Chapter VIII: The Corn-Spirit as an Animal (4)

240 See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford,
1907), p. 259, “It was long before the mother could be distinguished
from the daughter by any organic difference of form or by any
expressive trait of countenance. On the more ancient vases and
terracottas they appear rather as twin-sisters, almost as if the
inarticulate artist were aware of their original identity of
substance. And even among the monuments of the transitional period
it is difficult to find any representation of the goddesses in
characters at once clear and impressive. We miss this even in the
beautiful vase of Hieron in the British Museum, where the divine
pair are seen with Triptolemos: the style is delicate and stately,
and there is a certain impression of inner tranquil life in the
group, but without the aid of the inscriptions the mother would not
be known from the daughter”; _id._, vol. iii. 274, “But it would be
wrong to give the impression that the numismatic artists of this
period were always careful to distinguish—in such a manner as the
above works indicate—between mother and daughter. The old idea of
their unity of substance still seemed to linger as an art-tradition:
the very type we have just been examining appears on a
fourth-century coin of Hermione, and must have been used here to
designate Demeter Chthonia who was there the only form that the
corn-goddess assumed. And even at Metapontum, where coin-engraving
was long a great art, a youthful head crowned with corn, which in
its own right and on account of its resemblance to the masterpiece
of Euainetos could claim the name of Kore [Persephone], is actually
inscribed ‘Damater.’ ” Compare J. Overbeck, _Griechische
Kunstmythologie_, iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 453. In regard, for
example, to the famous Eleusinian bas-relief, one of the most
beautiful monuments of ancient religious art, which seems to
represent Demeter giving the corn-stalks to Triptolemus, while
Persephone crowns his head, there has been much divergence of
opinion among the learned as to which of the goddesses is Demeter
and which Persephone. See J. Overbeck, _op. cit._ iii. 427 _sqq._;
L. R. Farnell, _op. cit._ iii. 263 _sq._ On the close resemblance of
the artistic types of Demeter and Persephone see further E. Gerhard,
_Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen_ (Berlin, 1866-1868), ii. 357
_sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, _s.v._ “Ceres,” p. 1049.

M50 The date of the Eleusinian Mysteries in September would have been a
very appropriate time for a Sacred Marriage of the Sky God with the
Corn Goddess or the Earth Goddess.

_ 241 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._

242 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._

243 Proclus, on Plato, _Timaeus_, p. 293 c, quoted by L. F. Farnell,
_The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 357, where Lobeck’s emendation
of ὔε, κύε for υἶε, τοκυῖε (_Aglaophamus_, p. 782) may be accepted
as certain, confirmed as it is by Hippolytus, _Refutatio Omnium
Haeresium_, v. 7, p. 146, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin (Göttingen,
1859), τὸ μέγα καὶ ἄρρητον Ἐλευσινίων μυστήριον ὔε κύε.

M51 The Eleusinian games distinct from the Eleusinian Mysteries. The
Eleusinian games of later origin than the Eleusinian Mysteries. The
Eleusinian games sacred to Demeter and Persephone. Triptolemus, the
mythical hero of the corn.

244 As to the Eleusinian games see August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt
Athen im Altertum_, pp. 179-204; P. Foucart, _Les Grands Mystères
d’Éleusis_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 143-147; P. Stengel, in
Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_, v. coll. 2330 _sqq._ The quadriennial
celebration of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned by Aristotle
(_Constitution of Athens_, 54), and in the great Eleusinian
inscription of 329 B.C., which is also our only authority for the
biennial celebration of the games. See Dittenberger, _Sylloge
Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 258 _sqq._ The regular and
official name of the games was simply Eleusinia (τὰ Ἐλευσίνια), a
name which late writers applied incorrectly to the Mysteries. See
August Mommsen, _op. cit._ pp. 179 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _op. cit._
No. 587, note 171.

245 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25
_sqq._; _id._ No. 587, lines 244 _sq._, 258 _sqq._

_ 246 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C.
Müller, i. 544 _sq._

247 Aristides, _Panathen._ and _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 168, 417, ed. G.
Dindorf.

248 Schol. on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.

249 Aristides, _ll.cc._

250 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25
_sqq._ The editor rightly points out that the Great Eleusinian Games
are identical with the games celebrated every fourth year, which are
mentioned in the decree of 329 B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge
Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 260 _sq._).

251 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259
_sqq._ From other Attic inscriptions we learn that the Eleusinian
games comprised a long foot-race, a race in armour, and a
pancratium. See Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 587 note 171 (vol. ii.
p. 313). The Great Eleusinian Games also included the pentathlum
(Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 678, line 2). The pancratium included
wrestling and boxing; the pentathlum included a foot-race, leaping,
throwing the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. See W. Smith,
_Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Third Edition, _s.vv._
“Pancratium” and “Pentathlon.”

252 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 46
_sqq._; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 609. See
above, p. 61. The identification lies all the nearer to hand because
the inscription records a decree in honour of a man who had
sacrificed to Demeter and Persephone at the Great Eleusinian Games,
and a provision is contained in the decree that the honour should be
proclaimed “at the Ancestral Contest of the Festival of the
Threshing-floor.” The same Ancestral Contest at the Festival of the
Threshing-floor is mentioned in another Eleusinian inscription,
which records honours decreed to a man who had sacrificed to Demeter
and Persephone at the Festival of the Threshing-floor. See Ἐφημερὶς
Ἀρχαιολογική, 1884, coll. 135 _sq._

