Chapter VIII: The Corn-Spirit as an Animal (6)

743 For a general description of the country and the tribes see L. A.
Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” _Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1901), pp.
1-127.

744 Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern
India,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898)
pp. 9 _sq._, 38 _sq._

_ 745 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).

_ 746 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 127 _sq._, § 721 (May 1885).

747 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” _Memoirs
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906),
pp. 141 _sq._

M206 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Khonds.

748 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_ (London,
1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General John Campbell, _Wild Tribes of
Khondistan_ (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret,
Bishop of Vizagapatam, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_,
xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes on
Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; _id._, _Castes and
Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iii. 371-385.

749 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 56.

750 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 115 _sq._

751 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._; J. Campbell, _op. cit._
p. 112.

M207 Ceremonies preliminary to the sacrifice.

752 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._

753 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.

754 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 54 _sq._

M208 Consummation of the sacrifice.

755 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 112.

756 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 119; J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 113.

757 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 127. Instead of the branch of a
green tree, Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57)
or a slit bamboo (p. 182).

758 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 56, 58, 120.

759 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
288, quoting Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.

760 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth
Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell,
_op. cit._ pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was
represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was
bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 54).

761 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the
human victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de
Sahagun, _Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_,
traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20,
p. 86).

M209 Flesh of the victim used to fertilise the fields.

762 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, referring
to Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.

763 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, _op. cit._
pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.

764 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 182.

765 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 128; E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive
Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288.

766 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 182.

767 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 187.

768 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
iii. 381-385.

M210 In these Khond sacrifices the human victims appear to have been
regarded as divine.

769 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 112.

770 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.

M211 Traces of an identification of the human victim with the god in
other sacrifices.

771 Above, pp. 239, 240, 244.

M212 Analogy of these barbarous rites to the harvest customs of Europe.

772 Above, p. 134.

773 Above, pp. 134, 157 _sqq._

774 Above, p. 223.

775 Above, p. 224.

776 Above, p. 170, with the references in note 1; _Adonis, Attis,
Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

M213 Human representative of the corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field. M214 The victim who represented the corn-spirit may have been a passing stranger or the reaper, binder, or thresher of the last corn.

777 See above, p. 217.

778 Above, p. 224.

779 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 5.

780 H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.

M215 Perhaps the victim annually sacrificed in the character of the
corn-spirit may have been the king himself.

781 Above, p. 217. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt in a
sheaf.

782 Above, pp. 225 _sq._, 229 _sq._

783 See _The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sqq._

M216 Relation of Lityerses to Attis: both may have been originally
corn-spirits, or the one a corn-spirit and the other a tree-spirit.
Human representatives both of Lityerses and Attis annually slain.

784 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 231 _sqq._, 239
_sq._

785 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._

786 I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but the high
upland character of the country makes it likely that harvest is
later there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.

787 See above, pp. 240 _sqq._; and _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L.
Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London,
1896), ii. 140 _sqq._; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, “Het
koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne
Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie
van Wetenschappen_, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2
(Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon,
see A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_ (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172
_sqq._; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga
and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India”, _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not,
however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring
human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of
the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence
on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian
spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their
lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in
antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had
slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 _sq._

788 There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing
human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias,
vii. 19. 3 _sq._ compared with vii. 20. 1; _id._, viii. 53. 3; L. R.
Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455;
and _The Dying God_, pp. 161 _sq._

M217 Similarity of the Bithynian Bormus to the Phrygian Attis.

789 Above, pp. 215 _sq._

790 Above, p. 216.

791 Hesychius, _s.v._ Βῶρμον.

M218 The Phoenician Linus song at the vintage. Linus identified with
Adonis, who may have been annually represented by a human victim.

792 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 3.

793 The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between
vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a
different category. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
pp. 53 _sq._

794 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 188 _sqq._

795 Above, pp. 236 _sq._, 240, 243, 244, 248 _sq._

796 The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome
a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me
by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following
note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not
Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month
different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in
Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest
(_Ideler_, i. 396) that in 229 B.C. Xanthicus began on February 26.
It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan
but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz.”

