Chapter IV: Introduction (1)

This bulletin has been prepared with the purpose of offering some practical suggestions in regard to the organization of the high school course in English and to the methods of teaching English. As it is designed for the principals and teachers of Wisconsin schools, the plan and methods conform to the courses of study and conditions required of free high schools in this state. The aim has not been to discuss theories or to offer novel solutions for the problems of teaching, but rather to present ways and means of accomplishing the generally accepted purposes of the study of English in secondary schools. All the methods and plans suggested have been shown by experience to be practical, and are adapted to present conditions in both large and small high schools.

While the plan of the work has been made as flexible as possible in order to adapt it to different schools, it has seemed desirable to indicate definitely how all of the details of the course should be organized and what methods should be used to bring about the required results. The object has been to consider the purpose of each part of the English work, and to show as specifically as possible what must be done and to some extent how it must be done to accomplish this purpose. By having a definite aim for each year’s work and by seeing clearly what is to be accomplished in each part of the subject, the teacher of English feels responsible for the successful completion of a specific part of the course. At the same time the originality and ability of the teacher need not be hampered by a definite plan but may be exercised in adapting the work to different conditions in different schools and classes.

In discussing the course in English, the general aim and methods in teaching the important elements, composition and reading, are taken up first, and then the particular phases of each subject to be presented in each year, are considered. What is presented under the general topics, reading and composition, therefore, applies to the work of each year unless otherwise stated, and usually is not repeated in considering each year of the course.

A second edition of this bulletin has made possible some revision. No essential changes have been made, but considerable new material has been added. Some parts have been developed at greater length in order to explain the methods more fully. The most important addition is the outline for the study of composition and style, which has been included for those teachers who desire to review the various phases of rhetorical theory in preparation for teaching composition or reading. The bibliography has been extended to include a number of standard reference books on various phases of the English work. The books have been selected on the basis of their practical value to the teacher in the work actually required in the high school course in English, and of the possibility of assisting the teacher to build up for himself, at reasonable cost, a good working library. In order to accomplish the latter purpose the less expensive reference books have, as far as possible, been chosen, and the price and the publisher of each have been given.

I
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

The main objects of the teaching of English as presented in the Report of the Committee of Ten[1], are (1) “to enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others;” (2) to enable him “to give expression to thoughts of his own;” (3) “to cultivate a taste for reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him the means of extending that acquaintance.” Other subsidiary objects may be accomplished by the study of English, the Report points out, but these should never be permitted to encroach upon the main purposes. While these purposes are considered separately, and are apparently separated in arranging the course of study, the Report continues, their mutual dependence must constantly be kept in mind. By studying the thoughts of others as expressed in the literature read in or out of the class room, the pupil can be led to see how to express his own thoughts more effectively. All reading of good literature should tend to cultivate a taste for reading, and all study of good literature should lead to a better appreciation of what is best in expression. The survey of the history of English and American literature accompanied by the reading and study of characteristic selections of every period, will open up to the pupil the whole field of literature in English and will furnish him the means of judging intelligently of what he reads. This interdependence of the main purposes of the study of English requires the closest correlation of every phase of the English work.

Footnote 1:

Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies, p. 86.

Since the English work is divided into two principal parts, reading and composition, it may be well to consider briefly the purpose of each in relation to the main objects just considered.

The first object of the work in reading must always be to have the pupil understand the thought expressed on the printed page. However thorough has been his training in the grades, the average pupil on entering high school needs to be taught how to read. Generally he gets but a hazy, general idea from reading a paragraph, either because he fails to grasp the meaning of each sentence, or because he does not combine the sentence-thoughts in their relation to the topic. The aim of the reading must be to enable the pupil to understand each idea as it is presented, to combine these ideas to get the thought of the sentence, and to follow the chain of thought from sentence to sentence until he grasps the meaning of the paragraph, essay, story, or poem, as a whole. As rapidly as the maturity of the pupil permits, other elements that aid in the better understanding of a piece of literature may be considered in connection with the reading. The study of the structure, the form, the author’s purpose, his style, the revelation of the author’s personality, the relation of the piece of literature to the age in which it was written, and a comparison with other pieces of the same type, all give a clearer understanding of literature. The other purpose of the reading is to stimulate the pupils’ interest in good literature, and to lead them to read what is worth while, on their own initiative. If interest is aroused by the reading and study in class, of one work of an author, it is easy to create a desire to read other works by the same author, outside of the class room. By suggestions and advice the teacher can do much toward directing the pupils in their outside reading. To lead pupils to read, understand, and appreciate the best of English literature is certainly an aim that is worth striving to accomplish.

