Chapter V (1)

* * * * *
=THE WADIS DRAINING EASTWARDS TO THE SEA.=
* * * * *

The eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being much steeper and more complex, due to the greater proximity of the mountains to the sea than to the Nile. While all the westward drainages form parts of but three great basins, there are on the seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins, each having a separate outlet to sea (_see_ Plate II). Only two of the eastern basins, Hodein and Di-it, are comparable in size with the great basins of the west, the remainder being relatively small.

The following list gives the names in order, from north to south, of the main wadis draining to the sea, with their tributaries so far as they fall within the area treated of in this volume, the principal feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses. It may be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently of greater importance to the Arabs than the main channels, owing to their containing vegetation in greater abundance.

WADI DABUR.

WADI IGLI.

WADI UM KHARIGA.

WADI SUKARI.

WADI UM TUNDEBA.

WADI AMBA-UT.

{ Wadi Ghuel.
{
{ Wadi Fegas.
{
{ Wadi Ma-ud.
{
WADI GHADIR { Wadi Sabahia.
{
{ Wadi Zabara (Wadi Atabi, Wadi Um Abid, Wadi Um
{ Dafiri).
{
{ Wadi Allawi (Wadi Lewewi).

WADI UM GAMIL.

{ Wadi Huluz (Wadi Abiad lil Huluz, Wadi Mahali,
{ Wadi Tarfawi, Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, Wadi Um
{ Semiuki, Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, Wadi
{ Marasan, Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz, Wadi Abu
{ Gerifat, Wadi Um Iteili, Wadi Ga-etri, Wadi Abu
{ Etl).
{
{ Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal.
{
{ Wadi Durunkat.
{
{ Wadi Hafafit (Wadi Abu Had, Wadi Hefeifit).
WADI GEMAL {
{ Wadi Nugrus (Wadai el Nom, Wadi Abu Rusheid,
{ Wadi Abu Sada, Wadi Sikait).
{
{ Wadi Mukhatatat.
{
{ Wadi Um Sueh.
{
{ Wadi Um Heran.
{
{ Wadi Nasbia.
{
{ Wadi Abiad (Wadi Um Seyal).
{
{ Wadi Um Kabu.

WADI UM EL ABBAS Wadai el Anz.

WADI ABU GHUSUN Wadi Romit (Wadi Shoab, Wadi Abu Hegilig, Wadi
Hefeiri).

WADI EL RANGA.

WADI HAMATA.

WADI HARATREIT.

WADI KHASHIR.

WADI MIKBI.

{ Wadi Um Karaba.
{
{ Wadi Eidab.
{
{ Wadi Um Gunud.
{
{ Wadi Um Rishan.
{
{ Wadi Um Homar.
WADI LAHAMI {
{ Wadi Sefent.
{
{ Wadi Um Khuzama.
{
{ Wadi Um Ghobasha.
{
{ Wadi Gumudlum.
{
{ Wadi Abu Marwa lil Lahami.

{ Wadi Naait (Wadi Um Sumur, Wadi Abu Marwa lil
WADI MUKHIT { Naait, Wadi Abu Ghalqa).
{
{ Wadi Abu Daba (Wadi Murra).

WADI ABU DIBBAN.

WADI MINDEIT Wadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit.

{ Wadi Um Maiat.
{
WADI KALALAT { Wadi Dibag lil Batoga.
{
{ Wadi Um Sellim.

WADI UM GORAN.

WADI KUNSEROB Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob.

WADI ABU BERIGA.

{ Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Salib el Abiad.
{
{ Wadi Salib el Azraq (Wadi Um Karaba).
{
{ Wadi Allawi.
{
{ Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Hindia.
{
{ Wadi Um Akra.
{
WADI KHODA { Wadi Shut (Wadi Abu Hugban, Wadi Tawil lil
{ Shut).
{
{ Wadi Um Gubur.
{
{ Wadi Shib.
{
{ Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Gumudlum.
{
{ Wadi Bulluk.
{
{ Wadi Um Lassaf.
{
{ Wadi Shenshef.

WADI UM ETLI.

WADI SORUBIAB Wadi Bint el Kurdum.

{ Wadi Titai.
{
{ Wadi Abu Nikheil.
{
{ Wadi Abu Reye.
{
{ Wadi Um Buerat.
{
WADI RAHABA { Wadi Abiad (Rod Elbel, Wadi Abu Ribian).
{
{ Wadi Megah.
{
{ Wadi Hutit.
{
{ Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba.
{
{ Wadi Abu Had.
{
{ Wadi Marafai.

{ Wadi Arned (Wadi Muegil, Wadi Um Arta).
{
{ Wadi Saalek.
{
{ Wadi Um Reit (Wadi Dreb, Wadi Malhat).
{
{ Talet Um Danaqa.
{
{ Talet Um Sideiri.
{
{ Wadi Gihab (Wadi Gihab Abu Derb).
{
{ Wadi Maghal.
{
{ Wadi Naam (Wadi Fil, Wadi Abu Seyal, Wadi Um
{ Bisilla, Wadi Erf Um Araka, Wadi Arais, Wadi
{ Silsila, Wadi Abraq, Wadi Betan).
{
{ Wadi Dif (Wadi Feqoh, Talet Um Karaba, Wadi
{ Enqireidia, Wadi Gelabat Shabai).
{
{ Wadi Orga el Atshani.
WADI HODEIN {
{ Wadi Orga el Rayani.
{
{ Wadi Anfeib (Wadi Anfeib el Tawayib, Wadi
{ Atalab, Wadi Mitatib).
{
{ Wadi Khasiya.
{
{ Wadi Madi (Wadi Difotib, Wadi Eirahimib, Wadi
{ Faditiai, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, Wadi Sinatib,
{ Wadi Tugudbaia, Wadi Berendiyeb, Wadi Atluk,
{ Rod Mukrayib, Wadi Kolaiqo, Wadi Edunqul).
{
{ Wadi Um Tenedba.
{
{ Wadi Khashab (Wadi Dehaiartib).
{
{ Wadi Um Seleim.
{
{ Wadi Kreiga (Wadi Korbiai, Wadi Meneiga, Wadi
{ Abiad, Wadi Eberer, Wadi Shigig).