M219 The corn-spirit in Egypt (Osiris) annually represented by a human
victim.

797 Above, p. 215.

798 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius
Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 1396; Plutarch, _Parall._ 38. Herodotus (ii.
45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human
sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of
Manetho (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73), who affirms that they did.
See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 _sqq._, who says
(pp. 210, 212): “There is abundant proof for the statement that the
Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common
with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in
dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage.... The
passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove
that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at
Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found
expression in the works of Greek writers.”

799 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p.
68.

800 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin,
1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient
Classique, Les Origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 _sqq._ Both these
eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris
was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as “the
great vegetation god” and, on the same page, as “an earth-god” (_op.
cit._ i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of
Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority
of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge
holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of
Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the
south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.

801 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 30,
33.

802 Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 30,
referring to Mariette, _Dendereh_, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and
lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As
to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious
rites see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 133; _The
Dying God_, p. 72.

M220 Assimilation of human victims to the corn which they represent.

803 Above, pp. 237 _sq._, 240, 251.

804 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
1892) p. 422.

805 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.

806 Festus, _s.v._ _Catularia_, p. 45 ed. C. O. Müller. Compare _id._,
_s.v._ _Rutilae canes_, p. 285; Columella, _De re rustica_, x. 342
_sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 14.

807 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg,
1856), ii. 388 _sq._ Compare _ibid._, pp. 384 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 391,
393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim
to the god, see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin,
1894), pp. 77 _sq._, 357-359.

M221 Remains of victims scattered over the fields to fertilise them.

808 Above, pp. 240, 249.

809 Above, pp. 149 _sq._, 237 _sq._, 239.

810 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

811 See above, p. 248; and compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._

812 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 323.

M222 The black and green Osiris like the black and green Demeter.

813 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.

814 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_
(ed. 1878), iii. 81.

815 Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.

816 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28. See above, p. 42.

M223 The key to the mysteries of Osiris furnished by the lamentations of the reapers for the annual death of the corn-spirit. M224 Crying “the neck” at harvest in Devonshire.

817 W. Hone, _Every-day Book_ (London, N.D.), ii. coll. 1170 _sq._

818 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_
(London, 1883), pp. 372 _sq._, referring to Mrs. Bray’s _Traditions
of Devon_, i. 330.

819 W. Hone, _op. cit._ ii. 1172.

820 The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote
to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the “neck” being
kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it
generally stayed there throughout the year.

M225 Other accounts of cutting and crying “the neck” in Devonshire.

821 “Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
p. 280.

_ 822 Ibid._

M226 Cutting “the neck” in Pembrokeshire.

823 Frances Hoggan, M.D., “The Neck Feast,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p.
123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been
commonly known as “the Hag” (_wrach_) rather than as “the Neck.” See
above, pp. 142-144.

M227 Cutting “the neck” in Shropshire. Why the last corn cut is called
“the neck.”

824 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20 (Bohn’s edition); Miss C. S.
Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 371.

825 Burne and Jackson, _l.c._

826 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.

827 See above, p. 158.

828 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.

_ 829 Ibid._

_ 830 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. (1887) p. 500.

831 Above, p. 150.

M228 Cries of the reapers in Germany.

832 E. Meier, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei
Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H.
Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104
_sq._; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_
(Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 _sq._, §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W.
Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic,
1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in
hessischen Gauen_ (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.

M229 The corn-spirit as an animal.
M230 The corn-spirit in the form of an animal is supposed to be present
in the last corn cut or threshed, and to be caught or killed by the
reaper or thresher.

833 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.

M231 The corn-spirit as a wolf or a dog, supposed to run through the
corn.

834 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6
_sqq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318
_sq._; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 103; A. Witzchel,
_Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 213;
O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur
Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p.
327; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_
(Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.

835 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 10 _sqq._; _id._,
_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 319.

836 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 14 _sq._

M232 The corn-spirit as a dog at reaping and threshing.

837 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104; P. Drechsler,
_Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, ii. 64.

838 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104.

_ 839 Ibid._ pp. 104 _sq._ On the Harvest-May, see _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sq._

840 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

841 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 105.