253 See above, p. 61.

254 Diodorus Siculus, v. 68; Arrian, _Indic._ 7; Lucian, _Somnium_, 15;
_id._, _Philopseudes_, 3; Plato, _Laws_, vi. 22, p. 782;
Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae
Compendium_, 28, p. 53, ed. C. Lang; Pausanias, i. 14. 2, vii. 18.
2, viii. 4. 1; Aristides, _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 416 _sq._, ed. G.
Dindorf; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147, 259, 277; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 549
_sqq._; _id._, _Metamorph._ v. 645 _sqq._; Servius, on Virgil,
_Georg._ i. 19. See also above, p. 54. As to Triptolemus, see L.
Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_ (Hamburg, 1837), pp. 282 _sqq._;
_id._, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 i. 769 _sqq._

255 C. Strube, _Studien über den Bilderkreis von Eleusis_ (Leipsic,
1870), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_,
iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1880), pp. 530 _sqq._; A. Baumeister, _Denkmäler
des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1855 _sqq._ That Triptolemus sowed
the earth with corn from his car is mentioned by Apollodorus,
_Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_,
28, pp. 53 _sq._, ed. C. Lang; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147; and Servius,
on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 19.

256 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20, lines 37
_sqq._; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek
Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905), No. 9, p. 24.

257 Arrian, _Epicteti Dissertationes_, i. 4. 30.

258 Scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 483; L. Preller, _Demeter und
Persephone_, p. 286; F. A. Paley on Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 460.
The custom of ploughing the land thrice is alluded to by Homer
(_Iliad_, xviii. 542, _Odyssey_, v. 127) and Hesiod (_Theogony_,
971), and is expressly mentioned by Theophrastus (_Historia
Plantarum_, vii. 13. 6).

259 So I am informed by my learned friend the Rev. Professor J. H.
Moulton.

260 J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889), pp. 138 _sq._
However, the Eleusinian Torchbearer Callias apparently claimed to be
descended from Triptolemus, for in a speech addressed to the
Lacedaemonians he is said by Xenophon (_Hellenica_, vi. 3. 6) to
have spoken of Triptolemus as “our ancestor” (ὁ ἡμέτερος πρόγονος).
See above, p. 54. But it is possible that Callias was here speaking,
not as a direct descendant of Triptolemus, but merely as an
Athenian, who naturally ranked Triptolemus among the most
illustrious of the ancestral heroes of his people. Even if he
intended to claim actual descent from the hero, this would prove
nothing as to the historical character of Triptolemus, for many
Greek families boasted of being descended from gods.

M52 Prizes of barley given to victors in the Eleusinian games.

261 The prize of barley is mentioned by the Scholiast on Pindar,
_Olymp._ ix. 150. The Scholiast on Aristides (vol. iii. pp. 55, 56,
ed. G. Dindorf) mentions ears of corn as the prize without
specifying the kind of corn. In the official Athenian inscription of
329 B.C., though the amount of corn distributed in prizes both at
the quadriennial and at the biennial games is stated, we are not
told whether the corn was barley or wheat. See Dittenberger,
_Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259 _sqq._
According to Aristides (_Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 417, ed. G. Dindorf,
compare p. 168) the prize consisted of the corn which had first
appeared at Eleusis.

_ 262 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C.
Müller, i. 544. That the Rarian plain was the first to be sown and
the first to bear crops is affirmed by Pausanias (i. 38. 6).

263 Pausanias, i. 38. 6.

264 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 119
_sq._ In the same inscription, a few lines lower down, mention is
made of two pigs which were used in purifying the sanctuary at
Eleusis. On the pig in Greek purificatory rites, see my notes on
Pausanias, ii. 31. 8 and v. 16. 8.

M53 The Eleusinian games primarily concerned with Demeter and
Persephone. The Ancestral Contest in the games may have been
originally a contest between the reapers to finish reaping.

265 See below, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, compare 218
_sqq._

266 See below, pp. 147 _sqq._, 221 _sq._, 223 _sq._

267 See above, p. 43.

M54 Games at harvest festivals in modern Europe.

268 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_
(Leipsic, 1848), pp. 398, 399, 400.

269 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), ii. 70 _sq._

270 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 341 _sq._

271 See below, pp. 133 _sqq._

M55 Date of the Eleusinian games uncertain.

272 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.

273 The games are assigned to Metageitnion by P. Stengel (Pauly-Wissowa,
_Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2.
coll. 2331 _sq._) and to Boedromion by August Mommsen and W.
Dittenberger. The last-mentioned scholar supposes that the games
immediately followed the Mysteries, and August Mommsen formerly
thought so too, but he afterwards changed his view and preferred to
suppose that the games preceded the Mysteries. See Aug. Mommsen,
_Heortologie_ (Leipsic, 1864), p. 263; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen
im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 182 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _Sylloge
Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, note 171 (vol. ii. pp. 313
_sq._). The dating of the games in Metageitnion or in the early part
of Boedromion depends on little more than a series of conjectures,
particularly the conjectural restoration of an inscription and the
conjectural dating of a certain sacrifice to Democracy.

M56 Why should games intended to promote the annual growth of the crops
be held only every second or fourth year? The Eleusinian Mysteries
probably much older than the Eleusinian games.

274 A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp.
354 _sq._, 367 _sqq._; R. Munro, _The Lake-dwellings of Europe_
(London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 _sqq._; O. Schrader,
_Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901),
pp. 8 _sqq._; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_ (Jena,
1906-1907), ii. 185 _sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg,
1905-1907), i. 254 _sqq._, 273 _sq._, 276 _sqq._, ii. 640 _sqq._; M.
Much, _Die Heimat der Indogermanen_ (Jena and Berlin, 1904), pp. 221
_sqq._; T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_
(Oxford, 1909), p. 362.

M57 Quadriennial period of many of the great games of Greece. Old
octennial period of the Pythian and probably of the Olympian games.
The octennial cycle was instituted by the Greeks at a very early era
for the purpose of harmonising solar and lunar time.