WADI KOLAIQO.

{ Wadi Radad.
{
{ Wadi Shellal el Sharqi.
{
{ Wadi Muqur (Wadi Ti Ilak, Wadi Tikosha).
{
{ Wadi Qadiloi (Talet Tihu Shana).
{
WADI SHAB { Wadi Baaneit.
{
{ Wadi Kilanai.
{
{ Wadi Diqdib.
{
{ Wadi Um Saha.
{
{ Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi.
{
{ Kwat Hewah.

{ Wadi Mantil Hasium.
{
{ Wadi Hilwit Hasium.
{
{ Wadi Shinai.
{
{ Wadi Delawet.
{
{ Wadi Abu Hodeid.
{
{ Rod Anut Berer.
{
{ Wadi Tikraneib.
{
WADI IBIB (HASIUM) { Wadi Abu Hireiq.
{
{ Wadi Odruk.
{
{ Wadi Nilateib.
{
{ Wadi Medarai (Wadi Merdiyeb, Wadi Um Rasein).
{
{ Wadi Soaorib (Wadi Haiyo, Wadi Hankuk, Wadi
{ Dishlo, Wadi Eimya, Wadi Qidmib).
{
{ Wadi Um Bishtit (Wadi Delawet, Wadi Orgem).
{
{ Wadi Habliai.

{ Wadi Sarobaiya.
{
{ Wadi Awitla.
{
{ Wadi Lasewid.
{
WADI MEISAH { Sarob Kwan.
{
{ Akla Da-aiyob.
{
{ Hanqun Ra-ub.
{
{ Wadi Eqaiyib.

{ Wadi Shendib.
{
{ Wadi Hareitra.
{
{ Wadi Qurat (Wadi Dibir, Wadi Hashimaiyib, Wadi
{ Oshqeq, Wadi Mashushenai).
{
{ O Harbub.
{
WADI KIRAF (DI-IB) { Wadi Salalob.
{
{ Wadi Warabeit (Sarob Kwan, Wadi Wi-eqwer, Wadi
{ Kwileimidaiyeib).
{
{ Wadi Qumad Lim.
{
{ Wad el Qireira (Wadi Didaut, Wadi Baueiwai).
{
{ Wadi Halal Hendiyeb.

WADI DI-IT.

WADI EIKWAN.

{ Wadi O Sir Hadal.
{
{ Wadi Qeirat.
WADI YOIDER {
{ Wadi Siamtit.
{
{ Wadi Akwamtra.

WADI AIDEIB Wadi Yahameib (Wadi Akau, Wadi Kansisrob).

WADI TODHI.

WADI DELOWA.

{ Wadi Um Seyal.
WADI SERIMTAI {
{ Wadi O Sir Eirab.

WADI SHELLAL.

WADI AQILHOQ.

WADI AQWEI.

WADI
KREIT-REIT-OR.

WADI QABATIT.

=Wadi Dabur= falls only partly within the district to be described in the present volume. It drains the hill country between Gebels Atut and Igli, by numerous feeders, and courses north-east to enter the sea about latitude 25° 16′, beyond the limits shown on the map.

=Wadi Igli= is a short wadi draining from Gebel Igli and coursing a little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude 25° 10′.

=Wadi Um Khariga= has its principal head in a _cul-de-sac_ west of Gebel Ghuel and north of Gebel Hangalia, at an altitude of approximately 800 metres above sea-level. Near its head there is an easy pass entering from the west, forming a line of communication with Hangalia mine; the highest point of the pass is 773 metres above sea-level. After coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west of north between the high hills called Gebel Um Khariga, with a rapid fall, the wadi turns north-east, receiving just below the bend a large tributary which heads in an easy pass to Wadi Ghadir. Near this place a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills, and passes west of Gebel Igli el Iswid; it is said to go on to Qena. Further on in its course towards the sea, Wadi Um Khariga receives another tributary draining the south flanks of Gebel Igli el Iswid. The lower portion of Wadi Um Khariga has not been surveyed in detail; but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in about latitude 25° 5′. The total length of the main channel of Wadi Um Khariga is about fifty kilometres, and the area of its basin is about 300 square kilometres.

=Wadi Sukari=, the next wadi to the south, heads at a pass from Wadi Ghadir; for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between the eastern range of Gebel Um Khariga and the craggy Gebel Sukari, then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of Wadi Um Khariga. Near the south end of Gebel Sukari there are numerous ruins and some ancient gold mines.

=Wadi Um Tundeba= heads near the mountain of the same name, and courses about north-east to the sea. In one of the heads of this wadi, about three kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Um Tundeba, is an important water source, called =Galt Um Tundeba=. This is a rock basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi; it contained a good supply of water in December 1905, but as it depends for its supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills, it cannot be relied on as a permanent water source.

=Wadi Amba-ut= is a small wadi originating near the granite hills called Gebel Amba-ut, and following a course about parallel with the Wadi Um Tundeba seawards.

=Wadi Ghadir=, which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern face of Gebels Hangalia and Zabara, as well as the hilly country round Gebels Ghadir, Allawi, and Lewewi, has a basin of over 500 square kilometres and a length along its main channel, not counting its feeders, of about forty-five kilometres; it enters the sea in latitude 24° 50′.