_ 842 Ibid._ p. 30.

_ 843 Ibid._ pp. 30, 105.

_ 844 Ibid._ pp. 105 _sq._

M233 The corn-spirit as a wolf at reaping.

845 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), ii. 64.

846 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch,
_Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880),
ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.

847 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.

848 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 33.

849 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33 _sq._; K.
Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.

850 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 34.

851 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 38; _id._, _Antike
Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.

852 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 34 _sq._

853 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 311, § 1505.

854 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch,
_op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§
1506, 1507.

M234 The corn-spirit as a wolf killed at threshing.

855 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 321.

_ 856 Ibid._ pp. 321 _sq._

M235 The corn-wolf at harvest in France. The corn-wolf killed on the
harvest-field.

_ 857 Ibid._ p. 320.

_ 858 Ibid._ pp. 320 _sq._

M236 The corn-wolf at midwinter.

_ 859 Ibid._ p. 322.

_ 860 Ibid._ p. 323.

M237 The corn-spirit as a cock at harvest.

861 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

862 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder,
Sprüchwörter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i.
95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.

863 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

864 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W.
Schwartz, _l.c._

865 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232,
No. 277 note.

866 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

867 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 220.

868 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 13 _sq._; J. H. Schmitz,
_Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler
Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und
Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 _sq._; H.
Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.

869 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, _op. cit._
pp. 111, 419 _sq._

870 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the
corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p.
268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose
the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the
harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire
Folk-lore_, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the
harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose
(J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 23, 26, Bohn’s edition).

871 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14.

_ 872 Ibid._ p. 15.

M238 The corn-spirit killed in the form of a live cock.

873 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30.

874 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15.

_ 875 Ibid._ pp. 15 _sq._

876 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15; _id._, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 30.

M239 The corn-spirit as a hare at harvest. The corn-spirit as a hare
killed in the last corn cut.

877 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 1.

878 W. Gregor, “Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,”
_Report of the British Association for 1896_, p. 623.

_ 879 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 47 _sq._

880 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

881 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 3.

882 O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.

883 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),
i. 24.

884 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

885 Above, p. 268.

886 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 29.

887 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 29 _sq._; _id._, _Die
Korndämonen_, p. 5.

888 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 310.

M240 The corn-spirit as a cat sitting in the corn. The corn-spirit as a
cat killed at reaping and threshing.

889 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 172-174; _id._,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.

890 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

891 Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 102.

M241 The corn-spirit as a goat running through the corn or sitting in it.
The corn-goat at reaping and binding the corn.

892 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 155 _sq._

_ 893 Ibid._ pp. 157 _sq._

_ 894 Ibid._ p. 159.

_ 895 Ibid._ pp. 161 _sq._

_ 896 Ibid._ p. 162.

897 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. pp. 232 _sq._, § 426; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 162.

898 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 228 _sq._, § 422; W. Mannhardt,
_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163; _Bavaria, Landes- und
Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.

899 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163.

900 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

901 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 164.

_ 902 Ibid._ p. 164.

903 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

904 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 164 _sq._

_ 905 Ibid._ p. 165.

M242 The corn-spirit as the Cripple Goat in Skye.

906 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition, quoting
_The Gentleman’s Magazine_ for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt,
_op. cit._ p. 165.

907 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in
Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given
by Mrs. C. Nicholson.

908 Above, p. 232.

909 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 165.

M243 The corn-spirit killed as a goat on the harvest-field.

910 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 166; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
p. 185.

911 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 166.

912 Above, p. 281.

913 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.

914 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt,
_Baumkultus_, pp. 482 _sqq._

M244 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat supposed to lurk among the
corn in the barn, till he is expelled by the flail at threshing.

915 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.

916 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 225 _sqq._, §
421; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 167 _sq._

917 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 168.

918 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_
(Prague, 1905), p. 194.

919 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 168.

M245 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat passed on to a neighbour who
has not finished his threshing.

920 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.

921 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 224 _sq._, §
420; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 169.

922 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.

M246 The corn-spirit in goat form killed at threshing.

_ 923 Ibid._ p. 170.