To enable the pupil to give clear and effective expression to his own thoughts, is the end and aim of the other important part of the English work—composition. That composition is the expression of his own thoughts is the first principle that must constantly be impressed upon the pupils’ minds. The misconception that the only ideas worth expressing in writing themes are those derived from books, must be corrected at once. While reproductions and paraphrases of the expressed thoughts of others may sometimes be used as exercises, the fact must be made clear to the pupils that these are not original compositions, in as much as they are not the expression of their own ideas.

The relation of clear thinking to clear expression is another factor to be considered in teaching composition. Much of the instruction in theme writing is really concerned with training the pupils to think logically and to arrange their thoughts in an orderly manner. Pupils must be taught that as they can give clear expression only to those thoughts that are clear in their own minds, the first process in theme writing is the clarifying and arranging of their ideas. The mental training given by such systematic preparation for theme writing as the making of outlines or other devices for grouping thoughts in a logical plan, is invaluable, since, unlike that given by other studies, it is concerned largely with the pupil’s own thoughts rather than with those acquired from books.

The third important element in composition is the style or form of expression. The first aim of teaching composition, whether written or oral, must be to give the pupils sufficient command of simple, idiomatic English for the needs of everyday life. If the average pupil can be taught to express his ideas in clear, correct English, much will have been accomplished by the four years’ training. Those pupils who show natural ability in expression can be encouraged to develop their talent for writing or speaking in connection with class work or with the various outside activities of the school, and may be given considerable assistance in their efforts by the teacher of English. It is much more important, however, to enable the majority of high school pupils to express themselves simply, naturally, and correctly, than to attempt to develop literary style where there is little natural ability.

II
ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK

1. Length of Course

All high schools provide four years of instruction in English, and most of the schools devote five periods a week to the subject in each year. The course of study outlined in this bulletin, therefore, is arranged on the basis of five periods a week for four years. The successful completion of at least two years’ work in English, one-half of which shall be devoted to composition and rhetoric, and one-half to the study of English classics, is required of all students for graduation from Wisconsin high schools, and for entrance to the University of Wisconsin. The first two years of English are always required of all high school pupils whether they pursue an elective or a prescribed course of study. In some high schools four years’ study of English is required of all pupils, and in most of the Wisconsin high schools the curriculum provides for three years of English in all courses. When the course of study is partly elective, pupils are usually advised to continue with a third and often a fourth year of English after completing the two years of required work. Thus practically all high school pupils pursue the course in English for at least three years.

Whether pupils who study English for three years take up the work in the third or the fourth year of their course, is generally determined by the arrangement of the other subjects in the curriculum. When a choice may be made by either third or fourth year pupils between third and fourth year English, the principal and teacher of English can often decide for the pupil, basing their decision in each case upon what they know of the pupil and his plans. For some pupils the survey of English and American literature in the third year will be most valuable since it furnishes them the means of extending their acquaintance with literature by independent reading. Other pupils will doubtless derive more benefit from the intensive study of a few classics outlined for the fourth year.

2. Plan of Course

The arrangement of the several phases of the English work in the course, and the amount of time that is to be devoted to each is as follows[2]:

Footnote 2:

For a complete outline of the course see p. 47.

First year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature.

Second year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature.

Third year—5 periods a week; from one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to be given to the history of English literature during the first three-quarters of the year and to the history of American literature during the last quarter of the year; four-fifths of the time to be devoted to the study of the works of representative authors in each period of the history of English and American literature; and from one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to be given to composition.

Fourth year—5 periods a week; four-fifths of the time to be devoted to the study of typical examples of each of the following forms of literature: the novel, the drama, the lyric, and the essay; one-fifth of the time to be given to composition.

The reading and study of literature in class in each year is to be supplemented by library reading of literature, the amount of which will be determined by library facilities and other local conditions.

3. Arrangement of Classes

If the English work is being taught by several teachers, the distribution of classes among the teachers deserves careful consideration. No English work should be entrusted to a teacher who is not interested in the subject and who is not adequately prepared to teach it. It is particularly important that the first year classes should be in charge of the best teachers of English that the school has in its corps. The not infrequent practice of having the thoroughly prepared and experienced teachers take charge of third and fourth year English, and of assigning the first year classes to the young and inexperienced English teacher, or even to teachers of other subjects who have little or no interest in the work and who are compelled to take classes in first year English because their time is not completely occupied by their own subjects, generally proves extremely unsatisfactory. If the pupils in the high schools are to have the right attitude toward the study of English, and are to begin the subject in the right way, the best teachers must be provided for the first year work, since much of the success of the whole high school course in English depends upon the manner in which the introductory work is taught.

