Chapter II: Introduction (1)

Doubtless, the arts of Carpentry and Joinery were among the oldest in the world, and these arts must have flourished for many centuries before anything like polish or fine finish on wood-work were even thought of. The handles of stone weapons were probably the first specimens of the wood-worker’s art, then clubs and other wooden weapons subsequently the “dug-out” and the paddle or oar. Huts or wooden dwellings with doors and shutters, roofs and floors did not appear until much later.

Nature always makes her works fittest for the intended end, and beautiful as well. So long as mankind were in constant contact with Nature’s works they tried to imitate her methods, but at last this involved two processes, so, that, when they ceased to care for beauty, they grudged the necessary labor required to attain it. Therefore, in anything made by the hands of man, with no other motive in view but that of utility, the chances are a thousand to one that beauty will be conspicuous only by its absence.

That wood plays a very important part in the affairs of mankind, I scarcely need mention, and nature seems to have well understood our wants for it is claimed by those who claim to know, that about one-third of the earth’s surface is covered with trees, all of which are capable of contributing in some form or another to the wants of man.

In this country, the art of using wood for almost every purpose, has gone far beyond anything that has ever been attempted by any other people. The introduction of wood-working machinery for the rapid manipulation of intricate mouldings, spirals, flutings, beadings and carvings, has in a great measure, had a tendency to elevate the taste of the whole community, though I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among our younger workmen; machinery having almost done away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lesser degree, the style and finish of wood-work, and to a certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for certain purposes. It is but a few years since, when no other wood than clean white pine, would be permitted to do service in a building. Every thing must be pine, floors, doors, windows, and skirtings, even to the bath fittings. Then Dame fashion sent forth her decree, and a mixture of white pine, Norway and Southern pine, was used followed shortly afterward by the abominable mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect who deserves well of his country, introduced all walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once, people of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its superiority over the “trash-like” mixture at once; and the fashion then of finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Walnut was found too dark for general purposes and was soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut, sycamore, ash and oak were then tried, but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, the light colored woods were not successful, from an æsthetic point of view, and it is on record, that many buildings finished in these woods, have recently had their wood-work cleaned and stained to imitate darker woods or have been painted. One of the valuable qualities of white oak, is, that it grows richer in color as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves with age. This is a quality that no other of our American woods possess in the same degree. All the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the white oak (Quercus alba), possesses it more than any other. Mahogany too, has this quality largely, if true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in the market; though there are many woods which have the appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, and both buyer and user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do not get.

We have often been reproached with willfully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying our own handsome woods, while importing from abroad at excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, foreign woods which are much inferior to many of our native productions. This folly prevailed at a time when it was fashionable and even popular to believe there was no merit in domestic productions of any sort, this state of things, however is now at an end; and in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country places as well, a finish in hard wood is the rule, and a finish in pine the exception, if the building to be finished, makes any pretension of being “up to the times.”

With regard to the difference in cost between a finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected hard wood, there is really but little, if any, if we take into consideration durability and good taste. As between pine wood and good well finished hard wood, the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to completely silence any comparison. Between poor pine and poor hard wood the preference should by all means be given to the former; because, poor pine as it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor hard wood are almost incurable. The rationale of the subject seems to resolve itself into the following statement.

Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the free use of hard woods. It is immaterial which are used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods should be selected; and, further, that they should be skillfully treated and finished.

The principal recommendation of hard wood is that it admits of a treatment which renders it impervious to the effects of atmospheric changes, and, therefore can be made more durable and ultimately less expensive than pine wood. A hard wood that is well seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers to close up its pores, and then finished with successive coats of copal varnish, well rubbed in with pumice-stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish, presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable style of wood-work that can be introduced into a house. Well finished hard wood obviates the expense and annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls for in patching, puttying and painting. The most brilliant gloss of finished hard wood can be restored by a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or carpets of a house.

Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably adapted for cheap work. A good article of common pine, suitable for ordinary work can be procured, and worked at considerably less expense than would be involved in using good hard wood. The use of poor hard wood in any work should not be tolerated or thought of under any circumstances, for the simple reason that it is certain to create annoyance and expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate priced property, should be subjected to.