The principal head of Wadi Ghadir is at an easy pass between Gebels Ghuel and Um Khariga, in latitude 24° 55′, at an altitude of about 500 metres above sea-level. Coursing south-east, it receives important feeders from gorges in the west face of Gebel Ghuel; the principal of these feeders, =Wadi Ghuel=, contains water holes, which gave an excellent supply of rain water in 1905-06. A little further along its course, Wadi Ghadir passes the low hill district called =Kurdeman=, where there are some old gold mines, and then receives as tributaries =Wadi Fegas= and =Wadi Ma-ud=, draining the mountains of Ghuel and Hangalia. Taking now a more easterly direction towards Gebel Ghadir, it receives from the north-west =Wadi Sabahia=, draining the craggy felsite hill of the same name; there are some old gold mines about a kilometre north-east of this hill, in a branch of Wadi Sabahia.

The =Wadi Zabara=, an important tributary draining the north flanks of Gebel Zabara and the south-east part of Gebel Hangalia, enters Ghadir from the south-west, nearly opposite Wadi Sabahia. Wadi Zabara has itself three main heads, called by the separate names of =Wadi Atabi=, =Wadi Um Abid=, and =Wadi Um Dafiri=. There are ruins and ancient mines close to where the Wadi Atabi joins Wadi Zabara, while in the upper part of Wadi Um Dafiri are more extensive ruins and numerous ancient emerald mines, as well as a series of rock basins which were yielding good water in 1905-1906.

After receiving the Wadi Zabara, Wadi Ghadir continues its course south-east past Gebel Ghadir, from the slopes of which numerous small feeders enter the main channel. Almost due south of Gebel Ghadir, in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as it passes round a low island-like mass of hills, is =Bir Ghadir=, a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor. When I visited it early in 1906 this well was filled by downwash, and the Arabs of the district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty; it is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies. The mines of Hangalia were supplied by water from Bir Ghadir in 1905, when nearer sources were dry.

About six kilometres below the well, Wadi Ghadir passes close north of Gebel Allawi, where there are some old gold mines. The =Wadi Allawi=, which with its tributary =Wadi Lewewi= drains the hilly country between Gebels Zabara and Sikait, enters Ghadir a little to the east of Gebel Allawi; both Allawi and Lewewi are very tortuous wadis, their names in fact meaning “crooked” in the Ababda tongue (Lewewi is a diminutive of Allawi).

=Wadi Um Gamil=, the next wadi entering the sea to the south, drains the hilly country south-east of Sikait. Very little is known about its course, the only part surveyed being the heads east of Gebel Sikait.

=Wadi Gemal= is the terminal portion, about sixty kilometres in length, of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly 200 square kilometres in area. With its numerous large feeders, the principal of which is Wadi Huluz, about eighty kilometres in length, the Wadi Gemal drains the Hafafit and Nugrus ranges of mountains on the north, and a great mass of high mountains, including Gebel Hamata, on the south. It will be convenient here to describe only the Wadi Gemal proper, leaving the great wadis which join to form it, and its major tributaries, for separate treatment.

The name Wadi Gemal is first given to the drainage at the point where Wadi Huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude 34° 39′.[89] At this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like Wadi Huluz. To the north is a mass of low granite hills, some of which have remarkable shapes, with a great deal of drift sand, while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking Gebel Um Suerab. Among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course, with a general north-easterly direction, receiving the Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal and the Wadi Durunkat as tributaries from the south.

About six kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Durunkat, on the right (south) side of Wadi Gemal, is a locality called =Geli=, where there are extensive ruins. A very remarkable rock in the middle of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east past the ruins and across the heads of Wadis Um Ghazal and Mukhatatat into the upper part of Wadi el Abiad.

Passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill (Gebel Um Regeba, rising to 571 metres above sea, the “mosque rock” of Floyer’s map) about four kilometres on the left, Wadi Gemal receives two small feeders coming from among the hills to the south, and then the important tributary called Wadi Hafafit enters from the north-west.

Below the point of influx of Hafafit, the Wadi Gemal becomes more narrow, and shut in by high hills. Near the meridian of 34° 49′ there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi, and a little further on the Wadi Nugrus, one of the largest tributaries of Wadi Gemal, enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend. Further down, Wadi Gemal receives =Wadi el Mukhatatat= and =Wadi Um Sueh= from the south, and =Wadi Um Heran= and =Wadi el Nasbia= from the north. The Wadi Abiad, which next joins Wadi Gemal from the south, is an important feeder. Two kilometres below the mouth of Wadi el Abiad, the =Wadi Um Kabu= enters Wadi Gemal from the north-west, while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi, called =Um Sellimi=, in which there are water pools after rain. The wadi now curves more northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called Madaret Um Gamil. Just beyond the northward turn a road[90] leads up a narrow tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction, passing close south of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of Madaret Um Gamil; the climb from the road at the top of the gully is only about 200 metres. The course of the Wadi Gemal to the sea has not been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of Madaret Um Gamil; it goes through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24°.

The fall of the Wadi Gemal averages about six metres per kilometre, being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places, and probably exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain. It is interesting to note that the observations of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of influx of Hafafit and Nugrus. The Wadi Gemal is well supplied with trees, as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of the sandy Wadi Hafafit.

=Wadi Huluz= is a long winding wadi, mostly shut in by high rock walls, draining the high mountains round Gebel Hamata and coursing north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the point, near Gebel Um Suerab, where, turning sharply eastward, it enters more open country and takes the name of Wadi Gemal. The slope of Wadi Huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains. In the next ten kilometres the slope is much flatter, being twenty metres per kilometre. From twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average fall is only ten metres per kilometre, while still further down the rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches, just before entering the Wadi Gemal, it is only six and a half metres per kilometre.