The number of classes in English to be assigned to the teacher and the size of these classes must also be considered. The teaching of English requires an unusual amount of work outside of class. First, the preparation for each day’s teaching whether the work is in composition or reading demands much time and energy if it is to be done as it should be. Second, the correction of themes is a daily task that must be done carefully and accurately and that requires the best effort of the teacher when his mind is most keen and active. Third, personal conferences with each pupil on his written work are now generally conceded to be essential for successful training in writing. All these elements must be considered in arranging the programme of classes for teachers of English. Teachers cannot do satisfactory work if they must prepare for five or six classes a day, teach these classes, correct twenty-five or thirty themes daily, and hold conferences with pupils before and after school. The teaching of many classes exhausts the energy of the teacher and makes accurate correction after school or in the evening, as well as the careful preparation for the next day’s classes, extremely difficult if not impossible. Conferences on written work should be provided for in the regular programme and should not interfere with the teacher’s other duties before and after school. Four classes a day, two periods daily for conference with pupils, and not more than a hundred pupils in all classes, a number which requires the correction of one hundred themes a week, is an arrangement of work that makes possible effective teaching.

4. Conference of Teachers

To give unity to the four years’ work in English, it is essential that all the teachers of English in each high school meet at frequent intervals to discuss organization, methods, and progress of the work. Each teacher will thus familiarize himself with the English work of the whole school, and can do his particular part of it more intelligently and more effectively. As the success of high school English also depends in no small degree upon the character of the instruction which the pupils have received in the grades, and particularly in the seventh and eighth grades, it will be found very profitable to have similar conferences occasionally between the seventh and eighth grade teachers and the high school teachers of English. A closer relation ought to exist between the English work of the last two grades and the high school, and there seems to be no better way to accomplish this than to bring about cooperation between the teachers through the medium of these conferences. The benefit to the teachers and the great advantage that results to the English work of the school repay many fold the time and effort devoted to these conferences. If local conditions make these meetings of grade and high school teachers impracticable, the high school teacher of English should make every effort to familiarize himself with the amount and character of the training which the pupils have had before entering the high school, by visiting the schools and conferring with the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades. The knowledge thus acquired of the earlier training of the pupils will be of great service to the high school teacher in planning his work both in reading and composition.

III
COMPOSITION

The ability to write clearly and accurately can generally be acquired only by practice. If this practice is to be really effective it can not be confined to one semester or one year, but must extend through the whole course in English. Training in composition naturally includes a study of the principles of the art; and since these principles are of different degrees of difficulty, all can not be presented in one year, but must be developed from year to year as the ability and maturity of the pupil makes possible the comprehension and application of them. Practice in writing and instruction in the principles of composition, therefore, must form a part of all instruction in English throughout the four years.

1. Theme Writing

Since it is only by constant practice that the average pupil can learn to write good English, it naturally follows that the essential part of the composition work is the writing of themes. The methods by which the pupil is given this practice are of the greatest importance. In the first place, as has already been indicated, it should be made clear to the pupil what original composition is, and what it is not. The belief, all too prevalent among pupils, that ideas for compositions are to be obtained largely if not entirely from books, should be promptly eradicated from their minds. They must be constantly impressed with the fact that the expression of their own ideas is the important factor in all original composition.

The direction of the pupils to a right choice of subject for their compositions is the first important consideration. The possibility of writing interesting themes on the everyday incidents in the life of the pupils and the school must be made clear to them at the beginning of the course. After the pupils have once been made to see the inexhaustible supply of material which their own experience affords, there will be no temptation to turn to books for inspiration. Throughout the course in composition it is necessary for a teacher of English to have a large supply of good subjects for themes. To secure these subjects the teacher must familiarize himself with local conditions, particularly as they affect the life and interests of his pupils. It is an essential part of the teacher’s preparation for teaching composition that he inform himself fully upon the subjects of local interest upon which he encourages the pupils to write. By his interest in the various activities of the pupils and by his sympathy in their efforts, the teacher not only comes to know what subjects to suggest for composition, but gains the pupils’ confidence, and arouses in them a desire to tell him of these activities in their written work. With proper encouragement and interest on the part of the teacher, pupils will soon come to take pleasure in writing of their everyday experiences, and the themes will become a source of greater pleasure and satisfaction to both teacher and pupils.