I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the development of the art of joinery, and the transition from the use of pine and the softer woods, to that of the hard woods.

In the following work it is my intention to take each of the woods most in use; describe them, say what I think they are best adapted for, and the best way to finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this means the reader will have, under one head, all the book contains concerning the particular wood he is about to finish.

PRELIMINARY.

If the workman who finally finishes wood-work, had the selection of the materials out of which the work is formed; and wrought the work himself; the following suggestions would scarcely be required, for he would see to it that the material was free from shakes, cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures; and he would so choose his material, that the full beauty of the grain would show, when the polish coat went on. He would also see, that the work was _clean_. That is, that no plane marks were visible, no rough spots, or cross-grains noticeable, and that all angles were sharp and definite, all mouldings smooth and not a nail head or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could suggest a nail head. As a rule, however, the workman who puts on the last finishing touches never makes the work, though he is _always_ expected to cover and hide all the faults of bad workmanship, bad selection of timber, and a thousand other objectionable things in connection with work, over which he has had no control. In order to aid the finisher as much as possible, I give a few hints herewith, for the use of the workman whose duty it may be to prepare and put up the work to be finished. The suggestions given, are equally applicable for hard and soft woods and I trust they will not be out of place.

First, then see that the material is dry, free from imperfections, of the full sizes required, and of such variety of grain as may be suitable for the purpose intended. Next, make all joints close and as near perfect as possible as on this point rests, in a great measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make all angles sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings true and with perfect intersections. Never use glass-paper where a scraper can be applied, and when a large quantity of mouldings of similar contour and size are to be employed; it is always better to make a scraper their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and preparing the mouldings for the varnisher, than to use glass-paper for the purpose.

Wherever possible and suitable I would advise the use of glue in putting up finish, and I may here remark to the workman, that after a little practice in the use of glue and a little knowledge of its worth and capabilities, he will prefer it, to nails or screws where he can apply it; further on I will give a few hints and suggestions on the proper methods of using glue in house finishing. Of course, I am well aware that the use of nails and screws is a necessity in wood-finishing, but where the work is to be left natural color, or stained and polished, there should not be the slightest suspicion of a nail or screw head, and to meet this condition the skilled workman resorts to several expedients to hide the fastenings among which are the following. These methods, which are similar, are called “sliver-nailing,” or sometimes, “chip blind-nailing.” In the first method, shown at Fig. 1, the wood is raised with a firmer chisel and the screw or nail is then put in place and driven home. At Fig. 2, the “sliver” or chip, is raised with a gouge. In the first instance a sharp knife should be employed to draw lengthwise with the grain two deep cuts the width of the chisel, as this keeps the sides of the chip from splitting. The chisel should be set at a steep angle at first till the proper depth is reached, and then made to turn out a cut of even thickness until there is room to drive in a screw or nail. If too sharp a curve is given, the “sliver” is likely to break apart in being straightened out again. In Fig. 2, I show how the “sliver” is raised by using a gouge. To do this nicely a gouge about three-quarters of an inch across the face should be used and the curve should be quick. In this case no knife cut is needed, as the corners of the gouge will cut as it progresses.

The cut being made and the “sliver” slightly raised as shown in both cuts, the screw or nail may be driven without disturbing either the “sliver” or the cut underneath. See that the head of either screw or nail be sunk beneath surface of recess, so that the “sliver” will fit back in its place without obstruction. Now take properly prepared glue and, after warming the “sliver” and recess with a warm cloth, cover the underside of “sliver” and the wood underneath, seeing that the glue is not too thick; press down the “sliver” in place, then rub with the face of a hammer until the glue holds; then leave until dry, when the whole may be dressed off and finished. Another way is to glue the “sliver” down and then take a flat piece of pine about an inch thick, and glue over the “sliver,” rubbing the pine block to and fro until the glue takes. The block is left on until dry and solid. The pine block may be split off, and the face of the wood dressed clean and finished. In hardwood finish for interior housework this latter plan of fastening up stuff is often resorted to.