275 Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 54, where the quadriennial
(penteteric) festival of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned along
with the quadriennial festivals of the Panathenaica, the Delia, the
Brauronia, and the Heraclea. The biennial (trieteric) festival of
the Eleusinian Games is mentioned only in the inscription of 329
B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587,
lines 259 _sq._). As to the identity of the Great Eleusinian Games
with the quadriennial games see Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum
Graecarum_, No. 246 note 9, No. 587 note 171.

276 As to the Plataean games see Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias,
ix. 2. 6.

277 Strabo, vii. 7. 6, p. 325; Suetonius, _Augustus_, 18; Dio Cassius,
li. 1; Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et
Romaines_, _s.v._ “Actia.”

278 Pausanias, viii. 9. 8.

279 Scholiast on Pindar, _Pyth._, Argument, p. 298, ed. Aug. Boeckh;
Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 6. According to the scholiast on
Pindar (_l.c._) the change from the octennial to the quadriennial
period was occasioned by the nymphs of Parnassus bringing ripe
fruits in their hands to Apollo, after he had slain the dragon at
Delphi.

280 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20), p. 98, ed. Aug. Boeckh.
Compare Boeckh’s commentary on Pindar (vol. iii. p. 138 of his
edition); L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. 366 _sq._, ii. 605 _sqq._

281 See _The Dying God_, chapter ii. § 4, “Octennial Tenure of the
Kingship,” especially pp. 68 _sq._, 80, 89 _sq._

282 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 25 _sqq._, pp. 110 _sqq._,
ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii.
2-6.

283 Geminus, _l.c._

284 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 36-41.

285 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 5. As Eudoxus flourished in the
fourth century B.C., some sixty or seventy years after Meton, who
introduced the nineteen years’ cycle to remedy the defects of the
octennial cycle, the claim of Eudoxus to have instituted the latter
cycle may at once be put out of court. The claim of Cleostratus, who
seems to have lived in the sixth or fifth century B.C., cannot be
dismissed so summarily; but for the reasons given in the text he can
hardly have done more than suggest corrections or improvements of
the ancient octennial cycle.

286 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 27. With far less probability
Censorinus (_De die natali_, xviii. 2-4) supposes that the octennial
cycle was produced by the successive duplication of biennial and
quadriennial cycles. See below, pp. 86 _sq._

287 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, ii. 605.

_ 288 The Dying God_, pp. 58 _sqq._ Speaking of the octennial cycle
Censorinus observes that “_Ob hoc in Graecia multae religiones hoc
intervallo temporis summa caerimonia coluntur_” (_De die natali_,
xviii. 6). Compare L. Ideler, _op. cit._ ii. 605 _sq._; G. F. Unger,
“Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch
der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.2 732 _sq._ The great age
and the wide diffusion of the octennial cycle in Greece are rightly
maintained by A. Schmidt (_Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie_,
Jena, 1888, pp. 61 _sqq._), who suggests that the cycle may have
owed something to the astronomy of the Egyptians, with whom the
inhabitants of Greece are known to have had relations from a very
early time.

M58 The motive for instituting the eight years’ cycle was religious, not
practical or scientific.

289 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 733 _sqq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der
mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 255 _sq._

290 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 15-45.

M59 In early times the regulation of the calendar is largely an affair
of religion.

291 Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 15. 9 _sqq._; Livy, ix. 46. 5; Valerius
Maximus, ii. 5. 2; Cicero, _Pro Muraena_, xi. 25; _id._, _De
legibus_, ii. 12. 29; Suetonius, _Divus Iulius_, 40; Plutarch,
_Caesar_, 59.

M60 The quadriennial period of games and festivals in Greece was
probably arrived at by bisecting an older octennial period.

292 See _The Dying God_, pp. 92 _sqq._

293 Plato, _Meno_, p. 81 A-C; Pindar, ed. Aug. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623
_sq._, Frag. 98. See further _The Dying God_, pp. 69 _sq._

294 Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. 6.

295 See above, p. 80.

M61 The reasons for bisecting the old octennial period into two
quadriennial periods may have been partly religious, partly
political.

296 Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; compare Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_,
iii. 1; G. Gilbert, _Handbuch der griechischen Staatsalterthumer_,
i.2 (Leipsic, 1893) pp. 122 _sq._

297 See _The Dying God_, pp. 89-92.

M62 The biennial period of some Greek games may have been obtained by
bisecting the quadriennial period.

298 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, ii. 606 _sq._

299 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2-4.

300 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2.

301 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. 270.

M63 Application of the foregoing conclusion to the Eleusinian games.
M64 Varro on the rites of Eleusis.

302 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 20. “_In Cereris autem sacris
praedicantur illa Eleusinia, quae apud Athenienses nobilissima
fuerunt. De quibus iste [Varro] nihil interpretatur, nisi quod
attinet ad frumentum, quod Ceres invenit, et ad Proserpinam, quam
rapiente Orco perdidit. Et hanc ipsam dicit significare
foecunditatem seminum.... Dicit deinde multa in mysteriis ejus
tradi, quae nisi ad frugum inventionem non pertineant._”

M65 The close resemblance between the artistic types of Demeter and
Persephone militates against the theory that the two goddesses
personified two things so different as the earth and the corn.

303 A. Baumeister, _Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, i. 577 _sq._;
Drexler, _s.v._ "Gaia," in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und
röm. Mythologie_, i. 1574 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the
Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) p. 27.

304 Pausanias, vii. 21. 11. At Athens there was a sanctuary of Earth the
Nursing-Mother and of Green Demeter (Pausanias, i. 22. 3), but we do
not know how the goddesses were represented.