It is frequently desirable that the same subject be assigned to all pupils, so that the results may be compared and presented to the class as part of the regular instruction. At other times it is necessary to give the class a number of subjects from which each pupil may select the one that suits him best; and at still others, to suggest general topics from which the pupil may frame his own subject. In announcing and assigning a subject for compositions the teacher can be of much assistance to the pupils by discussing with the class the subject under consideration. These discussions will stimulate interest in the subject, and will arouse a desire on the part of the pupils to write upon it. The teacher can direct the discussion so that the pupils will be led to consider the best method of treating the subject and can thus prevent waste of effort. It is necessary, however, to guard against giving the pupil so many suggestions that little original thought and observation will be required in writing the theme.

That clear, logical thinking is prerequisite for clear expression should also be constantly emphasized in teaching composition. Pupils must be made to realize, as has already been said, that unless thoughts are clear in their own minds, they cannot expect to make these thoughts clear to others. They should be taught, therefore, to get before their minds clearly what they desire to express before they undertake to express it. The first step can be taken early in the course when the pupils are writing narratives, by urging upon them the necessity of accuracy in observing what happens and how it happens, since the degree of completeness of the remembrance of the event depends upon the character of the impression. In description, likewise, careful observation of what is to be portrayed must be emphasized as the only means of obtaining a complete mental picture that can be described to others. The methods of exposition and argumentation presented in the third and fourth years naturally involve a discussion of the methods of reasoning and as much logic as the pupils can comprehend. So closely related are thinking and the expression of thought that, as has been pointed out before, much of the work of teaching pupils to express their thoughts clearly and accurately is really concerned with teaching them to think clearly and logically.

In all work of this kind the outline is of great value. An outline of a paragraph analyzed in connection with the reading will make clear the manner of arranging the subtopics and details in an orderly form. A similar outline of the subject of a theme, made in class by the cooperation of teacher and pupils, will indicate the method of grouping the pupil’s own ideas in a logical manner. After the process has been illustrated by such class exercises, the pupils should be required to make outlines of their themes, without assistance from the teacher. While it is not necessary to require that a complete outline be prepared by the pupils for every theme that is assigned, frequent exercises in outlining the material of the theme before it is written are desirable throughout the course. Like all formal devices, the outline, if made mechanically, may tend to curb the spontaneous expression of the pupils; but rightly employed by the teacher and pupils, it will readily become a valuable aid to clear thinking and expression.

From the beginning to the end of the course in English, the fact must be impressed upon the pupils’ minds that the only acceptable themes are those that are the result of thought and careful effort. Hastily and carelessly prepared compositions and those handed in after the appointed time, should not be accepted by the teacher. Promptness, neatness, and earnest effort are essentials for successful theme writing that pupils should never be permitted to neglect. While it may seem very exacting to require that all themes be written in black ink, on paper of uniform size, and that they be numbered or dated and indorsed in a prescribed form, experience has shown that these details in the organization of the work are important for economy of time and effort on the part of teacher and pupils.

Although most of the themes will be prepared by the pupils before coming to the class room, it is desirable to have some of them written during the recitation period in order to give the pupils practice in thinking and writing rapidly. At the beginning of the course the subject may be assigned at the preceding recitation so that the pupils may consider it carefully and come prepared to write. After the pupils have gained some fluency of expression, impromptu themes will prove interesting and valuable class room exercises. Considerable importance should be attached to these impromptu themes and exercises as tests of the pupils’ ability to write rapidly and accurately.

2. Correction of Themes

Of equal importance to the writing of themes is the prompt and careful correction of them by the teacher, and the revision or rewriting by the pupil. While doubtless the pupil will gain some facility in expression by writing frequently, he is not likely to learn how to write clear, accurate, forcible English unless his work is carefully corrected and returned to him promptly so that it may be revised or rewritten. In correcting themes the purpose should be to indicate to the pupil the errors and weaknesses of his style, in order that he may correct these faults. The teacher, therefore, should not correct the pupil’s errors, but should use some sign or abbreviation to indicate the character of the fault. Much if not all of the benefit derived by the pupil from the teacher’s correction is lost if he does not have the opportunity to correct his own errors in revising or rewriting the composition. Not only is this correction of the pupil’s mistakes by the teacher bad pedagogically, but it takes a needless amount of the teacher’s time. It is desirable to have a simple but complete system of signs and abbreviations indicating the exact character of the error. In this connection attention may be called to the value of having each school adopt some system of correction signs and abbreviations, so that the same marks may be used not only by all of the teachers of English, but by the teachers of all other subjects in correcting note-books, topics, examination papers, and all other written exercises. It is only by insisting that high school pupils be as careful of their English in all written work as in compositions prepared for English classes that the best results can be accomplished.