When the work has been made secure by any or all the methods described, the next thing to be considered is the smoothing and final finishing, and these two processes as here defined, pertain to all sorts of wood, hard or soft, that is intended to be finished in the natural colors or stained. In order to obtain a fine and substantial finish the work must either be smoothed fine with a plane, scraped with a steel scraper, or rubbed down with the finest glass-paper. For very hard or irregular grained wood, such as is made into veneers or employed for the finer kinds of work, the cleaning-off process consists first in planing the surfaces with a toothed plane, having a serrated edge like a comb, this tool scratching away the high places and leveling the surface without pulling or splintering the wood, as a common knife will do unless very carefully adjusted and worked. After tooth-planing, the surfaces are scraped with a steel hand scraper until the scratches made by a tooth plane are removed, and the surface is then finished by rubbing with glass-paper of different finenesses.

Straight-grained hard woods can be cleaned off by planing with a common smoothing plane, and then scraping and rubbing them with glass-paper. Soft wood requires only careful planing and glass-papering, but if scraping is omitted great care must be taken in planing, or else the plane marks will show by reflection when the surface is polished, varnished or painted. I have known of cases where the finishers were wrongly accused of improper execution of the work because the finish, after being exposed to the changes of temperature occurring in a year, became impaired on account of the appearance of fine cracks running with the grain, differing from those caused by the improper application of varnish, which always runs across the grain. Among other reasons for this premature impairment, one is that the fine fibres become affected; sandpapering the wood lengthwise or with the grain will loosen these, but will not break them off. The application of the filler will force them down into the pores, the filler making them adhere perfectly tight for some time; but the changing of the temperature expands and contracts the wood, thus causing the fibres to loosen and work out, making their appearance in fine cracks and impairing the finish.

This fault most frequently occurs in open-grained wood especially when employed in the common class of cabinet-work which is transferred to the finishing-room directly upon leaving the machinery where it has been sandpapered lengthwise by a set of cylinders under heavy pressure, and should be guarded against with great care. “This sandpapering,” finishers will generally say, “is a matter for the cabinet-maker or the carpenter; daub it over and let it go.” It is immaterial to them how the finish holds out after leaving their hands; but I find it is well for a finisher to do his duty by at least insisting upon having the work lightly cross-sandpapered with paper with No. 1. or No. 1½ paper. This process will loosen the fibres at both ends; consequently, they will fall off, or, if they do not do so, they should be dusted off previous to filling.

There is one more source of injury which should be guarded against with great care, and that is finishing over wet timber; nor should steam, water or dampness in any form be allowed to come in contact with the smooth dry surface, as it will raise the grain, making redressing by the joiner a necessity.

In their natural state all woods are more or less porous consisting of bundles of hard fibres, with interstices filled with a softer substance. These constitute the grain, and as the hard or soft parts predominate, the wood is said to be hard, fine, or close-grained, or soft and open-grained. To fill these softer parts, or pores, and give to the whole an even, uniform surface, hard, and capable of a brilliant polish, is the object of the finishers’ art. This hard, firm surface was formerly gained by the successive application of several coats of varnish, at least three preliminary coats being required to fill the pores; the inequalities were then reduced by fine sand or glass-paper, and several additional coats laid on, the last, after becoming thoroughly hard being polished if desired. In this operation, however, a great quantity of varnish is absorbed by the open pores of the wood, and it is consequently so expensive that it is now seldom used. Recourse is therefore had to various plans to render the wood non-absorbent before applying varnishes, and certain compounds called fillers are largely used for this purpose. These I will endeavor to describe, and give the methods of application in the following section.

WOOD-FILLERS AND WOOD-FILLING.

In woods employed for house and cabinet work there are two distinct natures, therefore different treatment is required in finishing. First, there is the coarse or open-grained wood, having its surface perforated with innumerable pores or cells. In order to obtain a smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled up to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer would term them, the “lights” of the wood. Next we have the fine or close-grained wood, which, like the preceding, also contains these pores, but they are of a very fine character, and simply sealing them up with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on.

I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood which requires more attention and care than the closer-grained wood, if same results are expected. There are many things that will serve the purpose of fillers and make pretty fair work; among these may be mentioned, china clay, silver white and corn starch; the best of which is probably the last named. This is well adapted to the work being equally useful with light, or when colored with dark wood; one fault with it, is that it never hardens. China clay—the English is the best—makes an exceedingly good filler; it is light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement.