The principal heads of Wadi Huluz are close to the south-east of Gebel Hamata, in a _cul-de-sac_ formed by the high mountains of Gebel Hamata (1,978 metres above sea) and Gebel Ras el Kharit (1,661 metres). Here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main channel, which due south of Hamata has an altitude of 1,053 metres above sea-level. Following a winding course among the mountains as a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging 100 metres or more in width, it passes west of the great mass of Hamata, receiving the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from the north face of Gebel Um Hasidok. At its crossing the meridian of 35° it receives as a feeder the =Wadi el Abiad lil Huluz=, which drains the north face of Hamata and the south flanks of Gebel Abu Ghusun; draining mostly from granite country, this feeder has a floor of coarse granitic sand, from the whitish colour of which it takes its name.

The next feeder of Wadi Huluz, called =Wadi Mahali=, enters from the south, its head being on the main watershed between Gebels Um Usher and Um Hasidok. Passing between Gebels Um Usher and Um Laham, the Wadi Huluz receives =Wadi Tarfawi=, draining the mountain of the same name from the east. Further down, feeders come in from Gebel el Mehali on the south and from the high hills south of Gebel Um Heshenib on the north. Near the meridian of 34° 50′ two important tributaries enter Huluz near together from the south. The upper one, =Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz=, heads in a very steep and difficult pass, leading into Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit. The lower one, called =Wadi Um Semiuki=, drains the north-east flanks of Gebel Abu Hamamid. Nearly opposite the mouth of Wadi Um Semiuki is another feeder of Wadi Huluz, which I believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face of Gebel Um Heshenib; but it is said to be very steep and stony, and my Arabs preferred to reach Gebel Um Heshenib by a small wadi, containing several tombs, some four kilometres higher up Wadi Huluz, whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it.

About eight kilometres further on, on the north-east side of the wadi, there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend into the head of Wadi Durunkat, leading to Wadi Gemal. Some three kilometres lower down, Huluz receives two tributaries together; one, from the south-east, is called =Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz=, while the other, from the south-west, is called =Wadi Marasan= and heads in an easy pass on the main watershed, over which a track leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of Sheikh Shadli.

Two sheikhs’ tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in the Wadi Huluz, three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Marasan. Below these enter as feeders =Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz= from the north, and =Wadi Abu Gerifat= from the south. The wadi now becomes very tortuous. Near the meridian of 34° 40′, on the south side of the wadi, at a bend where trees are very abundant, is a small gully containing the important water holes called =Um Gerifat=. These are rock basins fed by rain water draining down steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked Gebel Um Sedri; they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi, and contained good supplies of water in the winter of 1905-1906. About four kilometres lower down, the =Wadi Um Iteili= enters from the east, and about five kilometres beyond this Huluz opens out into a somewhat triangular space, when the =Wadi Gaetri= enters from the west and =Wadi el Khisei= from the east. The Wadi Gaetri leads by an important pass into the more open country to the west (wells of Wadi Khashab and Wadi Natash).

At the open space above-mentioned, Wadi Huluz turns northward, winding somewhat, for some eight kilometres, and then, after receiving the =Wadi Abu Etl= as a feeder from the west, turns sharply eastward and becomes the Wadi Gemal.

=Wadi Durunkat=, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, forms an important road from Wadi Gemal into the higher parts of Huluz. By following it up to its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with Wadi Gemal, one can enter Wadi Huluz by a very easy pass in longitude 34° 46′, thus cutting off the long winding course of Wadi Huluz itself; and from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the Wadi Marasan to reach Bir Shadli.

=Wadi Hafafit=, another tributary of Wadi Gemal, has its head situated close to the east side of Gebel Migif, in latitude 24° 50′, on the main watershed, where there is an easy pass into the head of Wadi Shait. Following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres south-east, with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called Gebel Hafafit on the left, and the sugar loaf granite hills of Abu Had on the right, Wadi Hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which there are heavy accumulations of blown sand. =Wadi Abu Had=, a small western feeder of Hafafit, is well known by reason of the well of bitter water, =Bir Abu Had=, at its head. An eastern feeder of Wadi Hafafit, which joins it shortly before the junction with Wadi Gemal, is called by the diminutive name of =Wadi Hefeifit=.

=Wadi el Abiad=, likewise a tributary of Wadi Gemal, derives its name from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor. Its heads are situated near latitude 24° 20′, among the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad and on the northerly slopes of Gebel Um Heshenib. There is a very steep pass from its head, east of Gebel Um Heshenib, into Wadi Huluz. Pursuing an almost northerly course and falling rather rapidly, Wadi el Abiad is at first very wide, with high granite hills on each side. It narrows further down, at a point opposite Gebel Shoab, where a small eastern feeder leads by an easy sandy pass into the Wadi Shoab. A little lower down, passing into diorite country, it turns more to the east, and after receiving the =Wadis Um Seyal el Foqani= and =el Tahtani= from the south-east, enters the Wadi Gemal near Madaret Um Gamil. The wadis called Um Seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them; at the head of Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani there is a pass leading by the Wadai el Anz into Wadi Um el Abbas.

=Wadi Nugrus=, an important tributary of Wadi Gemal, commences its course on the main watershed west of Gebel Nugrus, in latitude 24° 48′, at the pass into Wadi Gerf, 690 metres above sea-level, and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty kilometres to join the Wadi Gemal in latitude 24° 34′ and longitude 34° 50′. The fall to this point is some 450 metres, or an average of over ten metres per kilometre, but the fall is most rapid near the head, where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep; the slope for the first few kilometres is over double the average.

The approach to the head of Wadi Nugrus from the north, by one of the heads of Wadi Gerf, is almost a plain. But as soon as Wadi Nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track and the rapid fall. The wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge with the huge mountains of Hafafit and Nugrus on the west and east sides respectively. Some three kilometres below the pass, close to the west side of the wadi, in a narrow gorge, is the spring called =Megal el Harami=, situated in gneiss rocks, and giving supplies of good water; the water infiltrates slowly, however, so that the yield is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once. Lower down, the wadi broadens out considerably, with a sandy floor in the middle of which low dark hills rise like islands. About thirteen kilometres below the head, an important feeder, the =Wadai el Nom=, comes in from the north-east. This wadi drains the south-east flanks of Gebel Nugrus and the west flanks of Gebel Hangalia; it contains rock basins holding water for some time after rain, and leads to a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round the great granite mountain of Gebel Nugrus. The pass is, however, impracticable for baggage camels, and one has to dismount from a riding camel in order to get over.