305 L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 256 with plate
xxi. b.

306 The distinction between Demeter (Ceres) and the Earth Goddess is
clearly marked by Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 673 _sq._:

“_Officium commune Ceres et Terra tuentur;_
_ Haec praebet causam frugibus, illa locum._”

307 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 Nos. 20, 408, 411,
587, 646, 647, 652, 720, 789. Compare the expression διώνυμοι θέαι
applied to them by Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 683, with the
Scholiast’s note.

308 The substantial identity of Demeter and Persephone has been
recognised by some modern scholars, though their interpretations of
the myth do not altogether agree with the one adopted in the text.
See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_ (Göttingen, 1857-1862),
ii. 532; L. Preller, in Pauly’s _Realencyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_, vi. 106 _sq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et
Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2.
pp. 1047 _sqq._

M66 As goddesses of the corn Demeter and Persephone came to be
associated with the ideas of death and resurrection.

_ 309 Homeric Hymn to Demeter_, 480 _sqq._; Pindar, quoted by Clement of
Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 17, p. 518, ed. Potter; Sophocles,
quoted by Plutarch, _De audiendis poetis_, 4; Isocrates,
_Panegyricus_, 6; Cicero, _De legibus_, ii. 14. 36; Aristides,
_Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 421, ed. G. Dindorf.

310 A learned German professor has thought it worth while to break the
poor butterfly argument on the wheel of his inflexible logic. The
cruel act, while it proves the hardness of the professor’s head,
says little for his knowledge of human nature, which does not always
act in strict accordance with the impulse of the syllogistic
machinery. See Erwin Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903),
i. 290 _sqq._

311 1 Corinthians xv. 35 _sqq._

M67 Games played as magical ceremonies to promote the growth of the
crops. The Kayans of central Borneo, a primitive agricultural
people. The sacred rice-fields (_luma lali_) on which all religious
ceremonies requisite for agriculture are performed.

312 See above, p. 71, with the footnote 5.

313 See above, pp. 74 _sqq._

314 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 156
_sq._

M68 Ceremonies observed at the sowing festival. Taboos observed at the
sowing festival.

315 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 164.

316 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 164-167.

317 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163. The motive assigned for the
exclusion of strangers at the sowing festival applies equally to all
religious rites. “In all religious observances,” says Dr.
Nieuwenhuis, “the Kayans fear the presence of strangers, because
these latter might frighten and annoy the spirits which are
invoked.” On the periods of seclusion and quiet observed in
connexion with agriculture by the Kayans of Sarawak, see W. H.
Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902),
pp. 160 _sqq._

M69 Games played at the sowing festival. Masquerade at the sowing
festival.

318 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 167-169.

M70 Rites at hoeing.

319 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169.

M71 The Kayan New Year festival. Offerings and addresses to the spirits.
Sacrifice of pigs.

320 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 171-182.

M72 Dr. Nieuwenhuis on the games played by the Kayans in connexion with
agriculture.

321 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169 _sq._

M73 Serious religious or magical significance of the games.

322 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163 _sq._

323 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 130 _sq._ The game as to
the religious significance of which Dr. Nieuwenhuis has no doubt is
the masquerade performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river, where
disguised men personate spirits and pretend to draw home the souls
of the rice from the far countries to which they may have wandered.
See below, pp. 186 _sq._

M74 The Kai, an agricultural people of German New Guinea. Superstitious
practices observed by the Kai for the good of the crops.

324 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 3, 9 _sq._, 12 _sq._

325 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ pp. 123-125.

M75 Games played by the Kai people to promote the growth of the yams and
taro. Tales and legends told by the Kai to cause the fruits of the
earth to thrive.

326 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 125 _sq._

327 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 161.

M76 Thus among these New Guinea people games are played and stories told
as charms to ensure good crops.

328 On the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, see _The Magic
Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 52 _sqq._ The Esquimaux play
cat’s cradle as a charm to catch the sun in the meshes of the string
and so prevent him from sinking below the horizon in winter. See
_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 316 _sq._ Cat’s
cradle is played as a game by savages in many parts of the world,
including the Torres Straits Islands, the Andaman Islands, Africa,
and America. See A. C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New
York, 1898), pp. 224-232; Miss Kathleen Haddon, _Cat’s Cradles from
Many Lands_ (London, 1911). For example, the Indians of
North-western Brazil play many games of cat’s cradle, each of which
has its special name, such as the Bow, the Moon, the Pleiades, the
Armadillo, the Spider, the Caterpillar, and the Guts of the Tapir.
See Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), i. 120, 123, 252, 253, ii. 127, 131. Finding the game
played as a magical rite to stay the sun or promote the growth of
the crops among peoples so distant from each other as the Esquimaux
and the natives of New Guinea, we may reasonably surmise that it has
been put to similar uses by many other peoples, though civilised
observers have commonly seen in it nothing more than a pastime.
Probably many games have thus originated in magical rites. When
their old serious meaning was forgotten, they continued to be
practised simply for the amusement they afforded the players.
Another such game seems to be the “Tug of War.” See _The Golden
Bough_,2 iii. 95.

329 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._

330 Stefan Lehner, "Bukaua," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 478 _sq._

M77 The Yabim of German New Guinea also tell tales on purpose to obtain
abundant crops.

331 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 386.

332 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) p. 290.

333 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ pp. 332 _sq._

M78 Specimens of Yabim tales told as charms to procure a good harvest.
Such tales may be called narrative spells.

334 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ p. 333.

335 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) p. 448.

M79 Use of the bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the earth.

336 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219.
Compare _id._, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London,
1901) p. 104.

337 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 346 _sq._

338 A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central
Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891)
p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), p. 660. The first, I believe, to point out the fertilising
power ascribed to the bull-roarer by some savages was Dr. A. C.
Haddon. See his essay, “The Bull-roarer,” in _The Study of Man_
(London and New York, 1898), pp. 277-327. In this work Dr. Haddon
recognises the general principle of the possible derivation of many
games from magical rites. As to the bull-roarer compare my paper “On
some Ceremonies of the Central Australian Tribes,” in the _Report of
the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for the
year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp. 313-322.