The following sign and abbreviations used in the English department of the University of Wisconsin for the correction of themes may serve to indicate the character and scope of a system of correction marks:

amb ambiguous.
ant antecedent.
bal make elements balance.
ch coherence.
cst construction.
∥cst. parallel construction.
D see dictionary.
E poor English.
emp emphasis.
F. W. fine writing.
fig figure of speech.
gr grammar.
H hackneyed.
K awkward.
L loose.
MS manuscript.
p punctuation.
pc comma fault.
per make periodic.
rep repetition.
red redundant.
S sentence.
sp spelling
Th theme.
tr transpose.
U unity.
V vague.
W weak.
W. W. wrong word.
¶ paragraph.
[ ] omit.
] indention.
x obvious error.
│ divide.
╱ small letter.
≡ capital letter.
⁐ unite.

Besides indicating all the errors in every theme, the teacher should write a concise comment on each, pointing out the faults and merits of the theme. He should aim to make these comments as stimulating and suggestive as possible for judicious criticism must be constructive, encouraging the pupil in that which is praiseworthy in his efforts, as well as aiding him to eliminate that which is undesirable. These comments to be most helpful should be based on the teacher’s knowledge of the pupil’s personality and of the character of his other themes, for each piece of written work must be regarded as a step in the individual pupil’s progress toward the more effective expression of his thoughts. The teacher should also remember that firm insistence from the beginning to the end of the course on correctness in the fundamentals of expression such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, is quite as necessary as the stimulating criticism that aims at developing more original and spontaneous thought and expression.

In order that the pupil may get the greatest benefit from the teacher’s correction of his themes, these should be returned for revision or rewriting as soon as possible. If the pupil does not receive his theme until a week or more after he has written it, the corrections and the revision and rewriting are much less interesting and valuable than if it is returned to him promptly. It is also easier for the teacher to correct themes as soon as they are received rather than to allow them to accumulate until their number makes the correction of them an exhausting task.

In addition to the careful correction of compositions by the teacher, other methods may be used to call attention to the merits and faults of the pupils’ themes. The teacher may have the pupils copy on the blackboard the themes which they have prepared before coming to class, and the recitation period may be devoted to the criticism of these compositions by teacher and pupils. The pupils may occasionally be required to correct each other’s written work, either in or out of the class room. A recitation period can sometimes be used to advantage for the rewriting by the pupils of themes corrected by the teacher, who by passing from one pupil to another during this exercise can assist each in correcting and improving his work. While these methods often prove interesting and valuable, they should not be regarded as an adequate substitute for the prompt and accurate correction of themes by the teacher.

3. Filing of Themes

After themes have been either rewritten or revised by pupils, they should be returned to the teacher, who must glance over them to be sure that the pupils have made the necessary changes. If the themes are rewritten, the original as well as the rewritten form should be returned to the teacher for the purpose of this comparison. It is also desirable to have some method of filing themes after they have been returned to the teacher. A simple method of keeping them is to use looseleaf note-books similar to the laboratory note-books in science. With this system the themes are first handed in on separate sheets of uniform size, and, after they have been corrected by the teacher and revised or rewritten by the pupil, are fastened in the note-book. If the themes are rewritten or corrected on the blank page of the note-book facing the original copy, the teacher can readily compare the two forms and can determine the character of the revision. Another plan adopted by a number of schools is to have a large filing case with a compartment for the themes of each pupil in the school. All the themes should be preserved until the end of the year, when they may be returned to the pupils.

4. Conferences on Written Work

In order to accomplish the best results in theme writing and correcting, it is desirable that the teacher talk over the written work with each pupil as frequently as his time permits. If the English teacher’s programme of recitations is properly arranged, he should have sufficient time to have conferences with all his pupils once a month. Regular appointments should be made with each pupil for holding these conferences during those periods in which both pupil and teacher have no recitation. At the conference the teacher can go over with the pupil the written work of the month, can answer questions, and give helpful suggestions for improving the pupil’s composition and class work.