_ 924 Ibid._ p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the
field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231
_sqq._

M247 Old Prussian custom of killing a goat at sowing.

925 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 394 _sq._

926 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 241.

M248 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull running through the corn or
lying in it. The corn-spirit as a bull, ox, or cow at harvest.

927 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 58.

_ 928 Ibid._

_ 929 Ibid._ p. 62.

930 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

931 Above, p. 275.

932 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 59.

933 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 _sq._, §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer,
_Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

934 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

935 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 59 _sq._

_ 936 Ibid._ p. 58.

937 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 58 _sq._

M249 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox killed at the close of
the reaping.

_ 938 Ibid._ p. 60.

M250 The corn-spirit as a bull or cow at threshing.

939 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
444 _sq._, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 61.

940 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 233, § 427.

941 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 61 _sq._

_ 942 Ibid._ p. 62.

_ 943 Ibid._ p. 62.

944 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
445 _sq._, § 163.

M251 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull supposed to be killed at
threshing.

945 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 60.

946 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 62.

M252 The corn-spirit as a calf at harvest or in spring.

947 Above, pp. 150 _sq._

948 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), ii. 135.

949 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 62: “_Il fait le
veau._”

_ 950 Ibid._

_ 951 Ibid._ p. 63.

M253 The corn-spirit as a horse or mare running through the corn. “Crying
the Mare” in Hertfordshire and Shropshire.

_ 952 Ibid._ p. 167.

953 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

954 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition.

955 C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London,
1883), pp. 373 _sq._

M254 The corn-spirit as a horse in France.

956 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 167. We may compare
the Scotch custom of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to
eat. See above, pp. 141, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162.

957 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
pp. 167 _sq._ We have seen (above, p. 267) that in South
Pembrokeshire the man who cut the “Neck” used to be “shod,” that is,
to have the soles of his feet severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he
was thus treated as representing the corn-spirit in the form of a
horse.

M255 The corn-spirit as a quail. The rice-spirit as a blue bird. The
rice-spirit as a quail.

958 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

959 A. Peter, _Völksthumliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,
1865-1867), ii. 268.

960 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 240.

961 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volks aberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 189,
§ 277; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_
(Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. Swainson, _The Folk Lore and
Provincial Names of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 173.

962 Alfred Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_, New Edition (London,
1893-1896), p. 755.

963 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 228, 229; _id._, “De
rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen
van der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling
Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374
_sq._

M256 The corn-spirit as a fox running through the corn or sitting in it.
The corn-spirit as a fox at reaping the last corn. The corn-spirit
as a fox at threshing. The Japanese rice-god associated with the
fox.

964 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 109 note 2.

965 L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 _sq._

966 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 109 _sq._, note 2.

967 J. F. L. Woeste, _Völksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_
(Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
p. 110 note.

968 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
312 _sqq._; W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 162 _sq._ At
the festival of the Roman corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the
nineteenth of April, foxes were allowed to run about with burning
torches tied to their tails, and the custom was explained as a
punishment inflicted on foxes because a fox had once in this way
burned down the crops (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 679 _sqq._). Samson is
said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a similar
fashion (Judges xv. 4 _sq._). Whether the custom and the tradition
are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment of the
corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, pp. 108 _sq._; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of
the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.

M257 The corn-spirit as a boar rushing through the corn. The corn-spirit
as a boar or sow at reaping. The corn-spirit as a sow at threshing.

969 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 213, § 4. So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (_Zeitschrift des
Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150).

970 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W.
Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 187.

971 A. Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.

972 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ 417, 419.

973 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 112.

974 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.

975 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebaüche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162.

976 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1861-1862), ii. p. 425, § 379.

977 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 221-224, §§
409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.

M258 The corn-spirit as a pig at sowing.

978 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 186 _sq._

979 Above, p. 272; compare 268.

980 Above, p. 298.

981 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 187.

982 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 187 _sq._; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten
und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, _Hessische
Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.

983 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston,
_Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 220.

M259 The corn-spirit embodied in the Yule Boar of Scandinavia. The Yule
straw in Sweden.

