 | 52·85 | 48·39 | 10·40 ||
|June || 60·23 | 53·44 | 48·68 | 11·54 ||
|July || 63·13 | 57·47 | 53·82 | 9·30 ||
|August || 62·43 | 57·77 | 54·59 | 7·84 ||
|Sept. || 61·95 | 56·48 | 52·87 | 9·08 ||
|October || 51·17 | 48·13 | 45·09 | 6·06 ||
|November || 46·65 | 45·10 | 43·23 | 3·41 ||
|December || 40·25 | 38·74 | 36·40 | 3·79 ||
+---------++-------+-------+----------+-------++
|Means, || 52·00 | 48·21 | 44·91 | 7·07 ||
|1848, || 51·93 | 48·23 | 44·98 | 6·95 ||
|1847, || 51·94 | | 44·12 | 7·82 ||
+---------++-------+-------+----------+-------++

+---------++---------------++---------+-------+
| || WEIGHT OF || | |
| || VAPOUR. || | |
| ++-------+-------++ Degree | |
| || |Requir-|| of |Weight |
| 1849. || In a |ed for ||Humidity,| of a |
| || Cubic | Satu- ||(complete| Cubic |
| || foot |ration || Satu- |foot of|
| || of | of a || ration | Air. |
| || Air. |Cubic || =1·000).| |
| || | foot. || | |
+---------++-------+-------++---------+-------+
| ||Grains.|Grains.|| |Grains.|
|January || 2·80 | 0·32 || 0·899 | 546·2 |
|February || 3·04 | 0·57 || 0·844 | 546·8 |
|March || 3·03 | 0·72 || 0·811 | 543·7 |
|April || 2·87 | 1·23 || 0·701 | 535·1 |
|May || 3·93 | 1·73 || 0·696 | 527·2 |
|June || 3·91 | 1·99 || 0·663 | 527·8 |
|July || 4·70 | 1·77 || 0·726 | 522·6 |
|August || 4·85 | 1·50 || 0·767 | 523·2 |
|Sept. || 4·55 | 1·71 || 0·728 | 523·7 |
|October || 3·58 | 0·87 || 0·804 | 533·8 |
|November || 3·41 | 0·43 || 0·888 | 538·8 |
|December || 2·71 | 0·41 || 0·878 | 548·1 |
+---------++-------+-------++---------+-------+
|Means, || 3·61 | 1·10 || 0·784 | 534·7 |
|1848, || | || | |
|1847, || | || | |
+---------++-------+-------++---------+-------+

Footnote 25: From Mr Glaisher's Hygrometrical Tables, the
accuracy of which my own series of observations made in the years
1847 and 1848, for the purpose of testing their correctness, shew
in a very striking manner; and I think every meteorologist must
feel himself greatly indebted to Mr Glaisher for this valuable
compilation, which is also based on observations made under his
own superintendence at the National Observatory.

In eight months of the year 1847, the difference between the
observed and the deduced Dew-point at Whitehaven, is 0°·10; and
in 1848, it is only 0°·07, the mean of the two periods comprising
1220 observations, amounting to the comparatively evanescent
fraction of 8/100ths of a degree. Such satisfactory proofs of the
perfection of Mr G.'s tables have induced me to abandon Daniell's
Dew-point Apparatus, for that more simple, less costly, and
equally correct form of Hygrometer, the combination of the dry
and wet bulb thermometers.

SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION.

[Transcriber's Note: Key to abbreviations in table headers:
Six's = Six's Thermometer, 4 feet above Ground;
O G = On Grass;
O W = On Wool.]