5. Oral Composition

Although the term “composition” as used in connection with English work usually refers only to written expression, it is evident that the oral expression of the pupils’ thoughts is worthy of consideration. Generally no particular provision is made in high school work for so-called oral composition, nor does it seem necessary to provide a distinct place for it in the outline of the course. The importance of the form of the recitation in every subject is emphasized by all good teachers. The topical recitation now so frequently required in all high school studies, if properly conducted, is the most effective kind of oral composition that can be given. A teacher of English, of course, should give especial attention to the form of recitation in English classes. Pupils, after some encouragement, will express their ideas freely in the course of the discussions which inevitably arise in connection with the reading and composition. Their attention should be directed to the fact that the same principles govern the clear and forcible expression in spoken, as in written language. The correction of common faults in recitation, such as the “and”, “and then” habit, will assist in eliminating these errors from the written work as well as in improving greatly the oral expression. During the first year the pupils may be assigned simple topics in connection with the reading and should be taught how to collect the material and arrange it in an outline form from which to present it in the class room. After they have acquired the ability to present topics with the aid of notes, they should be encouraged to speak without any of these aids. The same method may be applied to the daily recitation. In fact, it is often best to begin by having the pupils outline the subject matter of the lesson and come to class prepared to recite upon any topic in the outline. In this manner the recitations in English and in practically all of the other subjects of the high school course may be used to give the pupils the necessary training in oral composition.

6. Principles of Composition

In connection with the writing and correction of themes must be studied the principles of composition and their application. These rhetorical principles may be presented either inductively or deductively. The pupil may either learn them from a definite statement in the text-book, which illustrates their application by selected examples, or he may be led to discover the principles of effective expression from the literature that he is studying in class as a part of the work in reading. While much may be said for the merits of each of these methods, the inductive plan seems to commend itself particularly, since it makes possible a close and effective correlation of the two elements of the English work—composition and reading.

During the first two years, when particular attention is given to the principles of sentence and paragraph construction in the composition work, these principles can be developed and their application readily illustrated from the selections that are read and studied in class. The object of the work in reading, as has already been stated, is to teach the pupil to get the thought clearly from the printed page. In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to study with some degree of care the sentence and paragraph structure of the selection which he is reading. To get the thought of each sentence it is necessary to understand clearly the relation of all its parts. By noting the separate ideas as expressed in words, phrases, and clauses, and by determining their relation in the sentence as the expression of the whole thought, the pupil is taught the principles of sentence unity and coherence. If his attention is properly drawn to these principles as they are exemplified in the literature before him, the importance and application of them may be clearly demonstrated without spoiling the masterpiece of literature. In fact the appreciation of the skill of the literary artist is thereby increased, provided the teaching is done in a proper manner.

To follow the chain of thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to see clearly the relation of each thought as expressed in the sentence to the preceding and succeeding thoughts in order that the development of the topic may be clear, and that the pupil may grasp the subject in its entirety. In teaching the pupil to get the whole thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to consider the whole topic treated in the paragraph; that is, to study the unity of the paragraph; and also to consider the relation of each thought to the one central topic; that is, the principle of paragraph coherence. Thus, in the effort to teach the pupil how to get the thoughts of others by reading, the essential principles of composition are absolutely necessary. In a similar manner all the principles of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation may be developed inductively from the reading. By seeing the application of the rhetorical principles in literature, the pupil comes to realize their importance in effective writing, and is impressed by the varied forms of their application as he is not likely to be by selected examples isolated from their context, in text-books.

7. Use of Text-book

If the principles of composition may be developed from the masterpieces that are studied in class, the question naturally suggests itself, “Is it necessary to have a text-book at all in studying the principles of rhetoric and composition?” It is entirely possible to teach composition successfully without a text-book, but owing to difficulties in the organization of the schools, and the not infrequent change of teachers, it is often desirable for the sake of uniformity of work to make use of a text-book. It is also convenient, even where these difficulties do not exist, to have a good text-book to which the teacher may direct the pupil for a detailed statement of the principles after they have been developed and exemplified in the reading; that is, to use it as a reference book. In order that it may be used thus for reference, the text-book selected should take up the principles of composition and the forms of discourse in a logical manner, treating each fully and systematically in a separate division. Text-books of this character can be used throughout the first two years at least, and some of them are sufficiently complete to supply all the material needed for four years’ study of composition.

It is generally conceded that text-books in rhetoric and composition have very often been used to poor advantage by having the pupils memorize the definitions and statements of principles, and by devoting much of the period set aside for composition to recitation upon the subject matter of the text book. The principles of rhetoric and composition, of course, have little value except as the pupil is able to apply them in his own work or to recognize the application of them in the work of others. The real test of his knowledge of the subject matter of the text-book therefore is not made by having him recite what the book contains, but by requiring him to apply it in his own work and to perceive examples of it in that of others.