984 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 197 _sq._; F.
Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 491; J. Jamieson,
_Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
(Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 _sq._, _s.v._ “Maiden”; Arv.
Aug. Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und
neuerer Zeit_, übersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.

985 Above, p. 275.

986 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 169 _sq._,
182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw
(_ibid._ p. 177).

987 U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche_ (Breslau, 1884), p. 215.
Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 17, 27 _sq._

988 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 31.

989 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 9; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_,
pp. 181, 185.

M260 The Christmas Boar among the Esthonians.

990 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 _sq._

991 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
Petersburg, 1876), pp. 344, 485.

M261 Sacramental character of the harvest-supper.

992 Above, pp. 277 _sq._, 280, 281, 285, 290, 300, 301. In regard to the
hare, the substitution of brandy for hare’s blood is probably
modern.

M262 Parallelism between the conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and
animal forms.
M263 The reason why the corn-spirit is thought to take the forms of so
many animals may be that wild creatures are commonly penned by the
advance of the reapers into the last patch of standing corn, which
is usually regarded as the last refuge of the corn-spirit.

993 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.

M264 Importance of the Pleiades in primitive calendars.

994 R. Andree, “Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum
Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” _Globus_, lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.

M265 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Australian aborigines.

995 Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. Ridley, “Report on Australian
Languages and Traditions,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 279; _id._, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p.
138. Mr. McKellar’s evidence was given before a Select Committee of
the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may
perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of
Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to be
a common belief among the aborigines of central and south-eastern
Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived on earth but
afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, in
_Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. i. (1861)
p. 302; P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great
Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray,” etc.,
_Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_,
xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 566; _id._,
_Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W.
Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp.
429 _sq._ Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were
originally a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow
(Waa) fell in love with the queen and ran away with her, and that
since then the Pleiades have been only six in number. See James
Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide,
1881), p. 100.

996 J. Manning, “Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland,” _Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (Sydney,
1883) p. 168.

997 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 75.

M266 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Paraguay and
Brazil.

998 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.

999 M. Dobrizhoffer, _op. cit._ ii. 77 _sq._, 101-105.

1000 Pedro de Angelis, _Coleccion de Obras y Documentes relativos a la
Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la Plata_
(Buenos Ayres, 1836-1837), iv. 15.

1001 P. Lozano, _Descripcion chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y
animales del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.

1002 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), p. 139.

1003 Pedro de Angelis, _op. cit._ iv. 14.

1004 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p.
418, referring to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, _Hist. rerum naturalium
Brasil_. (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.

1005 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_, ii. 104.

1006 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
1909-1910), ii. 203.

1007 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal
Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 441.

1008 Carl Teschauer, S.J., “Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,”
_Anthropos_, i. (1906) p. 736.

1009 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle et Civile et Géographique de
l’Orenoque_ (Avignon, 1758), iii. 254 _sq._

M267 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Peru and Mexico.

1010 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
1892) p. 492.

1011 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 11, 29 _sq._ According to Arriaga, the Peruvian name for
the Pleiades is _Oncoy_.

1012 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the
Yncas_, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871,
Hakluyt Society), i. 275. Compare J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral
History of the Indies_ (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.

1013 E. Seler, _Alt-Mexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166
_sq._, referring to Petrus Martyr, _De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis
insulis_ (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.

1014 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_
(Paris, 1880), pp. 288 _sq._, 489 _sqq._; A. de Herrera, _General
History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by
Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero,
_History of Mexico_, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 315
_sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_
(Bâle, 1867), pp. 519 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of
the Pacific States of North America_ (London, 1875-1876), iii.
393-395.

M268 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the North American Indians.

1015 Jean l’Heureux, “Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and
Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 301-303.

1016 Walter McClintock, _The Old North Trail_ (London, 1910), p. 490.

1017 J. Walter Fewkes, “The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,” _Proceedings of
the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. (1895) p. 453.

M269 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Polynesians.

1018 Rev. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 87.

1019 Rev. W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_ (London,
1876), p. 43.

1020 Rev. W. W. Gill, _op. cit._ p. 317, compare p. 44.

1021 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 279.

1022 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_,
Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 219.

_ 1023 The United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_,
by Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear,
_Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_ (Wellington, N.Z., 1891),
p. 226.