+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| || ABSOLUTE MINIMA.||MEAN NOCTURNAL TEMPERATURE.||
| ||----------------------------------------------||
| 1849. ||Six's| On | O W ||Six's| Naked Thermometers ||
| || |Grass| O G || | O G |O W O G| Diff. ||
|----------||-----+-----+-----||-----+-----+-------+-------||
| || ° | ° | ° || ° | ° | ° | ° ||
|January, || 18·7| 4· |--2·8||35·82|30·35| 27·71 | 2·64 ||
|February, || 30· | 20·5| 18· ||40·07|35·38| 33·08 | 2·30 ||
|March, || 28· | 19·5| 14·7||39·96|34·88| 32·60 | 2·28 ||
|April, || 29· | 21·3| 16· ||38·51|32·72| 28·88 | 3·84 ||
|May, || 36·5| 26· | 22· ||45·85|39·27| 36·27 | 3·00 ||
|June, || 40·5| 29·5| 25· ||48·55|41·06| 37·86 | 3·20 ||
|July, || 46· | 33· | 29· ||53·74|45·52| 42·43 | 3·09 ||
|August, || 46·5| 35· | 31·5||55·03|49·25| 46·05 | 3·20 ||
|September,|| 42·5| 31·8| 28· ||50·48|42·84| 39·53 | 3·31 ||
|October, || 34· | 24·5| 18·5||43·11|37·15| 33·46 | 3·69 ||
|November, || 27·7| 19·5| 14·5||42·77|37·79| 35·72 | 2·07 ||
|December, || 25· | 17·5| 11·5||35·93|30·29| 27·08 | 3·21 ||
|----------||-----+-----+-----||-----+-----+-------+-------||
| 1849, || 33·7| 23·5| 18·8||44·15|38·04| 35·05 | 2·98 ||
| 1848, || 32·5| | 20·2||43·79| | 35·73 | ||
| 1847, || 33·7| | 20·5||43·50| | 35·95 | ||
| 1846, || 36·1| | 23·1|| | | | ||
+-----------------------------------------------------------+

+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| || TERRESTRIAL RADIATION. |
| ||--------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1849. || Maximum. || Minimum. || Mean. |
| || O G |O W O G| || O G |O W O G| Day. ||O G |O W O G|
|----------||-----+-------+---------||-----+-------+---------||----+-------|
| || ° | ° | || ° | ° | || ° | |
|January, || 14·7| 21·5 | 3d || 1· | 1·5 | 7th||5·47| 8·11 |
|February, || 11·5| 13· | 17th|| 1·5 | 1·5 | 3, 22d||4·69| 6·99 |
|March, || 14·5| 16· | 31st|| 0· | 1·5 | 11,12th||5·08| 7·36 |
|April, || 11·5| 17·5 | 11th|| 3· | 3· | 3d ||5·79| 9·63 |
|May, || 12· | 17·5 | 1st|| 1·5 | 2·5 | 15th||6·58| 9·58 |
|June, || 14· | 19·5 | 4th|| 2· | 3·5 | 26th||7·49| 10·69 |
|July, || 16· | 20· | 16, 17th|| 3· | 4· | 4th||8·22| 11·31 |
|August, || 19· | 22· | 4th|| 2· | 3· | 26th||5·78| 8·98 |
|September,|| 13· | 18·5 | 27th|| 2· | 2·5 | 16, 20th||7·64| 10·95 |
|October, || 14· | 21· | 17th|| 0· | 1· | 25, 30th||5·96| 9·65 |
|November, || 10·5| 13·2 | 24, 28th|| 1·5 | 1·5 | 8th||4·98| 7·05 |
|December, || 17·5| 21· | 4th|| 0· | 0·5 | 8th||5·64| 8·85 |
|----------||-----+-------+---------||-----+-------+---------||----|-------|
| 1849, || 14·0| 18·4 | || 1·46| 2·16 | ||6·11| 9·09 |
| 1848, || | 15·9 | || | 1·94 | || | 8·06 |
| 1847, || | 15·1 | || | 1·14 | ||[26]| 7·45 |
| 1846, || | 14·6 | || | 1·35 | ||[27]| 7·45 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+

+---------------------------------+
| || IN SUN'S RAYS. |
| ||---------------------|
| 1849. || Max. |Mean.|Solar |
| || | |Rad.[28]|
|----------||------|-----|--------|
| || ° | ° | ° |
|January, || 59 | 45·5| 3·37 |
|February, || 67 | 54·4| 8·49 |
|March, || 77 | 61·3| 14·51 |
|April, || 93 | 69·3| 19·57 |
|May, || 133 | 88·0| 27·49 |
|June, || 106 | 89·2| 27·67 |
|July, || 106 | 96·3| 32·37 |
|August, || 104 | 85·8| 21·75 |
|September,|| 102 | 81·1| 18·54 |
|October, || 75 | 64·9| 12·74 |
|November, || 67 | 50·9| 3·05 |
|December, || 56 | 44·1| 2·41 |
|----------||------+-----+--------|
| 1849, || 87·0 | 69·2| 15·99 |
| 1848, || | | |
| 1847, || 90·2 | 71·0| 17·15 |
| 1846, || | | |
+---------------------------------+

Footnote 26: In 1847, the Thermometer was on Cork throughout the
year. It is here reduced to the Standard of Raw Wool.

