Chapter XXIII: Appendix: The Factors of Temperature

To calculate the probable temperature of January or July at any point, the following procedure should be adopted:

Draw a circle round the point of angular radius ten degrees (i.e. set the compass to cover ten degrees of latitude) and divide this into two halves by a line passing from north to south through the centre. By means of squared tracing paper, or otherwise, measure: (_a_) the amount of ice in the whole circle; (_b_) the amount of land in the western half; (_c_) the amount of land in the eastern half. (_a_) is expressed as a percentage of the area of the whole circle; (_b_) and (_c_) as percentages of the area of a semicircle.

The term “ice” includes ice-sheets such as that of Greenland or Antarctica, and also frozen sea or sea closely covered by pack-ice; the latter figure may vary in different months.

The temperature in January or July is then calculated from the following formula:

Temperature = basal temperature + ice coeff. x per cent. of ice + land west coeff. x per cent. of land to west + land east coeff. x per cent. of land to east.

The basal temperatures and the appropriate coefficients are given in the following table.

In calculating the effect of a given slight change of land and sea distribution, it is not necessary to employ the basal temperature. Instead the equation can be treated as a differential, and the change of temperature due to the change of land and ice calculated from the figures in columns 3 to 5. The figures are given in degrees absolute, 273°0 = 32° F. To convert differences to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1°8.

---------+-------------+----------+-----------+-----------
Latitude.| Basal Temp. |Ice Coeff.| Land, | Land,
|(Water Zone).| |West Coeff.|East Coeff.
---------+-------------+----------+-----------+-----------
Jan. | a. | | |
70 N. | 298.8 | -0.49 | -0.43 | -0.20
60 | 277.4 | -0.07 | -0.31 | -0.01
50 | 276.8 | -0.09 | -0.29 | 0.09
40 | 282.5 | -- | -0.17 | 0.04
30 | 289.6 | -- | -0.08 | 0.03
20 | 294.2 | -- | -0.01 | -0.01
10 | 298.6 | -- | -0.01 | 0.03
0 | 299.3 | -- | 0.01 | 0.00
10 S. | 298.2 | -- | 0.04 | -0.01
20 | 296.2 | -- | 0.07 | 0.00
30 | 293.5 | -- | 0.06 | 0.03
40 | 289.3 | -- | 0.09 | -0.03
| | | |
July. | | | |
70 N. | 279.3 | -0.16 | 0.02 | 0.02
60 | 280.7 | -- | -0.01 | 0.11
50 | 285.8 | -- | 0.04 | 0.06
40 | 291.1 | -- | 0.05 | 0.07
30 | 296.8 | -- | 0.08 | -0.01
20 | 297.6 | -- | 0.07 | 0.02
10 | 298.8 | -- | 0.03 | -0.01
0 | 298.6 | -- | 0.02 | -0.01
10 S. | 296.9 | -- | 0.04 | -0.03
20 | 293.1 | -- | 0.02 | -0.02
30 | 288.2 | -- | -0.01 | -0.01
40 | 284.0 | -- | 0.00 | -0.03
---------+-------------+----------+-----------+-----------

In the case of the calculation of the effect of comparatively slight and irregular changes in land and sea distribution in a limited area, such as those of the _Littorina_ Sea referred to on p. 128, it may be found that a ten-degree circle is too wide an area to employ, the changes from land to sea at one point being nullified by changes from sea to land at another more distant point. In such a case a smaller unit such as a circle of five degrees radius can be employed. As a rough approximation it may be said that the effect of the conversion of a square mile of land into sea, or _vice versa_, on the temperature of a neighbouring point is inversely proportional to its distance. Since the area of a five-degree circle is one-quarter that of a ten-degree circle, while the average distance of the land composing it is one-half, we have to divide our regression coefficients by two in order to fit the new data.

This method was applied to obtain the probable temperature distribution on the shores of the _Littorina_ Sea at its maximum extension, and gave results which agreed remarkably well with those calculated by geologists from the animal and plant life of the time.

See London _Q. F. R. Meteor. Soc._, 43, 1917, pp. 169-171.

INDEX

A.