M80 Swinging as an agricultural charm.

339 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 25.

340 For the evidence see _The Dying God_, pp. 277-285.

M81 Analogy of the Kayans of Borneo to the Greeks of Eleusis in the
early time. The Sacred Ploughing at Eleusis.

341 On the Kayan chiefs and their religious duties, see A. W.
Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 58-60.

342 See above, p. 36.

343 See above, p. 74.

344 Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42. Another of these Sacred
Ploughings was performed at Scirum, and the third at the foot of the
Acropolis at Athens; for in this passage of Plutarch we must, with
the latest editor, read ὑπὸ πόλιν for the ὑπὸ πέλιν of the
manuscripts.

345 See above, pp. 50 _sqq._

_ 346 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ Βουζυγία, p. 206, lines 47 _sqq._; Im.
Bekker, _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 221; Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ vii. 199; Hesychius, _s.v._ Βουζύγης; καθίστατο δὲ παρ᾽
αὐτοῖς καὶ ὁ τοὺς ἱεροὺς ἀρότους ἐπιτελῶν Βουζύγης; _Paroemiographi
Graeci_, ed. E. L. Leutsch und F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen,
1839-1851), i. 388, Βουζύγης; ἐπὶ τῶν πολλὰ ἀρωμένων. Ὁ γὰρ Βουζύγης
Ἀθήνησιν ὁ τὸν ἱερὸν ἄροτον ἐπιτελῶν ... ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἀρᾶται καὶ
τοῖς μὴ κοινωνοῦσι κατὰ τὸν Βίον ὕδατος ἢ πυρὸς ἢ μὴ ὑποφαίνουσιν
ὁδὸν πλανωμένοις; Scholiast on Sophocles, _Antigone_, 255, λόγος δὲ
ὅτι Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησι κατηράσατο τοῖς περιορῶσιν ἄταφον σῶμα. The
Sacred Ploughing at the foot of the Acropolis was specially called
_bouzygios_ (Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42). Compare J.
Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889) pp. 136 _sqq._

347 Such Sabbaths are very commonly and very strictly observed in
connexion with the crops by the agricultural hill tribes of Assam.
The native name for such a Sabbath is _genna_. See T. C. Hodson,
“The _Genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 94 _sq._: “Communal
tabus are observed by the whole village.... Those which are of
regular occurrence are for the most part connected with the crops.
Even where irrigated terraces are made, the rice plant is much
affected by deficiencies of rain and excess of sun. Before the crop
is sown, the village is tabu or _genna_. The gates are closed and
the friend without has to stay outside, while the stranger that is
within the gates remains till all is ended. The festival is marked
among some tribes by an outburst of licentiousness, for, so long as
the crops remain ungarnered, the slightest incontinence might ruin
all. An omen of the prosperity of the crops is taken by a mock
contest, the girls pulling against the men. In some villages the
_gennas_ last for ten days, but the tenth day is the crowning day of
all. The men cook, and eat apart from the women during this time,
and the food tabus are strictly enforced. From the conclusion of the
initial crop _genna_ to the commencement of the _genna_ which ushers
in the harvest-time, all trade, all fishing, all hunting, all
cutting grass and felling trees is forbidden. Those tribes which
specialise in cloth-weaving, salt-making or pottery-making are
forbidden the exercise of these minor but valuable industries. Drums
and bugles are silent all the while.... Between the initial crop
_genna_ and the harvest-home, some tribes interpose a _genna_ day
which depends on the appearance of the first blade of rice. All
celebrate the commencement of the gathering of the crops by a
_genna_, which lasts at least two days. It is mainly a repetition of
the initial _genna_ and, just as the first seed was sown by the
_gennabura_, the religious head of the village, so he is obliged to
cut the first ear of rice before any one else may begin.” On such
occasions among the Kabuis, in spite of the licence accorded to the
people generally, the strictest chastity is required of the
religious head of the village who initiates the sowing and the
reaping, and his diet is extremely limited; for example, he may not
eat dogs or tomatoes. See T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of
Manipur,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)
pp. 306 _sq._; and for more details, _id._, _The Naga Tribes of
Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 168 _sqq._ The resemblance of some of
these customs to those of the Kayans of Borneo is obvious. We may
conjecture that the “tug of war” which takes place between the sexes
on several of these Sabbaths was originally a magical ceremony to
ensure good crops rather than merely a mode of divination to
forecast the coming harvest. Magic regularly dwindles into
divination before it degenerates into a simple game. At one of these
taboo periods the men set up an effigy of a man and throw pointed
bamboos at it. He who hits the figure in the head will kill an
enemy; he who hits it in the belly will have plenty of food. See T.
C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi.
(1906) p. 95; _id._, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, p. 171. Here also
we probably have an old magical ceremony passing through a phase of
divination before it reaches the last stage of decay. On Sabbaths
observed in connexion with agriculture in Borneo and Assam, see
further Hutton Webster, _Rest Days, a Sociological Study_, pp. 11
_sqq._ (_University Studies_, Lincoln, Nebraska, vol. xi. Nos. 1-2,
January-April, 1911).

M82 The connexion of the Eleusinian games with agriculture, attested by
the ancients, is confirmed by modern savage analogies.

348 See above, p. 71.

349 See above, p. 71 note 5.

350 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137-139.