Footnote 27: In 1846, the Thermometer was placed on Cork in
cloudy and wet weather. The results are reduced to the Standard
of Raw Wool, by adding 0°·25 to the _recorded_ annual mean.

Footnote 28: Difference between the mean maximum in the Sun's
rays, and the mean maximum in the shade.

_Form, &c. of Instruments._

The Barometer (the frame of which is brass) is a standard made by Barrow, under the direction of James Glaisher, Esq., of the Greenwich Observatory.

The adjustment for the difference of capacity of tube and cistern is effected previous to every observation, and the correction for capillarity and reduction to the temperature of 32° is made at the close of each month.

The difference between its readings and those of the Greenwich standard is scarcely appreciable, being only 0·002 inch.

The Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers, also made by Barrow, are considered to have identical readings under similar circumstances, and both, too, agree with the Greenwich standard thermometer. The Dew-point apparatus, now discontinued, approximates very closely in its readings to the dry and wet bulb thermometers.

The Self-registering Thermometer is a large Six made by Dollond in 1840, and its average difference from the standard is within 2/10ths of a degree. A duplicate and precisely similar thermometer (which has also been repeatedly compared with a standard at every part of the scale) is fixed by its side, so that in case of No. 1 getting out of order, No. 2 can be resorted to without detriment to the results.

These instruments all have a northern aspect, and are placed about 4 feet above the ground. The naked thermometers employed for indicating the relative amount of solar and terrestrial radiation, are precisely similar to those in use at the Government Observatories.

The Rain and Evaporation Gauges are 8 inches in diameter, and the metres are graduated to the 1/1000th part of an inch. Both are read off daily. The aperture of the rain-gauge is about 7 feet above the ground. The evaporation dish is mounted on a moveable stand, 4 feet 4 inches in height, and the circular shelf on which the vessel rests, is just large enough to hold it. The gauge receives a fair proportion of wind and sunshine, and is always exposed in the open air during the day, except when _rain is falling_. At night and in wet weather, it is placed under a capacious shed, 9 feet in height, and open in front. Thus, it is conceived that the evaporating surface is freely acted upon by all the circumstances concerned in promoting this important natural process.

The direction of the wind is taken twice daily, and its force is registered on an arbitrary scale from 0 to 6; the highest number is reserved for storms approaching the hurricane in violence, and is very rarely recorded.

_Remarks on the Weather in 1849._

_January._--A damp wet month, except the first week, when sharp frost prevailed. The mean temperature is 0°·68 _above_ the average. On the night between the 2d and 3d, a naked thermometer on the grass fell to 4°, and one on raw wool to 2°·8 below zero, being the lowest temperature I have recorded. The radiation indicated by raw wool was 21°·5. Between one and two o'clock on the morning of the 10th, a terrific thunder-storm burst suddenly over the town, and spread great alarm amongst the slumbering inhabitants. Seven or eight dazzling discharges of the electric fluid, followed by deafening crashes, succeeded each other in about as many minutes. The storm was almost vertical; and between several of the flashes and the accompanying thunder, there was scarcely an appreciable interval, certainly not more than a single second of time. The war of the elements ceased as suddenly as it commenced, and altogether, the storm did not last more than ten minutes. The wind, which previously blew a heavy gale, lulled almost to a calm as the last peal died away. The storm was followed by a heavy fall of rain and hail. It appears to have been pretty much confined to this town and neighbourhood. Thunder was also heard on the evening of the 14th, and lightning was seen on the nights of the 21st, 26th, and 29th. Saturn's ring was perceived at this Observatory on the night of the 31st, after a long continuance of damp, wet weather. As this singular appendage was readily seen, and was well and sharply defined, I have no doubt the instrument would have shewn it ten or fourteen days earlier, had the nights been at all favourable. The ring was also seen on the night of the 11th of September 1848, during its temporary reappearance.

_February._--A fine, dry, and mild month. The temperature 3°·49 _above_ the average of twelve years. On the 11th, the barometer attained the remarkably high point of 30·82 at this Observatory, which is about 90 feet above the sea level. At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (40 feet above sea), the maximum was 30·85, being greater than any reading since January 1825, when the barometer at the Royal Society's apartments attained to 30·841, at 81 feet above the sea level; and there is no other instance recorded in the Philosophical Transactions of a reading so high as 30·8, from the commencement of the series in 1774. The maxima of pressure recorded on the 11th in various parts of the country, were all found to give a reading of 30·90 at the mean sea level.