Acheulian, 52

_Aciphylla_, 125

Africa, 103, 133, 142

Aftonian, 87

AHLMANN, 51, 61

Alaska, 43, 124

Algonquin, Lake, 123

Alps, dry period, 122
glaciation, 29, 52, 56
retreat stadia, 119

Altai Mountains, 77

Anau, ruins, 163

_Ancylus_, 120, 127

ANDERSSON, 118, 121

Andes, 98

Antarctica, 114, 133

Anticyclonic circulation, 55

Antipodes Is., 112

Aral Sea, 83

Argentine, 100

Arizona, 94, 150

ARRHENIUS, 19

Artesian water (Australia), 110

Aryans, 164

Asia, 76, 125, 139, 143, 153

Astronomical theory, 17

Atlantic Stage, 126

Atlas Mountains, 69

Australia, 109, 125, 155

B.

Balearic Is., 70

Balkans, 69

Baltic Interstadial, 64

Banded clays, 49, 93

Baraba steppes, 121

Barkans, 65

BARRELL, 159

BEDDARD, 115

Belfast, 130

_Biloculina_, 133

BLYTT, 127

Bonneville, Lake, 93

Brazil, 101

British Isles, 57, 62, 64, 136

BRÖGGER, 129

Bronze Age, 138

BRÜCKNER, 49, 57, 154

Buenos Aires, sand-dunes, 125

Bühlstadium, 119

C.

Calabrian, 68

Cambrian, 33

Campbell Is., 102

Canada, post-glacial, 132

Cape Colony, raised beaches, 133

Carbon dioxide, 19

Carboniferous, 34

Caspian, 83, 143, 153

CHAMBERLIN, 19

Champlain Stage, 123

Chellean, 51

CHERRY, 160

Chile, rainfall fluctuations, 157

China, 81, 139

Chronology, 48, 92

CHUDEAU, 106

Classical Rainfall Maximum, 140

Climatic Record, 132

COLEMAN, 92

Colorado, 94

Continentality, 25

Continental Phase, 120

Continents, movement of, 21

Cordilleran glaciation, 87

Corsica, 69

CRAIG, 72

Cretaceous, 37

Crete, Neolithic, 163

CROLL, 18

Cro-Magnards, 161

Cyrenaica, desiccation, 142

D.

Daun-stadium, 119

DAVID, 110

Dead ice, 132

Denmark, continental phase, 122

Depressions, path of, 47, 60, 71, 122, 139

Devonian, 34

Diluvium, 48

Don Valley, 91

DOUGLASS, 143

Drakensberg Mountains, 103

Drought in Forest Period, 139

Drumkelin Bog, 137

Dunes, fossil, 65
Frisian, 140

E.

Early Iron Age, 141

Earth’s Orbit, eccentricity of, 18

Earthworms, 115

East Anglia, 47, 57

Eccentricity of Earth’s Orbit, 18

Ecuador, 99

Egypt, 72

_Eoanthropus_, 161

Eocene glaciation, 37

Etosha Pan, 107

Europe, 49, 55, 118, 127, 136, 154

EVANS, 163

Evolution of Man, 155

F.

FAIRGRIEVE, 138

Falkland Is., 97

Fennoscandian Pause, 119

Finiglacial, 118

Finland, post-glacial, 120, 128

Florida, 95

Forest bed, 47, 51
period, 122, 136

Forests, submerged, 137

Formby and Leasowe Beds, 130

Fossil ice, 59, 78

Franz Josef Land, 130

FRECH, 20

FREYDENBERG, 106

Frisian dunes, 140

Fucino, Lago di, 154

_Fucus_ in Spitzbergen, 130

G.

Gable Island, 98

_Galaxiidæ_, 115

GEER, G. DE, 49, 93, 118

GEIKIE, J., 51, 81

Geographical theory, 22

Geological formations, 31
rhythms, 38

GIBBON, 140

Gibraltar, 69, 70

Gila conglomerate, 95

Glacial anticyclone, 55
stages, 48

_Globigerina_, 133

_Glossopteris_, 35

Gondwanaland, 34, 35

Gotiglacial, 118

Graham Land, glaciation, 114

Great Basin, America, 89, 93, 124

Great Lakes, history, 123

Great Salt Lake, 93

Greece, Heroic Age, 164

Greenland, 131, 156

GREGORY, 104

Grimaldi Race, 161

Gschnitz Stadium, 119

Gunz Glaciation, 56

Gunz-Mindel Interglacial, 50, 51, 56

H.