Beyond the junction of Wadai el Nom, the Wadi Nugrus continues its straight course south-east, between the long range of Gebel Hafafit on the west and Gebel Zabara on the east. Some thirty kilometres below its head, Wadi Nugrus receives the =Wadi Abu Rusheid= from the north, and a little further on one encounters on the east the ruins of an old village called =Medina Nugrus=. Just opposite the ruins is a small feeder called =Wadi Abu Sada=, a short distance up which are rock basins yielding water after rain, but these were dry in 1905. Not far below this, there are some old workings in a small feeder on the east side of the Wadi Nugrus, six kilometres above its junction with Wadi Gemal.

=Wadi Sikait=, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, heads in some high red granite hills north-west of Gebel Sikait. A pass leads over the western head, while in the eastern one is a small spring, which, though a mere trickle, is said to be constant and to yield excellent water. These two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners. Lower down, on the flanks of Gebel Sikait, are numerous emerald mines, with an ancient tower and many other ruins, and in the wadi near these is another recently sunk well, which has only yielded water of inferior quality. From near the mines there lead two tracks on either side of the wadi. That to the west is a rough path over gneiss hills into Wadi Abu Rusheid. That to the east winds past the ancient tower, ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of Wadi Um Gamil. Lower down the Wadi Sikait are many ancient mines, and the ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village. Just before the Wadi Sikait enters Wadi Nugrus, a track leaves on the east for =Wadi Um Heran=, in which I am told water is sometimes to be found. The length of the Wadi Sikait is about fourteen kilometres, and its fall is from 535 metres above sea at the pass at its head to about 250 metres where it enters Wadi Nugrus, or an average slope of twenty metres per kilometre. It is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills, with a fair abundance of trees.

=Wadi Um el Abbas= originates by the union of several heads in the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of Um el Abbas and Abu Hegilig. One of its heads leads to an easy pass called =Kab el Haram=, four and a half kilometres east of Gebel Abu Hegilig. Another, close east of Gebel Abu Hegilig, leads to another easy pass into the head of a tributary of Wadi Romit. A third head, called the =Wadai el Anz=, leads to yet another pass into Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani, a tributary of Wadi el Abiad. The course of the Wadi Um el Abbas has only been surveyed for a short distance below the place where its heads unite; it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24° 36′.

PLATE VI.

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)]

=Wadi Abu Ghusun= commences its course among the high mountains of Gebel Abu Ghusun, north of Gebel Hamata. Pursuing a northerly course for about ten kilometres, it passes close east of the sharp granite peak of Gebel Hefeiri, then turns more to the east, receiving Wadi Romit as an important tributary from the west near the bend, and reaches the sea in about latitude 24° 29′.

=Wadi Romit=, a tributary of Abu Ghusun, originates in the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad, near the parallel of 24° 20′ and follows a winding course in a general easterly direction for about sixteen kilometres to its junction with Wadi Abu Ghusun. It receives several important tributaries. The chief of these, =Wadi Shoab=, originates close to the south-west of Gebel Shoab, where there is an easy pass into the Wadi el Abiad. Another tributary of Romit, the =Wadi Abu Hegilig=, drains the south part of Gebel Um el Abbas, while a third is the =Wadi Hefeiri=, draining the hills round the granite peak of the same name. All these tributaries, like Wadi Romit and Wadi Abu Ghusun itself, contain abundance of trees, and have a rather rapid fall.

=Wadi Hamata= drains the eastern flanks of the high hills north of Gebel Hamata, its principal heads being about latitude 24° 15′. Only the heads of this wadi have been surveyed; it follows a winding course among the lower hill country and reaches the sea in about latitude 24° 24′.

Of the three wadis draining seawards south of Hamata, called =Wadi Haratreit=, =Wadi Khashir=, and =Wadi Mikbi=, very little is known, not even their heads having been visible from the stations which I occupied. The summits of the mountains drained by them have, however, been mapped, and their courses are approximately known from the accounts of Floyer; these are indicated on the map probably in nearly their true positions. Draining mostly steep and precipitous mountain faces, the upper parts of these wadis must have an extremely rapid fall, and consequently a rough stony floor.

=Wadi Lahami=, which enters the sea north of the peninsula of Ras Benas, is well known by reason of the easy pass over the main watershed at its head forming an important means of access to Berenice from the west. At this point, four kilometres north-east of the white quartz cone called Marwot Elemikan, the watershed is sandy, level, and low, being only 590 metres above the sea. The drop on crossing the watershed is fairly rapid, the wadi winding about among the hills in a general north-easterly direction. About six kilometres below its head, Lahami receives the =Wadi Um Karaba=, which drains the south face of Gebel Abu Gurdi. A little further on, =Wadi Eidab= enters from the south-east; this feeder is said to head in a rough steep pass over the hills into the Wadi Abu Daba. After passing between the high hills of Gebels Um Goradi and Um Gunud, Wadi Lahami receives the short =Wadi Um Gunud=, in which there are two well known galts, or rock basins forming reservoirs of rain water; these contained good supplies in 1906-7. Lower down, Wadi Lahami crosses a stony sloping plain, where it receives the drainage from the north and east flanks of Gebel Abu Gurdi and from the mountains to the north of it, by a series of feeders, the principal of which are =Wadi Um Rishan=, =Wadi Um Homar=, and =Wadi Sefent=. East of the plain there is a sort of shunt or loop-line of Wadi Lahami, called the =Wadi Abreik=, which is preferred to the main channel for a road. Just receiving Wadi Sefent, Wadi Lahami turns sharply eastward, and then north-eastward, receiving as feeders =Wadis Um Khuzama=, =Um Ghobasha=, and =Gumudlum=, draining Gebels Um Sellim and Gumudlum to the north; these feeders are said to contain natural reservoirs full of water after rain. From the south, Lahami is fed by the =Wadis Um Eshub= and =Abu Marwa lil Lahami=, draining the lower hill country. The lower course of Wadi Lahami has not been traced in detail. It passes north-west of the well marked granite peak called Gebel Um Huk, as remarked above, and reaches the sea north of the peninsula of Ras Benas. To get to Berenice, one leaves Wadi Lahami about twenty-four kilometres below the pass at its head, and turns off south-east up the tributary Wadi Abu Marwa, which leads to Wadi Naait by an easy road.