On the 18th, primroses were in flower on the cliffs between Panton and Harrington.

_March._--Similar to February. Temperature 2°·29 _above_ the average, and the complement of the dew-point 2°·40 _below_ the mean of the two preceding years.

FIRST QUARTER.--The temperature of the first quarter of 1849 is 2°·16 _above_ the average of twelve years, and the complement of the dew-point is 1°·52 _below_ that of the corresponding quarter in the unhealthy years 1847 and 1848.

The average fall of rain is 11·593 inches; in 1849, we have had 8·565, or 3·02 inches _below_ the usual quantity.

The deaths in the quarter ending March 31, in the town and suburb of Preston Quarter, are 168, being 16 _above_ the corrected quarterly average, which is 152. In the corresponding quarters of 1848 and 1849, the deaths were 250 and 187 respectively.

The deaths exceed the births by 25 in number.

_April._--A fine, dry, but cold month. The temperature 1°·95 below the average. On the 23d the cuckoo was heard, and on the following day the swallow was seen in this neighbourhood. On Good Friday, the 6th, two parhelia, accompanied by a halo, were seen by a friend who was fishing by the river Calder. The sky was covered with a thin cirro-stratus, so that the images did not present any defined outline or disc, but consisted of three circular patches of light of nearly equal intensity, so much so, that it was difficult to distinguish the real from the phantom suns. The phenomena were first noticed about 5 P.M., and they remained visible till near six. The ring or halo passed through the centres of the parhelia, one of which was to the left, and the other to the right of the sun, with which they formed a straight line.

_May._--A fine month, with an average mean temperature. The sun shone out on 29 days. The depth of rain is about an inch _above_ the average quantity.

_June._--A very dry month, and by far the coldest June I have recorded in the last seventeen years. The mean temperature is no less than 3°·67 below the average. The hay harvest began in this neighbourhood about the 20th.

The thermometer on the grass, on raw wool, was below the freezing point on eight nights; on the nights of the 8th and 10th it fell to 27°·5, and on that of the 19th and 20th, to 25°. On several mornings ice was seen in the immediate vicinity of the town, and on the 3d of the month there was a somewhat heavy fall of snow amongst the mountains. Highbell, Kentmere, High Street, and the mountains around Mardale, were covered with the mantle of winter to the depth of 6 inches. Such an incident has not occurred, it is said, since 1827, when several sheep were lost and smothered in snow-drifts on Mosedale and Helvellyn; and Skiddaw was covered with snow. Both snow and hail are recorded on the 10th in the register kept for me at Bassenthwaite Halls, at the foot of Skiddaw.

What is most remarkable, this unusual coldness does not appear to have been experienced at all in the southern counties of England. At Greenwich, the temperature is stated to be of the same value as that of the average from 70 years, but less than that of the preceding eight years, by 1°·9. According to Mr Glaisher's tables, published in the Registrar-General's Report for the June quarter, the mean temperature in Cornwall and Devonshire _exceeds_ that of the corresponding month in 1847, by 0°·7, and south of lat. 52°, it is in excess 9/10ths of a degree. Between the parallels 52° and 53°, the temperature is 1°·2 _below_ that of June 1847; between 53° and 54°, it is 2°·1, and at Whitehaven, in lat. 54½°, it is 2°·7 below that of June 1847.

The extraordinary depression in the temperature has therefore been unparticipated in, by places situated south of the parallel of 53°.

SECOND QUARTER.--The mean temperature of the quarter ending June 30, is 1°·92 _below_ the average of twelve preceding years; and the difference between the air and dew-point temperatures is 1°·32 _above_ that of the corresponding quarter in the years 1847 and 1848.

The average fall of rain is 8·15 inches; in the second quarter of 1849, the fall is 5·74 inches, or 2·40 inches under the normal quantity.

The deaths in the town and suburb are 139, being 21 above the corrected average number, which is 117. In the June quarters of 1847 and 1848 the deaths were 177 and 147 respectively. The births exceed the deaths by 59.

_July._--Cold and wet. Temperature 1°·82 _below_ the average. The hay harvest began in this neighbourhood about the 20th June; meadow hay was rather light on the ground, but the crop generally was well secured.