351 See the old Greek scholiast on Clement of Alexandria, quoted by Chr.
Aug. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Königsberg, 1829), p. 700; Andrew Lang,
_Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), p. 39. It is true that the
bull-roarer seems to have been associated with the rites of Dionysus
rather than of Demeter; perhaps the sound of it was thought to
mimick the bellowing of the god in his character of a bull. But the
worship of Dionysus was from an early time associated with that of
Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries; and the god himself, as we have
seen, had agricultural affinities. See above, p. 5. An annual
festival of swinging (which, as we have seen, is still practised
both in New Guinea and Russia for the good of the crops) was held by
the Athenians in antiquity and was believed to have originated in
the worship of Dionysus. See _The Dying God_, pp. 281 _sq._

M83 The sacred drama of the Eleusinian mysteries compared to the masked
dances of agricultural savages.

352 See above, pp. 95 _sq._, and below, pp. 186 _sq._

353 See above, p. 39.

354 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), i. 137-140, ii. 193-196. As to the cultivation of manioc
among these Indians see _id._ ii. 202 _sqq._

M84 Theory that the personification of corn as feminine was suggested by
the part played by women in primitive agriculture.

355 F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_ (London,
1896), p. 240; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907),
i. 251 _sqq._

M85 Among many savage tribes the labour of hoeing the ground and sowing
the seed devolves on women. Agricultural work done by women among
the Zulus and other tribes of South Africa.

356 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), pp. 17 _sq._ Speaking of the Zulus another writer observes:
“In gardening, the men clear the land, if need be, and sometimes
fence it in; the women plant, weed, and harvest” (Rev. L. Grout,
_Zulu-land_, Philadelphia, N.D., p. 110).

357 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii.
225.

358 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-Ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1908), pp. 195 _sq._

359 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 85.

360 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 160.

361 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 302.

M86 Chastity required in the sowers of seed.

362 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 295.

363 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Nigeria_
(London, 1911), p. 179.

364 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,”
_Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) p. 311.

365 In order to guard against any breach of the rule they strewed _Agnus
castus_ and other plants, which were esteemed anaphrodisiacs, under
their beds. See Dioscorides, _De Materia Medica_, i. 134 (135), vol.
i. p. 130, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, 1829-1830); Pliny, _Nat. Hist._
xxiv. 59; Aelian, _De Natura Animalium_, ix. 26; Hesychius, _s.v._
κνέωρον; Scholiast on Theocritus, iv. 25; Scholiast on Nicander,
_Ther._ 70 _sq._

366 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Thesmophor._ 80; Plutarch,
_Demosthenes_, 30; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_
(Leipsic, 1898), pp. 310 _sq._ That Pyanepsion was the month of
sowing is mentioned by Plutarch (_Isis et Osiris_, 69). See above,
pp. 45 _sq._

367 See below, vol. ii. p. 17 _sq._

M87 Woman’s part in agriculture among the Caffres of South Africa in
general.

368 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kaffir_ (London, 1904), p. 323. Compare
B. Ankermann, “L’Ethnographie actuelle de l’Afrique méridionale,”
_Anthropos_, i. (1906) pp. 575 _sq._ As to the use of the Pleiades
to determine the time of sowing, see note at the end of the volume,
“The Pleiades in Primitive Calendars.”

369 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 143 (with plate),
pp. 162-165.

M88 Agricultural work done by women among the Nandi, Baganda, the Congo,
and other tribes of Central and Western Africa.

370 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 19. However, among the
Bantu Kavirondo, an essentially agricultural people of British East
Africa, both men and women work in the fields with large iron hoes.
See Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1904),
ii. 738.

371 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 33.

372 F. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894),
p. 36.

373 F. Stuhlmann, _op. cit._ p. 75.

374 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 426, 427; compare
pp. 5, 38, 91 _sq._, 93, 94, 95, 268.

375 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 53.

376 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_3 (London, 1878), i. 281.

377 G. Schweinfurth, _op. cit._ ii. 40.

378 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_,
xxxix. (1909) pp. 117, 128.

379 E. Torday, “Der Tofoke,” _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen
Gesellschaft in Wien_, xli. (1911) p. 198.

380 E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, “Notes on the Ethnography of the
Ba-Mbala,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905)
p. 405.

381 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_
(London, 1861), p. 22.

382 P. B. du Chaillu, _op. cit._ p. 417.

M89 Agricultural work done by women among the Indian tribes of South
America.

383 A. D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain (de l’Amérique Méridionale)_
(Paris, 1839), i. 198 _sq._

384 Le Sieur de la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes,
Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages des Isles
Antilles de l’Amerique,” pp. 21-23, in _Recueil de divers Voyages
faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).

385 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), pp.
250 _sqq._, 260 _sqq._

M90 Cultivation of manioc by women among the Indian tribes of tropical
South America.

386 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal
Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 486-489. On the economic importance
of the manioc or cassava plant in the life of the South American
Indians, see further E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called
America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 310 _sqq._, 312 _sq._

387 A. R. Wallace, _Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_
(London, 1889), pp. 336, 337 (_The Minerva Library_). Mr. Wallace’s
account of the agriculture of these tribes is entirely confirmed by
the observations of a recent explorer in north-western Brazil. See
Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), ii. 202-209; _id._, “Frauenarbeit bei den Indianern
Nordwest-Brasiliens,” _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen
Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxviii. (1908) pp. 172-174. This writer
tells us (_Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_, ii. 203) that these
Indians determine the time for planting by observing certain
constellations, especially the Pleiades. The rainy season begins
when the Pleiades have disappeared below the horizon. See Note at
end of the volume.

388 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London,
1822), p. 253.

389 J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_
(Munich, 1823-1831), i. 381.

390 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 214.

391 J. J. von Tschudi, _Peru_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 214.

M91 Agricultural work done by women among savage tribes in India, New
Guinea, and New Britain.

392 Captain T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London,
1870), p. 255.

393 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
33.

394 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ pp. 226, 227.

_ 395 Nieuw Guinea, ethnographisch en natuurkundig onderzocht en
beschreven_ (Amsterdam, 1862), p. 159.