Wadi Lahami is well supplied with trees; it presented a very green appearance early in 1906, but the absence of rain for a year made it much more desolate looking in 1907, all the foliage being then blackened and withered. Its length is approximately fifty kilometres, its average slope twelve metres per kilometre, and the area of its basin is about 650 square kilometres.

The drainage from the low hills on the =Peninsula of Ras Benas=, except for a small portion which joins Wadi Mukhit, reaches the sea by a multitude of small wadis, none of which bear special names. The hills being nearer to the south side of the peninsula than to the north, the wadis draining southwards are on the whole much shorter and steeper than those draining northwards, and the latter cross a sloping plain two or three kilometres wide to reach the sea. Passage across the hills from south to north is only possible to camels at a few places. The southern wadis are mostly barren, but the northern ones contain abundance of a dark coloured grass of which camels are fond. There is no permanent water source on the peninsula, the nearest reliable source of supply being a galt in Wadi Mindeit, on the main land, about twelve kilometres west of Berenice. The tip of the low sandy projection of Ras Benas is marked by a sheikh’s tomb, one of the largest on the coast. It is chiefly built of wreckage cast up on the beach. From the hills it looks like a rectangular rock, and I determined its position by triangulation as latitude 23° 53′ 50″ N., longitude 35° 47′ 13″ E. The sheikh’s memory appears to be greatly venerated by sailors, and several of my camel men made pilgrimages to the tomb to pray.

The =Island of Mukawar=, about six kilometres south of the sandy tip of the ras, is nearly two kilometres in length from north to south. I did not visit it, but it has the appearance of being made of coral; its highest point, near the south end, is thirty-four metres above the sea-level.

=Wadi Abu Daba= drains the eastern flanks of Gebel Eidab and Gebel Um Maiat, and courses eastward through the lower hill country to the coast plain, where it joins the drainage from Naait in Wadi Mukhit. The principal feeder of Abu Daba is =Wadi Murra= which enters it from the south-west a few kilometres before its emergence on to the plain. At the head of Wadi Abu Daba there is said to be a rough steep pass over the mountains into Wadi Eidab. The place where Abu Daba debouches on to the coast plain is marked by a group of low bouldery looking granite hills called Khasheib Abu Daba.

=Wadi Abu Dibban= is a short wadi draining eastwards from the hills across the coast plain to the sea a little north of Berenice. In its course across the plain it passes a little north of a conspicuous granite hill called Sikeit, a well known landmark five kilometres north-west of Berenice.

=Wadi Mindeit= drains the hills between Gebel Um Maiat and Gebel Kalalat, entering the sea at Berenice.[91] =Wadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit=, a shorter wadi coursing across the plain a little further south, is interesting as furnishing the nearest fresh water source to Berenice; it leads to a rock basin or galt among the hills, where rain water collects. This source is some ten or twelve kilometres from Berenice.

=Wadi Naait=[92] is a narrow tortuous gorge, with a sandy floor shut in by high hills, coursing eastward to the coast plain a little south of the 24th parallel. Though only a small wadi some sixteen kilometres in length, it is well known because it forms the usual road from Wadi Lahami to Berenice. Its actual head has not been surveyed, but lies probably between the mountains of Um Gunud and Um Hegilig. Its principal feeders are =Wadis Um Sumer= and =Abu Marwa lil Naait=, which enter it from the north-west, and =Wadi Abu Ghalqa=, entering from the north and draining the granite hills called Gebel Abu Ghalqa. All three of these feeders enter Naait near together, some ten kilometres before it emerges on the plain; the lower part of the wadi is free from lateral branches. The fall is ten metres per kilometre among the hills. On emerging from the hills on to the sandy coast plain, it joins an ill-defined drainage line called =Wadi el Mukhit=, which enters the sea at Port Berenice, some fifteen kilometres further east. The name Wadi el Mukhit is also given to other ill-marked drainage lines entering Port Berenice from the sandy tract between the hills of the main land and the hills of the peninsula of Ras Benas. Some three kilometres north-east of the mouth of Wadi Naait, on the coast plain, is a conspicuous isolated low hill, forming a well-known landmark and called =Grain el Rih=. The plain drained by Wadi el Mukhit is a dreary sandy waste, and the crossing of it in a high wind is very trying by reason of the immense clouds of sand raised and carried in the air.

=Wadi Kalalat= heads in the north-west portion of Gebel Kalalat, and courses nearly eastward to reach the sea in latitude 23° 52′. For the first two-thirds of its course of about thirty kilometres, Wadi Kalalat is shut in by high hills, and falls rather rapidly. At its head a rough steep pass is said to exist into the head of Wadi Shut. After passing round the north flank of Gebel Kalalat, the wadi receives two small tributaries called =Wadi Um Maiat= and =Wadi el Dibag lil Batoga=, the former draining the north-east face of Gebel Kalalat and the latter the north-west face of Gebel Batoga. After receiving Wadi Dibag, the Wadi Kalalat makes a bend northward for about two kilometres, then turns south-eastward to the opening of the hills on the coast-plain. About two kilometres above the point where it leaves the hills, on the south side of the main wadi, is a rocky gully containing the =Galt Batoga= a rock basin which contained good water in 1907 and which is very easy of access in a few minutes from the main wadi. About one and a half kilometres further down, the small =Wadi Um Sellim=, draining the north-east parts of Gebel Batoga, joins the Wadi Kalalat just before it opens on to the coast-plain. The course of Wadi Kalalat from here to the sea, about eleven kilometres, is ill-marked, over a sandy plain. A ruined enclosure of considerable size, called =Garia Kalalat=, lies close south of the wadi about seven kilometres from the sea.