There are an hundred ways of preparing fillers for use, and nearly as many different materials for making them; I would recommend however, that wherever it is possible, that Wheeler’s patent quartz filler be used; though I am aware, that in many cases, it may not be advisable to use it, and to meet these rare conditions the following mixtures may be substituted.

A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion of the vehicle will penetrate into the wood, leaving the pigment on the surface to be rubbed into the pores and still retain enough combining property to form a hard and impenetrable surface. This depends entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed, and, as different pigments require different quantities of vehicle, I seldom mix filler by actual measurement unless it be in large amounts. I proceed with the mixing by filling my pot two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add boiled linseed oil, producing the consistency of putty, then dilute with about one part japan and two parts turpentine. Should it be required to keep the wood as light as possible, replace the boiled oil with raw, using a smaller quantity, but a little more japan. For all light wood the light japan should be preferred, although there are many who never use anything but the common brown. Naphtha can also be employed in place of the turpentine, somewhat reducing the expense; but, as naphtha evaporates much faster, it prevents the operator from covering an extended surface without running the risk of having it dry hard. This causes difficulty at “rubbing it in” and wiping off the surplus, although “wiping off” should not proceed until the filler has flatted—or, at least, “set.” This to a certain extent the operator can accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a small quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the smaller the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored, but the less durable, will be the finish.

Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not recommended; applied directly to the wood, its effect is to swell the fibres, or “raise the grain,” which remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely dry or disappears. During this time the fibres are gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a good filler are that it shall readily enter the porous portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and render the wood impervious to the varnish, which should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy and effect to the natural beauty of the wood; and that it shall not raise the grain of the wood; and that it shall not change the color of the wood. These conditions are satisfactorily fulfilled by few of the home-made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and while I give a number of receipts, my readers are advised that they will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost by purchasing some of the patent fillers now coming into general use. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large amount of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly dry and hard in a few hours preventing any swelling or shrinking of the fibres of the wood after the varnish is applied. The following fillers should be allowed to dry until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is usually sufficient, but it is better to let the work stand for twenty-four hours before touching it with glass-paper. In applying a filler it should always be borne in mind that the substance of wood consists of a multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These tubes or cells are not continuous from top to bottom of the tree, but are comparatively short and taper out to points so that they are thickest in the middle. Most of the common woods have the walls of these tubes so thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and carried into the substance for some distance. Different kinds of wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of these cells. In filling the pores the first step is taken in providing an absolutely smooth surface. We trust mainly to mechanical force in rubbing in, aided by the absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly successive varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much time and when they were done, the final finish had still to be applied, but the whole process has now been simplified, by using fillers.

The careful workman will not leave “great daubs” of superfluous filler here and there on the work, but will see that all corners and heads and quirks of mouldings are well cleaned off before it gets too hard to remove easily, and should there be any nail holes—which there ought not to be—he will have them filled with properly colored putty or cement and nicely smoothed down before he makes any attempt to put on his finishing coats.

Among the many home-made fillers I have endeavored to select the best.

=Walnut Filler.=—For Medium and Cheap Work.—10 lbs. bolted English whiting, 3 lbs. dry burnt umber, 4 lbs. Vandyke brown, 3 lbs. calcined plaster, ½ lb. Venetian red, 1 gal. boiled linseed oil, ½ gal. spirits turpentine, 1 quart black japan. Mix well and apply with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off with rags.

=Walnut Filler.=—For Imitation Wax Finish.—5 lbs. bolted whiting, 1 lb. calcined plaster, 6 oz. calcined magnesia, 1 oz. dry burnt umber, 1 oz. French yellow, 1 quart raw linseed oil, 1 quart benzine spirits, ½ pint very thin white shellac. Mix well and apply with a brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. Before using the above filling give the work one coat of white shellac. When dry, sandpaper down and apply the filler.

=Walnut Filler.=—For First-Class Work.—3 lbs. burnt umber, ground in oil, 1 lb. burnt sienna, ground in oil, 1 quart spirits of turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. Mix well and apply with a brush; sandpaper well; clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful chocolate color to the wood.