_August._--Average temperature and depth of rain, with a serene and stagnant atmosphere. The complement of the dew point is 1°·78 _below_ the average of the month in the two preceding years.

_September._--A fine, mild, and rather dry month, with serene atmosphere. At the close of the month, several of the public fountains were dry, and most of the pumps in the town had ceased to yield their supplies.

THIRD QUARTER.--The temperature of the quarter ending September 30th is 0°·37 _below_ the average, and the complement of the dew-point, as compared with the two previous years, is 0°·5 _below_ the mean. The depth of rain is 0·36 inch under the average quantity, which is 12·42 inches. The deaths in the third quarter of 1849, in the town and suburb, are 168, or 47 above the corrected average number; and, except in 1846, a greater number than has occurred in any September quarter since the register was begun in 1839. In the September quarter of the last four years, the deaths are as under: 1846, 255; 1847, 148; 1848, 142; and 1849, 168. The births exceed the deaths by six in number. During this quarter we had a few cases of Asiatic cholera in this town, chiefly in the month of September; and at the adjacent seaport of Workington the disease was of a most malignant character, and exceedingly fatal. The total number of deaths from the commencement of the epidemic on the 13th of August, till it entirely ceased on the 6th of November, was 172. In 1841, the population was 6041, which gives a mortality of 2·8 per cent., or one death in every 35 persons, from cholera. It is, however, believed that the population of Workington has decreased since the last census was taken; and at the time the epidemic was raging, most of the respectable inhabitants had left the place; so that the ratio of mortality amongst the then residents must have been considerably greater than is here stated. A singular fact connected with the disease is its sudden cessation for several days, at the expiration of which it returns with increased virulence. In the week between the 25th and 31st of August, the deaths were 65; from the 31st August to the 8th September there were none; on the 8th, 12; 9th and 10th, none; on the 11th, 13; and on the 12th only one death; 13th, 11; from the 14th to the 19th inclusive, the deaths averaged 2·5 daily, but on the 20th they rose to 13; and between the 21st and the end of September there were only eight deaths, which occurred on the 21st, 22d, 25th, and 27th.

Between the 1st and 20th of October the deaths were 32, and during that period there were frequently none for three or four consecutive days. There was only one death after the 20th October. It occurred on the 6th of November, when the pestilence ceased. I am informed by a resident medical gentleman, that at the commencement of the disease the cases were rapidly fatal, many of them after eight or ten hours' illness, and it was then almost entirely confined to the lower classes.

The proximate cause of the exceedingly fatal character of the disease at this seaport is probably to be found in the effluvia engendered by the extensive tract of marshy land, called the "Cloffocks," adjoining the river Derwent, and in the immediate vicinity of the town. What is most remarkable, the first case of cholera at Workington occurred on the same day of the same month, in the same house, and even in the same room in the said house, where the epidemic first broke out in the summer of 1832. There is no peculiarity in the situation of the house, nor can any reason be assigned for this most singular coincidence. I am informed that very few insects were seen about the river, and, during the height of the disease, the rooks entirely forsook their old-established quarters in the grounds adjoining the Hall.[29]

Footnote 29: The cause of this fearful epidemic is still a
mystery. The meteorological conditions of the atmosphere,
although slightly abnormal, are wholly inadequate to account for
its induction. It is most probably induced by some gaseous poison
diffused through the atmosphere, but of a nature so subtle that
the most delicate analysis fails to detect its presence.
According to the experiments of Dr Dundas Thompson of Glasgow, no
solid matter existed in the air, but ammonia was obtained from it
in the proportion of 0·319 grain of caustic ammonia, or 0·731
grain of carbonate of ammonia, to 1000 pounds of air.