=Wadi Um Goran= is a small wadi draining by many heads from the east face of Gebel Batoga and its foot hills to the sea in latitude 23° 50′.

=Wadi Kunserob=, draining the south parts of Gebels Kalalat and Batoga, courses at first nearly southwards, then curves round south of Gebel Dibag, and after receiving =Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob= from the north-west, proceeds eastward through the hills and across six kilometres of sandy coast-plain to the sea in latitude 23° 47′.

=Wadi Abu Berigâ= is a short drainage line from among the hills to the sea, a little south of Wadi Kunserob.

=Wadi Khoda= is an important main drainage channel some forty-five kilometres in length, coursing a little north of eastward to reach the sea in latitude 23° 43′. For the greater part of its length it is shut in by high hills, only the last six kilometres being across the sandy coast-plain. With a basin approximately 780 square kilometres in area, it drains the mountains of Abu Dahr, Dahanib, Shut, Reyan, Shenshef, Hindia, and Um Akra, some of which rise to over 1,000 metres above the sea; it thus receives a fair amount of water in rainy years, and is well supplied with trees and bushes. Its average fall is about nine metres per kilometre.

The head of Wadi Khoda is formed by the union of three wadis, coming approximately from the north, west, and south, in the form of a cross. The central one of these, =Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda=, heads in a very easy pass leading to Bir Betan and the old mines of Um Eleiga. The one to the north, =Wadi Salib el Abiad=, is said to lead into Wadi Khiua, and to possess some old mines, but has not been explored. The remaining one of the three, =Wadi Salib el Azrak=, drains the east face of Gebel Abu Dahr and the high hills east of it; the feeder of it from Abu Dahr, called =Wadi Um Karaba=, leads by an easy pass, just north of the mountain, to Bir Betan and the Um Eleiga mines, while some eight kilometres from its junction with Khoda a track leads up a gully south-westward over another easy pass to Bir Rahaba. The names Salib el Abiad and Salib el Azrak refer to the form of the wadis and the nature of their floor, _salib_ meaning “cross,” while _abiad_ and _azrak_ refer to the prevailing white and dark colours of the sand in the respective arms of the cross; these colours are due to the wadis draining light-coloured granites and dark-coloured serpentines and schists respectively.

A little below the union of the three arms above-mentioned, Wadi Khoda expands into a small rather stony plain, where the sinuous =Wadi Allawi=[93] enters from the north. This important feeder, which drains the eastern face of Gebel Dahanib, is mostly shut in by high hills, and is relatively well wooded; if it be followed up for about ten kilometres, one comes to the tomb of Sheikh Farhan, near which meet many small feeders, one of them containing a small rock basin near its head.

About eight kilometres below the point of entry of Wadi Allawi, Wadi Khoda receives two feeders from opposite sides; that from the north, =Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda=, drains from Gebel Dahanib, while that from the south, =Wadi Hindia=, is a sandy rapidly-falling wadi draining Gebel Hindia.

Some five kilometres further down, =Wadi Um Akra=, draining the mountains of the same name, enters Khoda from the south, while another two kilometres brings us to the place of influx of =Wadi Shut=, an important feeder from the north. The head of Wadi Shut is on the west side of Gebel Kalalat, whence its course is westward for about ten kilometres; it is then joined by the =Wadi Abu Hugban=, coming from the south-west, and from this point it runs south-south-east for some twenty-three kilometres to its junction with Wadi Khoda. Wadi Shut is a rather wide wadi with a sandy floor, fed by many tributaries from the mountains of Dahanib, Um Hegilig, Reyan, and Shut. Its principal feeder in the lower part of its course is =Wadi Um Tawil lil Shut=, which drains the south part of Gebel Dahanib and enters Shut from the west about five kilometres above its junction with Khoda. The Wadi Shut has a fair growth of trees, and is said to possess also a large water source, the exact locality of which has not, however, been ascertained.[94]

Just below the place where Wadi Shut joins it, Wadi Khoda receives a small feeder called =Wadi Um Gubur=, entering from the north and marked by several graves near its mouth. On the other side, two kilometres further on, =Wadi Shib= enters from the south, and five kilometres further the =Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda= enters Khoda from the north.

The =Wadi Gumudlum=, the next great feeder of Khoda, enters from the north four kilometres below Wadi Um Seyal. It is a wadi some eighteen kilometres in length, coursing south-south-east, and having its head on the west side of Gebel Kalalat. A little below wadi Gumudlum, near a boss of white quartz, several small feeders, of which the two principal are called =Wadi Buluk= and =Wadi Um Lassaf=, enter Wadi Khoda from the south; these drain the north side of the high hills called Gebel Um Etli.

The last feeder of Wadi Khoda, the =Wadi Shenshef=, enters the main wadi some three kilometres above the place where it debouches on to the coast-plain, or eight kilometres from the coast. It is a narrow and very tortuous gorge winding among high hills. If it be followed up for about ten kilometres, one comes to several small wells called =Bir Shenshef=, which contained water in 1907, and a little above the wells, where the wadi becomes more open, there are ruins, called =Hitan Shenshef=, which attest the former existence of a town or large village. The ruins are on both sides of the wadi, and many of them are extremely well built of slabs of quartz schist; besides the houses in the wadi itself, there are small towers on the hills. As there are apparently no mines in the hills here, the origin of the ruins is not clear; from the strong situation and the watch towers, and its proximity to fresh water and the sea, it may possibly represent an old slave dealer’s stronghold.