=Filler for Light Woods.=—5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 3 lbs. calcined plaster, 1 lb. corn starch, 3 oz. calcined magnesia, ½ gallon raw linseed oil, 1 quart spirits of turpentine, 1 quart brown japan, and sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags.

=Filler for Cherry.=—5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. calcined plaster, 1½ oz. dry burnt sienna, 1 oz. Venetian red, 1 quart boiled linseed oil, 1 pint spirits of turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. Mix well, rub in with excelsior or tow and clean off with rags.

=Filler for Oak.=—5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. calcined plaster, 1 oz. dry burnt sienna, ½ oz. dry French yellow, 1 quart raw linseed oil, 1 pint benzine spirits, ½ pint white shellac. Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags.

=Filler for Rosewood.=—6 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. calcined plaster, 1 lb. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian red, ½ lb. Vandyke brown, ½ lb. brandon red, 1 gallon boiled linseed oil, ½ gallon spirits of turpentine, 1 quart black japan. Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags.

=Another.=—Stir boiled oil and corn starch into a very thick paste; add a little japan, and reduce with turpentine, but add no color for light ash. For dark ash and chestnut use a little raw sienna; for walnut, burnt umber, add a small quantity of Venetian red; for bay wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more color than is required to overcome the white appearance of the starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual manner. Let it dry forty-eight hours, or until it is in condition to rub down with No. 0 sandpaper without much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is desired, fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but more of japan and turpentine.

=Another.=—Take three papers corn starch, one quart boiled linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter pint japan; cut in half the turpentine before mixing; it will not cut perfectly otherwise. For dark woods add burnt umber to color. When nearly dry rub off with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh, as it is of no value after it is four or five days old. The cloths used in rubbing as above mentioned should be destroyed immediately after use, as spontaneous combustion is likely to ensue from the ingredients employed.

=Preparation of Wood for Staining.=—As a filler of wood to be stained, apply French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste with water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or use whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked with painters’ drying oil, and used as a filler. Another process is that of oiling then rubbing crosswise to the grain with a sponge dipped in thin polish composed of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and smoothing the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass-paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker polish, or a mixture of polish and varnish. The rubbers will work easily with half the quantity of oil which is ordinarily used. This second body should be rubbed very smooth with moist putty.

In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the selection of color, for the employment of a light colored filler on dark wood or _vice versa_ would result in gross defacement, as the lighter color would show at the pores of the wood in the one case, and the darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this the filler should be as near as possible the color of the wood to be filled.

As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not make fillers a specialty use opaque colors to stain their filler, as it requires a less quantity. This will do sometimes, but not always. But those which give to the wood a clear and bright appearance, and therefore produce the best results, are stained with transparent colors; those chiefly employed are burnt umber and sienna, Venetian red, Vandyke brown and charcoal black, the charcoal being ground fine in oil, while the others can be used dry and according to the following recipes with good results:

In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments used for the light (previously described) should be kept for a basis, with sufficient coloring to stain it to the desired depth of shade.

Filler for Walnut is very often stained with burnt umber; this is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a pleasing effect. Others use Venetian red darkened somewhat with lamp black; this is rather opaque, and tends to deaden the color of the wood. There is another article—namely, Vandyke brown—which gives fair results. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler should be made considerably darker than the wood when new.

Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood, and other woods of similar shade, should be stained with burnt sienna, as they should be finished very clear. It is well to know that charcoal black, and Venetian red will give the desired shade for any dark-colored wood in common use or for all colors in antique, but it does not show up quite as clear as some other combinations.

For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and for vanilla or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give good results.

The methods of mixing these fillers are quite numerous. It is impossible to give the proportions definitely, owing to the strength of the colors or the transparency of the chief ingredient, but one cannot go astray by following the preceding rules.

Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil, which must be well stirred up. Then in another pot mix a quantity of the colored pigment with turpentine or naphtha; and when thoroughly “cut,” or dissolved, add sufficient of it to the light to give the shade required. After this is obtained, dilute with turpentine or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light filler. This applies to all colors except black, which is seldom obtained finely ground unless in oil, and properly thinned down.