IV
READING

1. Methods of Teaching

The purposes already indicated for the reading are “to enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others,” “to cultivate an acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with a means of extending that acquaintance.” It is evident that the only way to teach the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others is to have him understand each unit of that expression. The meanings of words, allusions, and figures of speech, as the expressions of the idea, must be clearly understood. The intelligent use of the dictionary and the usual books of reference should therefore be taught at the very beginning of the course of reading. Whenever the origin and history of a word are helpful for a better understanding of its meaning, these may be called to the pupil’s attention, and he should be encouraged to observe in the dictionary the etymology of words as he looks for their meaning. While the importance of knowing the significance of proper names, allusions, etc., is to be impressed on the pupil’s mind, the preparation of the reading lesson must not be allowed to degenerate into a mere searching for the meaning of all unknown terms in the assignment. Pupils should be warned against the practice of making a list of all the unknown words in the lesson and of consulting the dictionary and other books of reference for information, without considering the context in which the words are used.

From the very beginning of the course in reading, the teacher should make sure that each pupil gets a clear conception of the thought expressed in each sentence. Without undue emphasis on grammatical analysis, the pupil should be encouraged to note the form in which the principal proposition is expressed, and the manner in which it is modified by the subordinate elements, for it is only by the careful consideration of the syntactical relations that the pupil can get accurately the thought expressed. The development of the thought through a series of sentences constituting a paragraph must be analyzed with equal care, so that the pupil may see clearly the development of the thought and the relation of each sentence to the preceding and succeeding ones and to the paragraph topic. The amount and character of analysis in each assignment of reading should be carefully determined by the teacher as he prepares his work for each day, and he must beware of having the reading lesson become merely a formal analysis of sentence and paragraph structure, for nothing more effectively kills the pupil’s interest in reading than too much of this formal analytical drill on detail.

Various methods may be used to assist the pupil in grasping the thought expressed in the literature. In narration, the retelling of the story, paragraph by paragraph, from memory, will lead the pupils to get the details of the story in logical groups. In description, the pupils should be required to visualize the scene, object, or person portrayed in words. Boys and girls can readily be interested in exercises of this kind and will respond eagerly when asked to describe the mental pictures which they obtain from a given piece of description. Sketches on the blackboard to make clear the position of the details in the description and other devices tend to emphasize to the pupil the importance of reading carefully and accurately in order to get the whole thought of the author.

After the pupil has been taught to get the thought accurately, the analysis may be extended to the forms of discourse and the qualities of style. In short stories, novels, and dramas the analysis of plot, the delineation of character, and similar consideration of the principles of narration and description will naturally receive due attention. In essays and orations the study of corresponding principles of exposition and argumentation gives the pupil a clearer conception and better appreciation of the writer’s purpose and the means that he uses to accomplish it. A study of metre and verse form is necessary for an appreciation of the poetry read and studied in class. The study of all these details, designed as it is to help the pupils to understand the author’s thought, part by part, ought always to lead to a better understanding and appreciation of the meaning and purpose of the whole. A study of literature that emphasizes details to such an extent that the theme and significance of the story, the drama, or the poem, as a whole, is neglected, fails to bring out the vital element.

The value of the ideas and ideals which find expression in the literature must not be overlooked in planning the work in reading. As a portrayal of life in its various activities, literature presents to the pupil many types of character and action, and thus gives the boys and girls a broader view of life than their own experience affords. The analysis of character, motives, and actions forms an interesting and valuable part of the study of literature. Since good literature is also an interpretation or “criticism” of life, it presents life in its true relations and shows their significance. The author’s interpretation of life, his judgment upon its various phases, and the emotional coloring which he gives it, are all to be considered in a manner best adapted to the maturity and understanding of the pupils. The formative influence exerted upon the character of the boys and girls by the characters and actions portrayed in their reading, as well as by the emotional element of literature is undoubtedly of importance, and by some teachers is emphasized in all their work. The ideals of conduct presented in good literature, and the close relation between conduct and the emotions aroused by the reading, are often factors in the ethical training of the pupils, but the indirect and unconscious influence of these elements is generally much more effective than many efforts to teach lessons in ethics based on literature.

Since the study of literature involves the consideration of all these various elements, the result accomplished in reading will depend largely upon the methods of the teacher in preparing his work for each day’s reading. Before beginning the reading and study of a piece of literature with a class, the teacher should make a careful study of the whole, analyzing and outlining it, so that the relation of each part to the expression and development of the theme may be clearly determined. With this outline before him the teacher can plan each day’s reading more readily and intelligently. Every recitation in reading should be carefully planned by the teacher in order that each part of the work may receive emphasis proportionate to its importance and that something definite may be accomplished toward a better appreciation of the whole.