_ 396 Op. cit._ p. 119; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_
(Leipsic, 1878), p. 433.

397 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
(Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated Christmas, 1906), pp. 60 _sq._;
G. Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp.
324 _sq._

M92 Division of agricultural work between men and women in the Indian
Archipelago.

398 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 132, 134;
J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tijdschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
(1893) p. 672; E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of
Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 46; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_
(Milan, 1890), pp. 590 _sq._; K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf
uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), pp. 6 _sq._; Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem
Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 14, 85.

399 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle, Civile et Géographique de
l’Orénoque_ (Avignon, 1758), ii. 166 _sqq._, 183 _sqq._ Compare _The
Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 139 _sqq._

M93 Among savages who have not learned to till the ground the task of
collecting the vegetable food in the form of wild seeds and roots
generally devolves on women. Examples furnished by the Californian
Indians.

400 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 23.

401 Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich,” in [A. Robinson’s] _Life
in California_ (New York, 1846), p. 287. Elsewhere the same
well-informed writer observes of these Indians that “they neither
cultivated the ground, nor planted any kind of grain; but lived upon
the wild seeds of the field, the fruits of the forest, and upon the
abundance of game” (_op. cit._ p. 285).

402 Father Geronimo Boscana, _op. cit._ pp. 302-305. As to the _puplem_,
see _id._ p. 264. The writer says that criers informed the people
“when to cultivate their fields” (p. 302). But taken along with his
express statement that they “neither cultivated the ground, nor
planted any kind of grain” (p. 285, see above, p. 125 note 2), this
expression “to cultivate their fields” must be understood loosely to
denote merely the gathering of the wild seeds and fruits.

403 See above, pp. 81 _sq._

M94 Among the aborigines of Australia the women provided the vegetable
food, while the men hunted.

404 H. E. A. Meyer, “Manners and Customs of the Encounter Bay Tribe,” in
_Native Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), pp. 191 _sq._

405 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in
North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292 _sq._ The
women also collect the nuts from the palms in the month of March
(_id._ ii. 296).

406 (Sir) George Grey, _op. cit._ ii. 12. The yam referred to is a
species of _Diascorea_, like the sweet potato.

407 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne, 1878), i.
209.

408 P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the Great Lacustrine and
Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray, Lower Murrumbidgee, Lower
Lachlan, and Lower Darling,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales for 1883_, vol. xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p.
36.

409 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 214.

410 W. Stanbridge, “Some Particulars of the General Characteristics,
Astronomy, and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of
Victoria, South Australia,” _Transactions of the Ethnological
Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 291.

411 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 22.

M95 The digging of the earth for wild fruits may have led to the origin
of agriculture.
M96 The discovery of agriculture due mainly to women.
M97 Women as agricultural labourers among the Aryans of Europe. The
Greek conception of the Corn Goddess probably originated in a simple
personification of the corn.

412 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_
(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 6 _sqq._, 630 _sqq._; _id._,
_Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 201
_sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_, i. 251 _sqq._, 263, 274. The
use of oxen to draw the plough is very ancient in Europe. On the
rocks at Bohuslän in Sweden there is carved a rude representation of
a plough drawn by oxen and guided by a ploughman: it is believed to
date from the Bronze Age. See H. Hirt, _op. cit._ i. 286.

413 Strabo, iii. 4. 17, p. 165; Heraclides Ponticus, “De rebus
publicis,” 33, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller,
ii. 219.

414 Tacitus, _Germania_, 15.

415 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 313.

416 (Sir) G. Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in
North-west and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292.

M98 Suggested derivation of the name Demeter.

417 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 292
_sqq._ See above, p. 40, note 3.

418 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_
(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 11, 289; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und
Urgeschichte_2 (Jena, 1890), pp. 409, 422; _id._,
_Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 188
_sq._ Compare V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem
Uebergang aus Asien_7 (Berlin, 1902), pp. 58 _sq._

419 Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, p. 1029;
Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. 2, coll. 2720 _sq._

420 My friend Professor J. H. Moulton tells me that there is great doubt
as to the existence of a word δηαί, “barley” (_Etymologicum Magnum_,
p. 264, lines 12 _sq._), and that the common form of Demeter’s name,
_Dâmâter_ (except in Ionic and Attic) is inconsistent with η in the
supposed Cretan form. “Finally if δηαί = ζειαί, you are bound to
regard her as a Cretan goddess, or as arising in some other area
where the dialect changed Indogermanic _y_ into δ and not ζ: since
Ionic and Attic have ζ, the two crucial letters of the name tell
different tales” (Professor J. H. Moulton, in a letter to me, dated
19 December 1903).

421 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2
(Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 68 _sq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der
indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 11, 12, 289; _id._,
_Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_,3 ii. 189, 191, 197 _sq._; H.
Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 276 _sqq._ In
the oldest Vedic ritual barley and not rice is the cereal chiefly
employed. See H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894),
p. 353. For evidence that barley was cultivated in Europe by the
lake-dwellers of the Stone Age, see A. de Candolle, _Origin of
Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 368, 369; R. Munro, _The
Lake-dwellings of Europe_ (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp.
497 _sq._ According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 72) barley was the
oldest of all foods.

M99 The Corn-mother among the Germans and the Slavs.

422 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 296.
Compare O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des
Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150.

423 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 297.

_ 424 Ibid._ pp. 297 _sq._

_ 425 Ibid._ p. 299. Compare R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_
(Brunswick, 1896), p. 281.

426 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 300.

427 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 310.

_ 428 Ibid._ pp. 310 _sq._ Compare O. Hartung, _l.c._

M100 The Corn-mother in the last sheaf. Fertilising power of the
Corn-mother. The Corn-mother in the last sheaf among the Slavs and
in France.

429 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 316.