_October._--Cold, with an average fall of rain (5¼ inches.) The mean temperature is 2°·5 _below_ the average. The grain crops were above an average in point of quantity, and they were got under cover in excellent condition. Garden fruit, as pears, apples, &c., were not so plentiful as usual. On the evening of the 28th, that rare phenomenon a lunar rainbow, was seen from the grounds at Tarn Bank, near Cockermouth, by Isaac Fletcher, Esq., to whom I am indebted for the following description of it:--

In the early part of the evening the sky was clear, but at 8h 30m a dense mist rose from the river Derwent and entirely overspread a large segment of the northern horizon; whilst to the south, the atmosphere continued comparatively clear, the moon, within four days of full, shining brightly near the meridian. About 9h 10m, there was a faint luminous arch in the north, which was evidently a lunar rainbow, or rather a fog-bow, for no rain whatever was visible at the time. The light reflected by the arch was white, and perfectly free from prismatic colour. Its breadth was considerable, perhaps 4° or 5°, and its centre or highest part, passed close under the star beta Ursæ Majoris, so that the extreme altitude of the arch was probably about 18° or 20°. The edges were not sharply defined, but gradually shaded off. It was noticed that the denser the fog became, the more apparent was the arch, and _vice versa_, so that the phenomenon could not have been of an auroral character. The phenomenon was watched for ten or fifteen minutes, when the gradual dispersion of the fog, by destroying the refracting medium, put an end to this interesting appearance.

_November._--As usual, a very dull, damp month, with but little difference between the temperature of the days and nights. Temperature 1°·20 _above_ the average.

Early on the morning of the 2d, a swallow was seen on the wing in the immediate vicinity of this town. The maximum temperature of the day was 55°. Between the 9th and 12th inclusive, the extremes of day and night temperature only varied 2 degrees.

_December._--A fine dry month with occasional frosty nights. Temperature 2°·15, and rain 2·19 inches _below_ the average. Two loud peals of thunder and much lightning on the night of the 14th.

The remarkable meteor observed at Edinburgh on the evening of the 19th, and minutely described by Professor Forbes who witnessed it, was also seen at Whitehaven under the same circumstances and at the same time.

LAST QUARTER.--The mean temperature of the last quarter of 1849 is 1°·15 _below_ the average, and the complement of the dew-point is 0°·87 _below_ the mean of the two preceding years. The average depth of rain for the quarter is 14·64 inches; in 1849 the quarterly fall is 12·62 inches, or 2·02 inches _under_ the normal quantity. The deaths in this quarter, in the town and suburbs, are 131, being 4 _below_ the average number.

It is pleasant to have to announce a favourable change in the sanitary condition of this town, and to record the termination of an excessive mortality, which uninterruptedly prevailed for a period of two years and a half; for this is the only quarterly period wherein the deaths have not exceeded the average since March 1846.

In the corresponding quarters of 1846, 1847, and 1848, the deaths were 215, 161, and 176 respectively. The births exceed the deaths by 34.

THE AURORA BOREALIS.--There have been seven exhibitions of the aurora borealis during the year 1849, two of which were sufficiently remarkable to merit something more than a passing notice.

The first occurred on the evening of January 14th. At 10 P.M., a well-defined auroral arch, about 5° in width, extended from NNE. to W., its highest part reaching nearly to Arided in Cygnus. At 11h there was one complete arch, and segments of two other arches, all brilliant, crossing each other in the NW., and throwing off intensely bright streamers, some of which reached the altitude of the Pointers. The aurora was now exceedingly beautiful, and emitted considerable light. The streamers appeared to have a duplex lateral motion, running along the upper edge of the arch from west to north, and then backwards from north to west. The clear sky beneath the arches was almost black, from contrast. At 11h 30m the arches had broken up, and the streamers appeared to emanate from the horizon.

_February 18._--At 9 P.M. there was a brilliant band of auroral light in the east about 6° in width, which shot upwards towards the zenith, throwing off short lateral streamers. At times, a complete arch of varying width extended from the eastern to the western horizon; at others, it was broken up into two or more detached portions. At 9h 45m, a magnificent rainbow-like arch about 2° in width, spanned the heavens from ENE. to WSW. The altitude of the centre was apparently about 75°; the lower edge, at or near the highest point of the arch, was bounded by the star Castor. The arch was beautifully defined, and of perfectly even width throughout its entire extent; it disappeared in a few minutes after my attention was called to it, and soon after the sky became overcast. But for the absence of the moon, it might easily have been mistaken for a lunar rainbow. A precisely similar arch made its appearance here on the evening of the 21st of March 1833, and as far as my observation goes, these perfect rainbow-like arches are of exceedingly rare occurrence.