For some eighteen kilometres south of the Wadi Khoda, the seaward drainages have not been explored, but they are believed to be only short wadis, as the high mountains of Faraid are here only about ten kilometres from the coast. From guides’ statements, the =Wadi Um Etli=, coursing eastward and draining the south faces of Gebel Um Etli, enters the sea in about latitude 23° 38′, and there is probably at least one other short wadi draining to the sea about in latitude 23° 35′ from the north part of Gebel Faraid. The sandy coast-plain in this region is about five kilometres wide.

The =Wadi el Sorubiab=, draining from the north part of Gebel Faraid, and the =Wadi Bint el Kurdum=, draining the mountains around the remarkable “Bodkin” peak, enter the sea together by way of a small lagoon in latitude 23° 30′. Another wadi, for which I could not obtain any name from my guides, drains the extreme south parts of Gebel Faraid and the north slopes of the smaller Gebel Fereyid, entering the sea in about latitude 23° 19′.

=Wadi Rahaba=, with a basin of about 900 square kilometres in area, drains the country between Gebels Faraid and Abu Dahr. From its head, situated about six kilometres south-east of Gebel Abu Dahr, there is an easy pass into Wadi Salib el Azrak, a tributary of Wadi Khoda. About three kilometres below its head, a feeder called =Wadi Titai= enters Rahaba from the hill country to the east; and a kilometre lower down, another feeder called =Wadi Abu Nikheil=, comes in from the west. At this point there is an important well, =Bir Rahaba=, sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor; this is said to yield good summer supplies, but was filled up by downwash when I visited it early in 1907. Some three kilometres below Bir Rahaba, a tributary called =Wadi Abu Reye= enters Wadi Rahaba from the north-west; and there is said to be a well, called =Bir Abu Reye=, about one and a half kilometres up this wadi. Another feeder, the =Wadi Um Buerat=, joins Rahaba from the south-west a little further on, and then the wadi, which has thus far taken a southerly course, turns south-east, winding considerably for some eight kilometres till it is joined by its most important feeder, the Wadi el Abiad.

This =Wadi el Abiad= drains the western side of the northern peaks of Gebel Faraid, and derives its name from the white granitic sand which forms its floor. It has a length of some twenty kilometres and is fed by the =Rod Elbel=, which heads in a sandy plain at the foot of the highest peak of Faraid, and by the =Wadi Abu Ribian=, which collects the drainage from the lower hill country west of the Bodkin peak.

About three kilometres lower down than the point of influx of Wadi el Abiad, Wadi Rahaba receives the =Wadi Megah= as a tributary from the north-west; a well, called =Bir el Gahlia= is said to exist at the head of this wadi, about twelve kilometres up from its opening into Wadi Rahaba. Some six kilometres further down, Wadi Rahaba opens out; its course down to this point has been shut in by high hills, but now becomes an ill-marked drainage line over a sandy plain. The plain is broken by small hills, and is limited east and west by other hills which increase in height further away, forming in fact the foot-hills of Gebels Orga and Um Tenebda on the west and of Gebel Faraid on the east. In this part of its course Rahaba receives several tributaries, the principal being =Wadi Hutit= from the north-west, =Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba= and =Wadi Abu Had= from the east, and =Wadi el Marafai=, which runs for some ten kilometres nearly parallel to Wadi Rahaba, among low hills two or three kilometres east of the main Wadi, joining the latter about due west of Gebel Fereyid.

Wadi Rahaba curves round to the south of Gebel Fereyid in a quadrant of about seven kilometres radius, and then proceeds nearly due east to reach the sea in about latitude 23° 12′.

The upper parts of Wadi Rahaba, where it is shut in by high hills, contain many trees and bushes; but the lower parts are more barren and sandy, the actual drainage line being in places difficult to define on account of the paucity of vegetation and the openness of the plain. The total length is about seventy-five kilometres, and the total fall 450 metres; the slope averages eight metres per kilometre in the upper twenty-five kilometres, where the wadi is narrow and shut in, but only five metres per kilometre in the broad and sandy course which forms the remaining fifty kilometres.

=Wadi Hodein=, one of the largest and most important of the seawards draining wadis of the Eastern Desert, has a basin of nearly 12,000 square kilometres, or over a square degree of the earth’s surface. Its main channel, formed by the union of the Wadis Arned, el Sania, Um Sumur, Saalek, Um Reit, and el Nom, in latitude 23° 18′, longitude 34° 43′, and reaching the sea at Bir Shalatein[95] in latitude 23° 8′, longitude 35° 37′, has a length of 108 kilometres and an average slope of three metres per kilometre. For the first fifteen kilometres of its course it is shut in by the high sandstone scarps of Gebel Abraq and Gebel Hodein; but shortly after passing the Abu Saafa Springs its channel becomes wide and sandy, passing through lower metamorphic hill country; and in the last twenty-five or thirty kilometres of its course it is merely an ill-defined drainage line over the sandy coast-plain. Its lower reaches are dreary and inhospitable, but its upper-portion is pleasantly wooded, and contains the perennial springs of Abu Saafa. Wadi Hodein is remarkable for the large number and length of its tributary wadis, some of which exceed the main channel itself in length, while many of them contain wells and form important lines of communication by leading to easy passes over the main watershed. In the description which follows, I shall first consider the wadis which by their union form the head of the main channel, afterwards tracing the course of the main wadi in detail to the sea, noting the influx of the various tributaries on either hand, and finally describing the larger tributaries themselves.

The most important of the wadis which join to form the head of Wadi Hodein are Wadis Arned, Saalek, and Um Reit. These join in a small plain with the =Wadis el Sania=, =Um Sumur= and =El Nom=, which are smaller and will not need further mention.