Owing to the fact that the study of literature is radically different from any other subject which the high school pupils pursue, much attention must be given to teaching them how to read and study a piece of literature. In assigning the lesson in reading, the teacher should indicate clearly to the pupils what they are to do, and as far as possible, how they are to do it. Failure of the pupils to understand clearly what is desired of them, is the cause of many a poorly prepared recitation in English. A well planned outline with the important points to be considered in studying the day’s lesson, or a series of questions concerning these points, will serve to give direction to the pupils’ preparation from day to day, and in the end will teach them how to read and study literature.

In connection with the reading, pupils should be encouraged to memorize the whole or parts of many of the pieces of literature studied in class. In every year of the course the teacher should select passages from the reading that are worth memorizing, and should urge the pupils to learn them. To make a task of this memorizing is not desirable, nor is it at all necessary, for pupils will usually respond willingly to the teacher’s suggestion as to the value of learning choice selections of prose and poetry. The value of knowing and being able to quote many of the finest passages in English and American literature cannot be overestimated.

2. Reading Aloud

Some attention should generally be given to reading aloud intelligently. A part of each recitation may be devoted to giving the pupils practice in distinct, accurate pronunciation, and in reading with sufficient expression to interpret the meaning. The teacher can do much toward showing the pupils how to read by reading to them from time to time, and then having them read the same selection. The frequent practice of devoting a considerable part of the recitation period to reading aloud in class by the pupils without individual correction or helpful suggestion by the teacher is a waste of time. As few high school pupils, particularly in the first two years of their course, read sufficiently well to interpret a piece of literature for their classmates continued reading aloud in class by the pupils is an uninteresting exercise that is more likely to decrease than increase the pupils’ interest, pleasure, or appreciation. If the assignment has been read and studied carefully by the pupils in preparation for the recitation, the only purpose of having any portion of it read aloud in class must be to give the pupils practice in reading clearly, accurately, and intelligently. To be of value this practice must be systematic and must be regarded as an exercise in expression. Careful preparation by the pupils including practice in reading aloud at home, and helpful criticism by the teacher, are as essential for success in exercises in reading aloud as in other forms of expression. Since training in reading aloud is neither the primary nor the secondary aim of the study of literature, the time to be devoted to these exercises in the class room must necessarily be very limited.

As the ability to read well depends in part upon the management of the voice, some attention may be given from time to time to the fundamental principles of vocal expression. Occasional instruction in class in correct breathing, the control of the voice, the position of the vocal organs in the formation of the different sounds, and the care of the voice, supplemented by exercises for individual practice, will aid materially in improving the character of the vocal expression not only in reading but also in recitation and conversation.

3. Choice of Reading

To carry out effectively the plan for the correlation of the reading and composition work, and to provide a well graded course of reading adapted to the maturity and ability of the pupils, the greatest care must be exercised in the selection of masterpieces of literature to be read and studied in class. Beginning with the simple prose narrative in the form of short stories, tales, and sketches in the first year, the work should proceed by regular gradations to more difficult types. For the first two years of the course, during which one-half of the time allotted to English is devoted to work in composition, the reading should be chosen with regard to the principles of composition and forms of discourse that are to be considered, so that a close correlation may be made between the two elements of the course. In the third year the study of the history of English literature will determine the order in which the authors are to be taken up, but the character and maturity of the pupils must be considered in the choice of authors and selections for reading and study in class. Again in the fourth year the same elements must determine the choice. It is impossible to prescribe certain books to be read in each year, since the character of the pupils in different schools and in different classes in the same school, makes necessary a selection of reading adapted to local conditions.

Although in the number and variety of the books the list of college entrance requirements in English is now sufficiently large to meet the needs of the average school, it is not necessary to confine the selection of material for study in class to this list. On page 50 of this bulletin is given a list of the selections adapted for reading and study, together with suggestions as to the years in the course in which they can be read to the best advantage.

In selecting editions of the masterpieces for reading in class, the purpose and methods of the reading should not be forgotten. If the pupil is to be taught to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words, figures, and allusions, it is undesirable to give him this information on every page in the form of foot-notes explanatory of many things that with a little effort he might find in reference books. Elaborate introductions in which the structure and style of the masterpiece are fully discussed are equally undesirable, since they tend to make unnecessary any original thought or analysis on the part of the pupils. The text of the masterpiece with a few notes explanatory of unusual difficulties is all that is necessary in order to carry on successfully the study of any selection.

4. Library Reading