The following phenomenon though unconnected with auroræ, is probably of electric origin; and, as an unusual atmospheric appearance, is worthy of being placed on record:--_September 16._--The sky was mostly overcast throughout the day, except a segment extending from WSW. to ENE., which was bright and clear to an altitude of about 15°. The upper boundary of the clear blue space was an elliptical segment formed by a sheet of white cloud, which was partially illuminated towards the western extremity, and somewhat resembled an auroral arch. I first noticed this blue arch about 3 P.M., and from that time until it disappeared, about six o'clock, there was not the slightest apparent change, either in its altitude or position. It was observed as early as 7 o'clock in the morning, when it was, nearer to the horizon.

GENERAL REMARKS.--The year 1849 is the driest we have had since 1844; the fall of rain (39 inches) is 7·9 inches under the average annual depth, which is 47 inches nearly. From some cause, the annual quantity of rain at this place is evidently on the decrease, and the diminution is, I believe, general all over the north of England. Probably the large amount of moor and waste marshy land brought into cultivation of late years, and the more efficient drainage of the country generally, by diminishing the evaporating surface, and so interfering with that invisible process of nature which is the source of every kind of atmospheric deposition, may have led to this and other changes which appear to have occurred in the climate of England within the last half century. In the first seven years (1833-39) after I began to keep a meteorological record, the average annual depth of rain was 49·93 inches, or 50 inches nearly; in the last seven years, ending with 1848, the average is reduced to 43·74 inches. The greatest quantity in the last 17 years is 59 inches, in 1836; the least, 34·69 inches in 1842. The three driest years in the period are 1842, 1844, and 1849, which yielded 34·69 inches, 36·72 inches, and 39 inches.

The temperature of the past year (48°·69) is about half a degree _below_ the climatic mean, which is 49°·02. The coldest year of the last 17 was 1845, and the mildest, 1846; the mean temperatures of these years were 47°·49 and 50°·85 respectively.

The naked thermometer on the grass, placed on raw wool, has been at or below the freezing point in every month of 1849; viz., in January, on 19 nights; in February, on 14; in March, on 13; in April, on 18; in May, on 11; in June, on 8; in July, on 1; in August, on 2; in September, on 5; in October, on 16; in November, on 13; and in December, on 24 nights. The amount of radiant heat thrown off from the earth's crust at night, in the year 1849, as indicated by naked thermometers placed on raw wool and on grass, is much greater than usual. The evaporation exceeds the fall of rain in five months of 1849; viz., in March, April, May, June, and September. In 1849, we have had 12 perfectly clear days; 163 days more or less cloudy but without rain; 190 wet days; 261 days on which the sun shone out; 33 days of frost; 13 of hail; 7 of snow; 10 of thunder and lightning; and 7 days in which lightning occurred without thunder. There have also been three lunar halos, one lunar rainbow, a double parhelion, and seven appearances of the aurora borealis.

The clear days are 14, the days of sunshine are 13, and the wet days are 8 _less_ than the average number. The past year has therefore afforded a smaller share of blue sky and a less amount of sunshine than usual, although the depth of rain and the number of wet days are both _below_ the average for the locality.

The quantity of electricity in the air was extremely small down to the end of July, after which it was restored to its average amount.

This fact is strikingly exhibited by the following table of continuous observations taken by M. Quetelet with Peltier's electrometer:--

Average Mean
1844-1848. 1849.
° °
January, 53 39
February, 47 36
March, 38 27
April, 27 20
May, 21 16
June, 18 13
July, 19 14
August, 21 21
September, 24 24

In 1849, the deaths exceed the calculated average number by 79, and the births exceed the deaths by 74.

In the seven years ending with 1845, the mean annual number of deaths in the town and suburb, with an assumed population of 17,867, is 410, being 22·9 per thousand, or one death in every 43·5 persons. In 1846, 1847, and 1848 (assumed average population 18,329), the mean annual number is 694, being 37·8 deaths per thousand, or 1 in every 26·4 persons in those three most unhealthy years. In 1849 the deaths are 606, which, assuming the population to be the same as in 1848, give 32·2 deaths per 1000, or 1 death in every 31 persons. The average annual number of deaths in the ten years 1839-48 is 495, which, with an assumed population of 17,713, gives 27·9 per 1000, or 1 death in every 35·7 inhabitants.

So that the mortality in 1849, although still above the average, shews a marked improvement in the health of the town as compared with any of the three preceding years; and, in the last quarter, the deaths are below the average for the period.

THE OBSERVATORY, WHITEHAVEN,
_13th March 1850_.

_The Completed Coral Island._
By JAMES D. DANA, Geologist
to the American Exploratory Expedition, &c., &c.