M270 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Melanesians.

1024 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In
the island of Florida the Pleiades are called _togo ni samu_, “the
company of maidens” (_op. cit._ p. 349).

1025 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887),
p. 56.

M271 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of New Guinea and the
Indian Archipelago.

1026 A. C. Haddon, “Legends from Torres Straits,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
p. 195. We may conjecture that the “new yam time” means the time for
planting yams.

1027 R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 _sq._

1028 A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op de Minahassa,” _Tijdschrift
voor Neerlands Indië_, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; J. G. F.
Riedel, “De landschappen Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en
Kattinggola, of Andagile,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xix. (1869) p. 140; _id._, in _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, iii. (1871) p. 404.

1029 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second
Edition (London, 1863), i. 214. Compare H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London,
1848), p. 251.

1030 Dr. Charles Hose, “Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting
among the Races of Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 _sq._
Compare Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), i.
59; Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p.
229.

1031 Dr. Charles Hose, _op. cit._ p. 4. Compare _id._, “The Natives of
Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894)
pp. 168 _sq._, where the writer tells us that the Kayans and many
other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades appear just
above the horizon at daybreak, though the Kayans more usually
determine the time for sowing by observation of the sun. As to the
Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by the length of
shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. Kükenthal,
_Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_ (Frankfort, 1896),
pp. 292 _sq._ Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the
twelve months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, “Aanteekeningen
betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het Landschap Baloengan,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxix.
(1897) pp. 484-486.

1032 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.

1033 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.

1034 R. Friederich, “Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,”
_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen_, xxiii. (1849) p. 49.

1035 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias en deszelfs Bewoners,” _Verhandelingen van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx.
(Batavia, 1863) p. 119.

1036 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, Third Edition (London, 1811), p.
71.

1037 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.

M272 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of Africa, Greeks, and
Romans.

1038 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), p. 217. The three stars are probably the Belt.

1039 See above, vol. i. p. 116.

1040 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
pp. 194 _sq._ Compare J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the
Basuto,” _Anthropos_, iv. (1909) p. 931.

1041 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p.
418. Compare G. Thompson, _Travels and Adventures in Southern
Africa_ (London, 1827), ii. 359.

1042 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii.
(London, etc., 1870), p. 397.

1043 R. Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_
(London, 1842), pp. 337 _sq._

1044 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833),
p. 273.

1045 Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s_ (Breslau, 1872). p.
340.

1046 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_
(London, 1881), p. 43, quoting the Moravian missionary George
Schmidt, who was sent out to the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.

1047 H. S. Stannus, “Notes on some Tribes of British Central Africa,”
_Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 289.

1048 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.

1049 May.

1050 June-August.

1051 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333.
The “season of showers” seems to be a name for the dry season (June,
July, August), when rain falls only occasionally; it is thus
distinguished from the rainy season of winter, which begins after
the reappearance of the Pleiades in September.

1052 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, pp. 275 _sq._

1053 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.

1054 C. W. Hobley, “Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious
Beliefs and Customs,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 442.

1055 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the
Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), p. 48.

1056 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._, 615 _sqq._ See above, pp. 45,
48.

1057 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 264-267; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125,
xviii. 280, “_Vergiliae privatim attinent ad fructus, ut quarum
exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, semenstri spatio intra se
messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem conplexae._” Compare L.
Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 _sq._ Pliny dated the rising of the
Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of
November (_Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125).

1058 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 49 and 223.

M273 The widespread association of the Pleiades with agriculture seems to
be based on the coincidence of their rising or setting with the
commencement of the rainy season.

1059 See above, p. 307.

1060 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, xvii. 10 _sqq._ If “the sweet
influences of the Pleiades” in the Authorised Version of the English
Bible were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in
Job xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the “sweet influences”
by the belief that the autumnal setting of the constellation is the
cause of rain. But the rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not
even certain that the constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See
the commentaries of A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the
passage. The Revised English Version translates the words in
question “the cluster of the Pleiades.” Compare H. Grimme, _Das
israelitische Pfingstfest und der Plejadenkult_ (Paderborn, 1907),
pp. 61 _sqq._