There are many finishers and firms who exclusively use manufactured fillers, and in consequence meet with many difficulties as to the shade they require, as different manufacturers use different colors to stain their filler. But this difficulty can be overcome by a few experiments with the above-named stains.

As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in general use with the exception of some of the manufactured mineral preparations of which I will have more to say further on, I will now proceed to describe the method of application, and for the greater portion of this description, and other matters in this work, I am indebted to Mr. R. A. A. Bahre’s papers on the subject contributed to _House-Painting and Decorating_, a monthly magazine published in the city of New York.

The secret of this is to do the work well, quickly and economically. These points are dealt with in the following:

Have your filler mixed to the consistency of ordinary lead paint; then apply to the prepared surface of the wood with a pound brush, or, what is still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel varnish brush. In applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all the small beads and carvings; and if the filler be light better avoid coating them at all, and if dark or antique stain them with a little of the filler, much reduced with spirits of turpentine. For this purpose have at hand a small pot with a small fitch or sash tool.

By not filling the beads and carvings, the varnish is not so liable to run down in them, although sufficient remains to produce a finish equal to the balance of the surface.

After enough surface has been covered with the filler, so that what has been first applied begins to flatten, the process of wiping should immediately begin, using for that purpose either a rag or a handful of waste or Excelsior. If the wood is very open-grained, waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has previously been used and is pretty well supplied with filler, rub crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it off. After the whole surface has been gone over in this way, take a clean piece of waste or rag (never use Excelsior for wiping clean) and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler, using a wooden pick the point of which has been covered with a rag or waste to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It is well to give these picks some attention, as a person once accustomed to certain tools can accomplish more and better work than with tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, these are best made from second-growth hickory, which can be procured at any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken felloes, etc. They are made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one end and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen the oval end like a cold chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which should also be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes worn dull.

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can be accelerated by the use of a picking brush manufactured especially for that purpose, but it is not advisable to use this on very coarsely grained wood, as it scrubs the filler out of the pores.

There are several fillers used which do not require this picking and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used chiefly for carriage finishing; but it can be used successfully on butternut, bird’s-eye maple, curly maple, satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from gum and oil. Another is a filler made from finely-ground pumice stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied with a brush, and must be left to dry at least twenty-four hours; it is then sandpapered smooth, when an oil varnish is applied, rendering it completely transparent. This last can be used only upon light wood.

The workman, as a matter of course, will understand that different woods, require slightly different treatment, and the finer-grained woods, among which are the pines, maples, cedars and poplars, of different varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, sycamore, white box, satinwood, etc., require no filling, not that a filling would prove detrimental to the finish—except upon stained work or white holly, which in order to maintain a clear color should never be filled—but, from the condition of all fine wood, it is superfluous, and only causes unnecessary labor and expense. At this point it will be convenient to pause to consider the subject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers.

I think I have prepared the mind of the reader to receive the fact, that of all the several manufactured preparations in the market I think that Wheeler’s patent filler made by the Bridgeport Wood-Finishing Company, is decidedly the best and the most economical to use, for many reasons, the chief one being its certainty of action. A great deal of time and money have been wasted in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and a great variety, as I have shown—of substances as chalk, plaster of Paris, corn starch, etc., etc., have been mixed with various vehicles and rubbed into the wood with but indifferent success. Most of these compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming chemical compounds with the oil and consequently they shrink very much on drying, so that though the surface may appear smooth when they are first put on, waves and hollows make their appearance as they dry. These waves having round edges, are difficult to fill, the second coat building up as much or more upon the level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems almost impossible with these fillers in the latter coats to make the hollows hold any substance, the filler clinging chiefly to the surfaces.

I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary or home-made fillers act, and fail in order to show by contrast how much easier it is to work efficiently with the mineral fillers. The mineral quartz, when mixed with oil, probably shrinks less in drying than any other similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and angular particles of the silica imbed themselves in the pores of the wood, closing them up, while the oil cements them fast. This is the foundation of Wheeler’s wood-filler, and which we recommend for use by all wood finishers. When the pores have been filled with the silica, and are cemented fast by the proper mixture of gums and oils, the difficult part of the work is done.