_ 430 Ibid._ p. 316.

_ 431 Ibid._ pp. 316 _sq._

_ 432 Ibid._ p. 317. As to such rain-charms see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,
Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

433 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 317.

_ 434 Ibid._ pp. 317 _sq._

_ 435 Ibid._ p. 318.

_ 436 Ibid._

437 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 318 _sq._

438 P. Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,
1886), p. 306.

M101 The Harvest-mother or the Great Mother in the last sheaf.

439 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 319.

M102 The Grandmother in the last sheaf.

440 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 320.

_ 441 Ibid._ p. 321.

M103 The Old Woman or the Old Man in the last sheaf.

_ 442 Ibid._ pp. 321, 323, 325 _sq._

_ 443 Ibid._ p. 323; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_
(Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 219, § 403.

444 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.

_ 445 Ibid._ p. 323.

_ 446 Ibid._

447 A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_
(Leipsic, 1848), pp. 396 _sq._, 399; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 309, § 1494.

448 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 323 _sq._

449 H. Prahn, “Glaube und Brauch in der Mark Brandenburg,” _Zeitschrift
des Vereins für Volkskunde_, i. (1891) pp. 186 _sq._

450 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 233,
No. 277 note.

M104 The Old Man or the Old Woman in the last sheaf.

451 R. Krause, _Sitten, Gebräuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_
(Berlin, preface dated March 1904), p. 51.

452 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), ii. 65 _sqq._

453 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_
(Prague, 1905), p. 189.

454 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,
1859), ii. 184, §§ 512 b, 514.

455 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 147.

456 A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), pp.
252 _sq._

M105 Identification of the harvester with the corn-spirit.

457 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 324.

_ 458 Ibid._ p. 320.

459 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.

460 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 74 _sqq._

M106 The last sheaf made unusually large and heavy.

461 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 324.

_ 462 Ibid._ pp. 324 _sq._

_ 463 Ibid._ p. 325. The author of _Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_
(Chemnitz, 1759) mentions (p. 891) the German superstition that the
last sheaf should be made large in order that all the sheaves next
year may be of the same size; but he says nothing as to the shape or
name of the sheaf. Compare A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube
im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 188.

464 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 327.

_ 465 Ibid._ p. 328.

M107 The Carlin and the Maiden in Scotland. The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) at
harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.

466 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
(Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, _s.v._ “Maiden”; W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 326.

467 That is, with the reaping.

468 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 243 _sq._

M108 The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) in the last sheaf at harvest in the
islands of Lewis and Islay. The Old Wife at harvest in Argyleshire.
The reaper of the last sheaf called the Winter.

469 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in
Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 149 _sq._

470 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 151.

471 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 149.

_ 472 Ibid._ pp. 151 _sq._

473 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.

474 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 141.

M109 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in North Pembrokeshire. M110 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in South Pembrokeshire. The Carley at harvest in Antrim.

475 D. Jenkyn Evans, in an article entitled “The Harvest Customs of
Pembrokeshire,” _Pembroke County Guardian_, 7th December 1895. In a
letter to me, dated 23 February 1901, Mr. E. S. Hartland was so good
as to correct the Welsh words in the text. He tells me that they
mean literally, “I rose early, I pursued late on her neck,” and he
adds: “The idea seems to be that the man has pursued the Hag or
Corn-spirit to a later refuge, namely, his neighbour’s field not yet
completely reaped, and now he leaves her for the other reapers to
catch. The proper form of the Welsh word for Hag is _Gwrach_. That
is the radical from _gwr_, man; _gwraig_, woman. _Wrach_ is the
‘middle mutation.’ ”

476 M. S. Clark, “An old South Pembrokeshire Harvest Custom,”
_Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 194-196.

477 Communicated by my friend Professor W. Ridgeway.

M111 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest among Slavonic peoples.

478 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 328.

479 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 238.

_ 480 Ibid._ pp. 328 _sq._

_ 481 Ibid._ p. 329.

_ 482 Ibid._ p. 330.

M112 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest in Lithuania.

_ 483 Ibid._

484 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 331.

_ 485 Ibid._

M113 The Corn-queen and the Harvest-queen.

_ 486 Ibid._ p. 332.

487 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_
(Vienna, 1859), p. 310.

488 Hutchinson, _History of Northumberland_, ii. _ad finem_, 17, quoted
by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, ii. 20, Bohn’s
edition.

489 E. D. Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and
Africa_, Part ii., Section First, Second Edition (London, 1813), p.
229. Perhaps _Morgay_ (which Clarke absurdly explains as μητὴρ γῆ)
is a mistake for _Hawkie_ or _Hockey_. The waggon in which the last
corn was brought from the harvest field was called the _hockey_ cart
or _hock_ cart. In a poem called “The Hock-cart or Harvest Home”
Herrick has described the joyous return of the laden cart drawn by
horses swathed in white sheets and attended by a merry crowd, some
of whom kissed or stroked the sheaves, while others pranked them
with oak leaves. See further J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 22
_sq._, Bohn’s edition. The name _Hockey_ or _Hawkie_ is no doubt the
same with the German _hokelmei_, _hörkelmei_, or _harkelmei_, which
in Westphalia is applied to a green bush or tree set up in the field
at the end of harvest and brought home in the last waggon-load; the
man who carries it into the farmhouse is sometimes drenched with
water. See A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_
(Leipsic, 1859), ii. 178-180, §§ 494-497. The word is thought to be
derived from the Low German _hokk_ (plural _hokken_), “a heap of
sheaves.” See Joseph Wright, _English Dialect Dictionary_, iii.
(London, 1902) p. 190, _s.v._ “Hockey,” from which it appears that
in England the word has been in use in Yorkshire, Cambridgeshire,
and Suffolk.

490 Book ix. lines 838-842.