_Haplochitonidæ_, 115

Hazel, post-glacial extension, 122

HEDLEY, 116

Heidelberg Man, 161

Height and temperature, 26

HILDEBRANDSSON, 157

Himalayas, 81

HOBLEY, 105, 107

Hohokam, 150

HUME, 72

HUMPHREYS, 20

HUNTINGTON, 141, 144, 150, 153, 162

I.

Ice on Danish coasts, 155

Iceland, 125, 156

Illinoian glaciation, 90

Ingo Is., forests, 122

Iowan Glaciation, 90

Ireland, glaciation, 57, 62, 64
Heroic Age, 138

Iroquois, Lake, 123

Isohalines, 127

J.

Japan, 81

Jurassic, 37

K.

Kalahari, 107

Kamchatka, 80

Kansan, 88

Karst flora, 121

Kashmir, 143, 153

Keewatin, 88, 91

KEIDEL, 99

Kenya, 103

Kilimanjaro, 103

Kioga, Lake, 104

Kitchen-midden, 125

Kosciusko, 109

KREICHGAUER, 20

KUPFFER, 121

L.

Labradorean Glaciation, 87, 89, 90

Lahontan, Lake, 93

Lena Valley, 78

LEVERETT, 91, 92

Limestone Agglomerate, 70

_Littorina_, 128

Loess, 52, 83, 91, 112

Lofoten Islands, 61

Lop-Nor, 83, 153

M.

MACKENNA, 157

Maglemose culture, 125

Malta, 69

Mammoths, frozen, 79

Marsupials, 115

MATHEW, 160

Maumee, Lake, 123

Maya ruins, 151

Mediæval Rainfall Maximum, 164

Medicine Bow Range, 94

Mediterranean, 68, 142

Mesopotamia, Empires, 139

Mexico, culture, 151

MEYER, 99

Micmac Stage, 124

Mindelian Glaciation, 49, 69

Mindel-Riss Interglacial, 50

Miocene, 44

Mombasa, 105

Mono Basin, 94

MONTELIUS, 163

Mousterian Man, 63

MUNTHE, 118

MURGOCI, 66

Murman coast, 130

N.

_Najas_, 129

Neanderthal Man, 161

NEGRO, 142

Neolithic, 122, 131, 136, 163
migration, 125, 163

Neudeckian, 51

NEUHAUSS, 111

Newfoundland, 87, 90

New Guinea, 111

New Siberian Islands, 78

New South Wales, 125

New Zealand, 111, 125, 133

Ngami, Lake, 107

Niagara, 93, 132

Nile, 72, 119

NORDENSKJOLD, 117

Nordic Race, 125

Norfolkian, 51

North America, 86, 122, 132, 141, 149

North Sea, 56, 61

Norway, 51, 55, 129

O.

Obliquity of Ecliptic, 16, 120

Old Red Sandstone, 34

Optimum of Climate, 127

Ordovician, 33

P.

Pajaritan, 150

Palmyra, 142

Pamirs, 77

Pampean, 100, 125

Patagonia, post-glacial, 133

Patom Highlands, 78

Peat-bog Period, 140

PENCK, 49, 51

Pendulation Theory, 20

Peorian, 91

Permian, 35

Persia, 84, 142

Peru, 99

PETTERSSON, 134, 145

Piedmont ice-sheets, 57, 109

Piltdown Man, 161

_Pithecanthropus_, 160

Pliocene, 47

Pluvial periods, 71, 140

Poles, motion of, 20, 40

Pre-Cambrian Glaciation, 33

Proterozoic Glaciation, 32

Pueblo ruins, 150

Pulse of Asia, 153

PUMPELLY, 84, 163

Pyrenees, 57

Q.

Quaternary Ice Age, 47

R.