After a good surface has been made upon the article it is ready for the filler, which is to be selected according to the color desired. In putting the filler on it is thinned with turpentine until about like flowing varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so much of the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before it hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the surface, it is at once rubbed off with “excelsior” or shavings, going across the grain with the strokes. If the filler dries too fast or too light a little raw linseed oil may be used in it.

For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber, made by gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the face of a block of wood and trimming the edges flush with the block. The rubbing is done after the filler has set and before it is cleaned off. If it dries off too light, a little white japan may be added on nice work. The light colored filler should be used on all work where light and dark woods are used together. The filling, it must be understood, is done by the silica, which will often be found in the shape of a sediment in the bottom of the mixture. Eight hours is generally considered a sufficient time for the filler to dry.

When the work with the filler is done the surface of the wood ought to be like so much ground glass. Such portions of the wood as show a solid grain need very little filler. On Georgia pine, after the filler is dry, a little rubbing in the direction of the grain with very fine sandpaper is an advantage. If the filler has been properly used the desired results will be obtained with little labor.

The wood is now in a condition to receive the final coatings. Whether the work is to be polished or “dead finished,” do not employ shellac or “French polish.” If a “dead” surface is wanted, wax finish is easily put on, and as easily rubbed to a good surface. F. W. Devoe & Co. prepare a wax finish, which is a convenient preparation of wax and gums, and can be applied with a brush and then rubbed down with a woolen cloth, tied up to make a hard rubber, until a fine lusterless surface is obtained. With mahogany and similar woods this greatly improves the color of the wood. When this has dried, which will be in the course of a few hours, the work is ready for use. The wax finish, like many of the furniture creams, has the advantage that it can be put on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work when it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in this way, after four operations, will present as fine an appearance as the best cabinet work found in the furniture stores.

The materials which have been described, it will be noticed, are both manufactured articles. The prepared filler is indispensable; the wax finish can be made by the mixing together, by the aid of heat, white wax and spirits of turpentine until they are of the consistency of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of beeswax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts. The addition of two drams of Alkanet root to every twenty ounces of turpentine darkens and enriches the color. The root is to be put into a little bag and allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is sufficiently colored.

An altogether more durable surface can be made by a little change in the treatment. When the wood is filled instead of applying the wax, take some hard oil finish, a preparation manufactured by Messrs. Berry Bros., of Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush precisely like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy, especially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used ought to be a good one. This material gives a most brilliant polish. By rubbing it down with a woolen cloth and pumice-stone powder it can also be made dull. Hard oil finish does not spot with hot or cold water, is slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty severe soaking in water. It gets hard in twelve hours or less in warm weather and over night in winter time. It is one of the best surfaces which can be used, and has the advantage of working very well in the hands of one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood or handling varnish. It will make a very fair surface applied direct to the unfilled wood, in which case it is a good substitute for shellac.

Wax finish has the advantage that scratches can be easily repaired without sending to the cabinet-maker or the painter. Here a word of advice to the carpenter who does any work of this character may save him some trouble and make way for the further use of the same kind of finish. When the wood-work of a house is treated in this way, be sure and leave a little bottle of the wax polish with the housekeeper, with directions as to the method of using it. In sending out a “what-not,” book-case, or any other article of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish and show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house, how to repair any little scratch and make the work look “as good as new.” The fresh appearance of the work will be a good advertisement, while it will prevent complaints and dissatisfaction that often follow the use of work which, when injured, cannot be restored.

It may be said that either of the methods of finishing involves a great deal of labor. This is true; but the amount is not much greater than is needed for three coats of paint, and the cost of the paint would probably be more than the cost of the finish. The labor in one case can be of a cheap character, and in the other an experienced painter must be employed. The profit upon the “dead finish” can go into the pocket of the carpenter, while that of the painting must in any event be divided between the carpenter and painter, or belong to the latter altogether who is, after all the proper person to do the work.