Ragunda, Lake, 49
moraines, 121

REID, 138

Retreat of the Ice, 49

Riss Glaciation, 49, 61

Riss-Wurm Interglacial, 50, 53

Rixdorf, 62

RODGERS, 133

Romania, 66

Ruwenzori, 103

S.

Sagas, 141, 146

Sahara, 74, 105

Sangamon, 90

Scania, 49

SCHMIDT, 53

Scotland, 57, 61, 64

_Scrobicularia_ Zone, 130

Selsey, 58

_Sequoia_, 143

Shell-banks, 47, 56

Siberia, 78

Sicilian, 70

Sierra Nevada, 93, 94

SIEVERS, 99

Silurian, 33

Skærumhede, 63

Slugs, 115

SMITH, ELLIOTT, 159

Solar radiation, 15

South America, 97, 125, 132, 157

South Georgia, 97

South Orkneys, 114

SPITALER, 18

Spitzbergen, 80, 130

Stanovoi Mountains, 79

Steppe climate, 53

Stone rivers, 98

Submerged forests, 137

Suess, Lake, 104

Sunspots, 145

Susa, Neolithic, 163

SVEN HEDIN, 84

Sweden, 49, 56, 118

Syria, 72

T.

_Tapes_, 129

Tasmania, 109

Tchad, 106

Tertiary, 42, 116

_Thracia_ Zone, 131

Tian-Shan Mountains, 77

Tibet, 82

Tidal friction, 39

Tide-generating force, 134, 145

Tierra del Fuego, 97, 133

Tillite, 32

Titicaca, Lake, 101

Toronto Stage, 91

_Trapa_, 129

Trasimeno, Lake, 154

Tree-rings and rainfall, 143

Turbarian, 140

Triassic, 37

TYNDALL, 19

U.

Uinta Mountains, 94

_Unio_ in Niagara, 132

Ural Mountains, 57

V.

Venezuela, 100

Verkhoiansk Mountains, 79

Victoria Nyanza, 104

Vikings, 164

Volcanic dust, 16, 20

VOLLOSSOVITSCH, 79

W.

Wales, 57, 64

Warren, Lake, 123

Wasatch Mountains, 93, 94

WAYLAND, 104

WEGENER, 20, 34

WERNERT, 53

White Sea, 130

Wine harvest, 155

Winters, severe, 155

Wisconsin Glaciation, 91, 92

WOLF, 145

Wurm Glaciation, 48

Y.

Yarmouth Stage, 88

_Yoldia_ Sea, 50, 124

Yucatan, 151

Yukon, 124

_Printed in Great Britain by Jarrold & Sons, Ltd., Norwich._

FOOTNOTES:

[1] By this term we shall in future understand only that part of it which is responsible for thermal effects.

[2] If the figure of the earth is adjusted to its speed of rotation before the development of ice-sheets, the latter renders it too prolate, and there will be a tendency for readjustment by the transference of mass towards the equator.

[3] This has been the subject of much discussion recently. For a summary see _Science Progress_, 17, 1922, October, p. 233.

[4] Leverett, F. (see Bibliography).

[5] See reference to Antevs in this connexion.

[6] “The pulse of Asia,” p. 356. See also a new work by E. Huntington, entitled: “Climatic changes.”

[7] “Climatic variations in historic and prehistoric time.”

[8] “Sur le prétendu changement du climat européen en temps historique.”

[9] Or lemur-like ancestor. There is evidence to show that man’s ancestor was a nocturnal animal, whose food supply was governed by the phases of the moon.

[10] “Scientific monthly,” New York, 4, 1917, pp. 16-26.

[11] “Science progress,” 15, 1920, p. 74.

[12] “Climate and evolution.”

[13] “Civilization and climate.”

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.

Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
when a predominant preference was found in the original book.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

Pg 64: ‘powerful conviction’ replaced by ‘powerful convection.
Pg 97: ‘and Tierra del Fuega’ replaced by ‘and Tierra del Fuego’.
Pg 103: ‘Drakenberge Mountains’ replaced by ‘Drakensberg Mountains’.
Pg 150: ‘modern Pueblas who’ replaced by ‘modern Pueblos who’.
Pg 166: ‘coffiecients are’ replaced by ‘coefficients are’.