I have now said about all that is necessary in the matter of “fillers” and “filling,” but, as sometimes happens, the old system of “sizing,” has to be resorted to for certain kinds of work, I give herewith a formula for its construction and use:

Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to the surface of wood to prevent absorption of the varnish. The kind of material used for the size is not important, the object being only to prevent absorption by a very thin coat of some substance not soluble in the varnish. For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing ordinary glue with water, is generally used; but for lighter-colored surfaces a white size is used, which is prepared by boiling white kid or other leather or parchment-cuttings, in water for a few hours, or until it forms a thin jelly like substance, which is reduced with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth are employed in like manner. Unlike the best fillers, sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, and are sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the varnish needed; and their use is not recommended for the best work.

STAINING, FINISHING, VARNISHING AND POLISHING.

The following will apply to nearly all stained work with the exception that the coloring materials must be chosen to suit the results desired; directions for mixing and preparing will be found under the head of woods.

Staining, or dyeing, though not very modern, has grown in popularity of late. This is due not so much to the natural imitation of valuable wood as to the beautiful colors in which it may be produced—for example, the deep red, generally represented as mahogany, which forms a handsome and lively contrast with nearly any color or style of finishing. In house interiors, however, it has not been so extensively used as it has on furniture, owing to the preference for the light wood for house finishing. But, despite its handsome color, at the present time it is obliged to yield to the more artistic and substantial old oak, which, it is generally anticipated, will continue in vogue a greater length of time than did the stained work. An objection to stained work is that after it has been in service a comparatively short time the finish and stain wear off from those portions most exposed to severe usage. The appearance is thereby destroyed, and it cannot be restored by refinishing. Another objection to stains is that they fade, a fault to which all these bright colors are subject.

Whether this style of work is _la mode_ or not, it will always remain in greater or less demand. A few details of staining will, therefore, be due. Now, if the object of staining is to imitate natural wood, it would be found desirable to procure specimens of the woods to be imitated. Excellent and most convenient specimens can be obtained at any scroll-saw supply house at a trifling expense. Commence by oiling and varnishing the specimen to bring out the color, or apply a darkener if an antique color is required. As a darkener for cherry, apply with a brush aqua-ammonia diluted with water according to the depth of color required. This is probably the best mixture for all red woods, as it develops the colors to their utmost intensity. Lime-water and lye (potash solution) are also frequently used, although lye should be used cautiously; for if applied too strong, it destroys the red color after developing it. Iron fillings or shavings boiled in vinegar produce a darkener for oak, and are frequently employed in producing the “darks” or shades in sixteenth century finish.

After darkening with a water solution the specimens should not be oiled, but after having thoroughly dried should receive a coat of shellac, and, when dry, a coat of varnish. Having the colors well brought out, they will be found of great utility in preparing a stain of accurate shade. Now, the secret in preparing a good stain is that it should be perfectly transparent, which may be produced in either oil or water colors. The latter, however, with a few exceptions, will be found to give the best results, for several reasons. In the first place, it penetrates deeper into the wood, thus producing a more substantial finish. Next, the wood employed is generally hard and fine, and by an application of water stain the grain is raised, whereby the “lights” or veins are more prominently brought out, imparting to the finish a more vivid appearance, which cannot be so effectually produced in oil colors. Still another advantage in water stain is the saving of time in its application; for when properly prepared, it can be used for dipping, which is the method practised in our cabinet shops for staining much furniture. It can also be applied with a brush, although good results by this method are accomplished only when skill and practice are exercised. In applying it a four or-five-inch flat bristle brush would be found the right size, enabling the operator to cover over any one part or section before the stain penetrates the wood. It will be found less difficult to apply oil stain uniformly with a brush, and it is, therefore, generally employed in staining softwood and especially the different species of pine, all of which absorb water stain in spots, giving it a daubed appearance.

The first thing to be considered is the receptacle or vessel in which the water or acid stains are to be prepared. This should be formed of a material which is unaffected by the corrosive action of acid. Porcelain-lined iron or glazed earthenware in the way of kettles or common stew crockery are commonly used. As the latter are often cracked by the heat required in boiling, it is safer and cheaper in the end to use porcelain-lined kettles.

I need not say that care and cleanliness are two very necessary qualities in the preparation and application of stains, for a good workman is always a careful and a clean workman.